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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
Educational Principles and Practice in Veterinary Medicine An in-depth, veterinary-centered reference to the discipline of education Educational Principles and Practice in Veterinary Medicine provides a detailed, comprehensive reference to the discipline of education both broadly and as it relates to veterinary medicine. Written for veterinary faculty members, instructors, and educators in other health professions, the book offers an in-depth examination of knowledge and skills related to veterinary education. It discusses educational theory, how people learn, the structure and function of higher education, and educational technologies, among many other topics of importance. Sections cover educational leadership; professional development for faculty; research methods and study design; administration; outcomes and assessment; accreditation; and the roles of the professional program instructor. Educational Principles and Practice in Veterinary Medicine: * Provides a detailed exposition to the discipline of education, encompassing both theory and practice * Covers essential topics such as educational theory, the structure and function of higher education, and educational technologies, all tailored to veterinary education * Acts as a reference to education-related knowledge and skills, with an emphasis on how these topics relate to veterinary medicine * Supports veterinary faculty and instructors interested in taking their knowledge and skills to the next level Educational Principles and Practice in Veterinary Medicine offers veterinary faculty and instructors a complete resource for understanding the field of education and improving their skills and knowledge.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Educational Philosophy and Philosophers
Section 1: Introduction and Overview
Section 2: A Brief History of Western Educational Philosophy
Section 3: The Eastern Origins of the Philosophy of Education
Section 4: Ethics and Aims of Education
Section 5: Educational Philosophers of Note
Section 6: Teacher‐Centered Educational Philosophies: Perennialism and Essentialism
Section 7: Learner‐Centered Educational Philosophies: Pragmatism and Existentialism
Section 8: Socially‐Centered Educational Philosophies: Behaviorism and Reconstructionism
Summary
References
2 Educational Theory and Theorists
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: The Big Three and Their Other Sibling
Section 3: Educational Equity: The Classroom as an Equalizer
Summary
References
3 Cognition and Learning
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Social Cognitive Theory
Section 3: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
Summary
References
4 Andragogy
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: A Very Brief History of Pedagogy
Section 3: History and Emergence of Andragogy
Section 4: Features and Foundations of Knowles's Andragogy
Section 5: Challenges to Andragogy
Section 6: Support of Andragogy
Section 7: Applications to the Veterinary Classroom
Summary
References
5 Understanding the Professional Program Student
Section 1: Introduction and Overview
Section 2: Who Are Our Students?
Section 3: Neurodivergence
Section 4: Personality Types
Section 5: How Our Students Fit into Our Structures
Section 6: Expectations
Section 7: Student Factors
Section 8: Practical Tips for Safely Incorporating Failure into Veterinary Education
Summary
References
6 Roles of the Professional Program Instructor
Section 1: Classroom Learning
Section 2: Laboratory and Clinical Skills Instruction
Section 3: Teaching Personal Finances
Section 4: Including Cultural Humility, Cultural Competency, and Cultural Fluency in the Veterinary Medical Curriculum
Section 5: Teaching Empathy and Ethics
Section 6: Teaching and Practicing Foundational Communication Skills
Section 7: Teaching on the Clinical Floor – Veterinary Students and House Officers
References
7 Technology in the Classroom
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Presenting Information and Interactions with Content
Section 3: Online and Blended Learning
Section 4: Instructional Systems Design for Digital Learning
Section 5: Veterinary Student Success in Technology‐Enhanced Learning
Section 6: Safety and Security Considerations
Section 7: Present and Future Technologies to Enhance Learning
Section 8: Common Forms of Educational Technologies
Section 9: Review of Examples of Technologies Used in Veterinary Education
References
Additional Resources
8 The Syllabus
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Syllabus Purposes
Section 3: Creating an Effective Syllabus
Section 4: The Syllabus as a Tool to Document Scholarship in Teaching and Learning
Summary
References
Additional Resources
9 Assignments and Rubrics
Section 1: Assignments
Section 2: Rubrics
Summary
References
10 Assessing Student Learning: Exams, Quizzes, and Remediation
Section 1: Formative Versus Summative Assessments and the Role of Evaluations
Section 2: Writing Good Exam Questions
Section 3: Exams and Quizzes: Determining Validity and Reliability
Section 4: Remediation
Summary
References
Additional Resources
11 Assessing Clinical Skills
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Performance Assessment
Section 3: Workplace‐Based Assessment
Section 4: Essential Concepts in Clinical Skills Assessment
Summary
References
12 Different Approaches to Assessment
Section 1: Introduction and Approaches
Section 2: Implementing New Assignments
Section 3: Novel Grading Schemes
Section 4: Implementing Novel Grading Schemes
Summary
References
Additional Resources
13 Program Outcomes
Introduction
Section 1: Curriculum Mapping
Section 2: Accountability in Assessment Outcomes
Section 3: Ensuring Students Meet Benchmarks for Student Learning
Section 4: Tracking Student Outcomes
Summary
References
14 Mentoring Students
Section 1: Veterinary Student Mentorship
Section 2: Mentoring Students in Educational Research
Section 3: Cheating and Other Unethical Student Behavior
Summary
References
Additional Resources
15 Educational Development
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Educator Development
Section 3: Building an Educator Development Program
Section 4: Recommendations for Success
Summary
References
16 Documenting Teaching for Career Advancement
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Teaching
Section 3: Mentoring and Advising
Section 4: Learner Assessment or Outcome Assessment
Section 5: Educational Research and Scholarship
Section 6: Curriculum and Program Development
Section 7: Educational Leadership and Administration
Section 8: Institutional and Administrative Support for Teaching for Career Advancement: A Case Study
Section 9: Summary
References
17 Educational Research
Section 1: Introduction to Educational Research
Section 2: Designing the Educational Research Study
Section 3: Collecting Data
Section 4: Analyzing Data
Section 5: The Ethics of Educational Research
Section 6: Reporting the Educational Study
Summary
References
18 Building Bridges Between Research and Practice
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Educational Theory's Impact on Veterinary Educational Research
Section 3: How Educational Research Can Increase its Impact on Educational Practice
Section 4: Educational Research Challenges
Section 5: Barriers to Changing Educational Methods
Section 6: How Educational Research Has Changed Veterinary Education Practices
Summary
References
19 History and Purpose of Higher Education
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Brief History of Higher Education in the United States
Section 3: Specialized Institutions
Section 4: Students
Section 5: Purpose
Summary
References
20 Private and Public Institutions
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Public Institutions
Section 3: Private Institutions
Section 4: Contemporary Issues
Summary
References
21 Higher Education Policies
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: University Policy Areas
Section 3: Faculty Responsibility to Policy
Section 4: Summary
References
22 Leadership in Higher Education
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: Principles of Leadership
Section 3: Leadership Education
Summary
References
23 Accreditation: What It Is and Why It Is Important
Section 1: Overview
Section 2: Abbreviated History of Accreditation in the United States
Section 3: History of Accreditation in Veterinary Education
Section 4: Accrediting Bodies
Section 5: International Accreditation
Section 6: Accreditation of Veterinary Education Worldwide
Section 7: The Process of Accreditation
Section 8: Additional Considerations
Summary
References
Additional Resources
Appendix A A Typical Mock Site Visit Schedule
24 Leaving Thoughts and the Future of Veterinary Education
Section 1: Introduction
Section 2: The Power of Veterinary Medical Education
Section 3: Moving Veterinary Education Forward
Section 4: Conclusion and Leaving Thoughts
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Definitions and effect sizes for empirically supported learning e...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Academic and external stressors affecting veterinary medical stud...
Table 5.2 Example of some of the expectations made of students throughout v...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Proposed curricular topics for personal finance education to vete...
Table 6.2 Assignments related to personal finance.
Table 6.3 Outline of Simulated Client (SC) encounters at the University of ...
Table 6.4 Example of Rubric for Simulated Client (SC) Encounter #4: Jive, t...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Example quality standards for online learning.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Kirkpatrick's training evaluation framework.
Table 9.2 The knowledge dimension of Bloom's taxonomy: the four types of kn...
Table 9.3 Examples of stratified learning outcomes for the cognitive domain...
Table 9.4 The cognitive domain from Bloom's taxonomy: the intellectual skil...
Table 9.5 The affective domain from Bloom's taxonomy: the emotional respons...
Table 9.6 The psychomotor domain from Bloom's taxonomy: the ability to use ...
Table 9.7 Fink's taxonomy of significant learning with examples of learning...
Table 9.8 Suggested assignments for various clinical veterinary medicine co...
Table 9.9 A holistic rubric for critical thinking.
Table 9.10a Checklist used in scoring performance on the thoracentesis simu...
Table 9.10b Part of a task‐specific checklist to control the hemorrhage and...
Table 9.11 Part of a rating scale rubric used for scoring a simulated ovari...
Table 9.12 Global rating scale used in scoring performance on the thoracent...
Table 9.13 Operative component rating scale for open inguinal herniorraphy ...
Table 9.14a Association of American Colleges and Universities (2009).
Table 9.14b Association of American Colleges and Universities (2009).
Table 9.15 Descriptive anchors for a 4 point‐scale of different performance...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Summary of guidelines for remediation in medical education.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Various models and simulations described in veterinary medical e...
Table 11.2 Checklist for placement of an intravenous catheter in a canine m...
Table 11.3 Excerpt, “Veterinary surgical skills assessment form.”
Table 11.4 Chart‐Stimulated review sample questions.
Table 11.5 Seven principles of good feedback practice.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Examples of script concordance questions.
Table 12.2 Examples of Individual Readiness Assessment Test questions.
Table 12.3 Written reflection assignment example description and assessment...
Table 12.4 Example scoring rubric for a student‐submitted short answer ques...
Table 12.5 Example scoring rubric for a student‐generated question.
Table 12.6 Role‐playing assignment example description and assessment.
Table 12.7 Assessments that can be used to demonstrate achievement of examp...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Components of an Educator's Professional Dossier Designed to Sho...
Table 16.2 Quantitative Measures of Learner Success in Advising and Mentori...
Table 16.3 Example of an Educator's Portfolio Entry for Mentoring and Advis...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Approaches to open and reproducible science.
Table 17.2 An overview of key research terminology.
Table 17.3 A balanced three‐way design exploring the effect of a novel stud...
Table 17.4 Example questions and their corresponding data types utilized in...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Levels of outcomes measures in medical education: a comparison o...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Relationship between competency‐based veterinary education compe...
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Titles under the Higher Education Act (2020).
Table 23.2 Institutional Accreditors in the United States.
Table 23.3 History, Structure, Function of the Council on Education (COE) a...
Table 23.4 Side‐by‐side comparison of steps required for new DVM program.
Table 23.5 Sample FAQ layout.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Bandura's reciprocal causation and the interaction between person...
Figure 3.2 The cyclical nature of the (a) positive effects and (b) negative ...
Figure 3.3 A simplified representation of Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) dua...
Figure 3.4 A modification of Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) dual‐store model...
Figure 3.5 Intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive load interact with an individua...
Figure 3.6 A classification of long‐term memory components associated with e...
Figure 3.7 An example of a semantic network involving nodes (e.g., sensory m...
Figure 3.8 Schemas represent a generalization of knowledge and experience, s...
Figure 3.9 A generalized representation of the Power Law of Learning (a) and...
Figure 3.10 Mean recall of idea units on 5‐minute delayed and 1‐week delayed...
Figure 3.11 Mean test performance for students in both the Generate group an...
Figure 3.12 Mean correct test performance for students in Experiment 1, spac...
Figure 3.13 Mean correct action–object sentences recalled (e.g., roll the di...
Figure 3.14 Mean correct test performance for students in Experiment 2A (Rea...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Mean and median experiential hours.
Figure 5.2 Sources of aid.
Figure 5.3 Community of origin.
Figure 5.4 Application attempts.
Figure 5.5 Total enrollment.
Figure 5.6 Matriculation to graduation correlation.
Figure 5.7 Dual degree enrollment.
Figure 5.8 Underrepresented minority representation.
Figure 5.9 Enrollment by gender.
Figure 5.10 Gender identity of applicants.
Chapter 6
Picture 6.1 Student learning to use the ultrasound to image tendons in live ...
Picture 6.2 K9 Intubation Trainer from RescueCritters! ® Brand.
Figure 6.1 Anatomical Representation of the CCG, in which spinal segments co...
Figure 6.2 Essential skills for clinical teaching.
Figure 6.3 Common problems and/or challenges of clinical teaching.
Figure 6.4 Kolb's Cycle of Experiential Learning.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Continuum of instructional delivery modes.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Miller's prism of clinical competence.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Bloom’s taxonomy, Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.
Figure 10.2 The three stages of backward design.
Figure 10.3 Integrating backwards design for program and evaluation planning...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Pyramid of clinical competence.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Sample of simple two‐level map.
Figure 13.2 Sample of mastery‐based two level map.
Figure 13.3 Map levels identified.
Figure 13.4 Sample structure for university‐wide map design.
Figure 13.5 Sample of veterinary map design by department.
Figure 13.6 Sample of veterinary map design by skill areas.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Example Extracts from an Educator's Reflective Document.
Figure 16.2 Components of a Holistic Assessment of Teaching Program.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 A general overview of veterinary science's research process.
Figure 17.2 Raincloud plot (see Allen et al. 2019) demonstrating distributio...
Figure 17.3 Ontological and epistemological impacts on research approaches, ...
Figure 17.4 Bias, imprecision, and their interactions.
Figure 17.5 Histograms of grade for two student samples, both with a mean of...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Public Higher Education Finance.
Figure 20.2 Simplified Public University Oversight.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Common accreditation cycle.
Figure 23.2 Example high‐level timeline from a PharmD self‐study.
Figure 23.3 Example spring 2022 timeline from same PharmD self‐study.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Educational Principles and Practice in Veterinary Medicine
Edited by
Katherine Fogelberg, DVM, PhD (Science Education), MA (Educational Leadership)
Virginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Fogelberg, Katherine, editor.Title: Educational principles and practice in veterinary medicine / edited by Katherine Fogelberg.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley‐Blackwell, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023023538 (print) | LCCN 2023023539 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119852759 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119852766 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119852773 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Education, VeterinaryClassification: LCC SF756.3 (print) | LCC SF756.3 (ebook) | NLM SF 756.3 | DDC 636.0890711–dc23/eng/20231002LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023023538LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023023539
Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Courtesy of Melissa Stiles; Courtesy of Cassandra Cartmill
This book is dedicated to all my past and future students, and my fellow education nerd colleagues/friends.It is also dedicated to my husband, John, who has always believed in me more thanI believed in myself and encouraged me to follow my dreams.
List of Contributors
Stacy L. AndersonLincoln Memorial University College of Veterinary Medicine,Harrogate, TNUSA
Misty R. BaileyCollege of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of TennesseeKnoxville, TNUSA
Sarah BaillieBristol Veterinary SchoolBristol, UK
Sarah A. BellUniversity of Florida College of Veterinary MedicineGainesville, FLUSA
Freyca CalderonPennsylvania State University‐AltoonaAltoona, PAUSA
Patricia ButterbrodtRichard A. Gillespie College of Veterinary MedicineLincoln Memorial UniversityHarrogate, TNUSA
Meghan ByrnesVirginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary MedicineBlacksburg, VAUSA
Sherry A. ClouserUniversity of Georgia College of Veterinary MedicineAthens, GAUSA
Bobbi J. ConnerVirginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary MedicineBlacksburg, VAUSA
Kimberly S. CookTexas Christian UniversityFort Worth, TXUSA
Peter DoolittleVirginia Tech University, School of EducationBlacksburg, VA, USA
Ryane E. EnglarUniversity of Arizona College of Veterinary MedicineOro Valley, AZUSA
Katherine FogelbergVirginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary MedicineBlacksburg, VAUSA
Lawrence GarciaUniversity of Florida College of Veterinary MedicineGainesville, FLUSA
Philippa GibbonsTexas Tech School of Veterinary MedicineAmarillo, TXUSA
Lisa M. GreenhillAmerican Association of Veterinary Medical CollegesWashington, DCUSA
Erik H. HofmeisterCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn UniversityAuburn, ALUSA
Gabriel HuddlestonTexas Christian UniversityFort Worth, TXUSA
Julie A. HuntRichard A. Gillespie College of Veterinary MedicineLincoln Memorial UniversityHarrogate, TNUSA
Katrina JolleyRichard A. Gillespie College of Veterinary MedicineLincoln Memorial UniversityHarrogate, TNUSA
Jill R. D. MacKayThe Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary SciencesUniversity of EdinburghMidlothian, ScotlandUK
Susan M. MatthewWashington State University College of VeterinaryMedicine, Pullman, WAUSA
Lynda M.J. MillerRichard A. Gillespie College of Veterinary Medicine, Lincoln Memorial UniversityHarrogate, TNUSA
Donald B. MillsTexas Christian UniversityFort Worth, TXUSA
Karla O’DonaldTexas Christian UniversityFort Worth, TXUSA
Sraavya M. PolisettiAmerican Association of Veterinary Medical CollegesWashington, DCUSA
Malathi RaghavanPurdue University College of Veterinary MedicineWest Lafayette, INUSA
Shane M. RyanMedical University of South Carolina College of PharmacyCharleston, SCUSA
Micha C. SimonsVirginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary MedicineBlacksburg, VAUSA
Matthew SchexnayderIDEXX Laboratories, Inc.Baton Rouge, LAUSA
Stephanie L. ShaverUniversity of Arizona College of Veterinary MedicineOro Valley, AZUSA
Jo R. SmithUniversity of Georgia College of Veterinary MedicineAthens, GAUSA
Dawn M. SpanglerRichard A. Gillespie College of Veterinary Medicine Lincoln Memorial UniversityHarrogate, TNUSA
Myrah StockdaleCampbell University College of Pharmacy and Health SciencesLillington, NCUSA
Stephanie ThomovskyPurdue College of Veterinary MedicineWest Lafayette, INUSA
Ying WangPlano East Senior High SchoolPlano, TXUSA
Jesse WatsonNorth Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine,Raleigh, NCUSA
Shelly WuPeter O’Donnell Jr. School of Public Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, TX, USA
Kendall P. YoungAmerican Association of Veterinary Medical CollegesWashington, DCUSA
Preface
When you leave your soul to a teacher, it demands confidence – Svein Loeng, 2017
There is a wide gulf between what we want in education and what we do in education – Benjamin Bloom, 1972
I have fought long and hard to get the profession of veterinary medicine to recognize the value of learning about and understanding the discipline of education. I entered veterinary school at age 31, almost 10 years older than most of my classmates and far more seasoned in life than many of them, as well. I came into the program off active duty with the Army, with whom I had spent the previous decade after growing up in difficult circumstances. Also, both my parents were lifelong educators, and I rebelled against the idea that I would follow in their footsteps, mostly because I had loftier goals and a strong desire to be more financially stable than either of them!
However, my stint in the Army helped me realize that curriculum design was super cool and fun. It tapped into my creative brain while also challenging my logical brain, and it allowed me to dabble across a variety of content and ways of knowing. I figured this out during my last duty assignment, where I was provided the opportunity to update a 20‐year‐old curriculum and ensure our military medical providers fully understood how to care for themselves and their patients on the battlefield – the current battlefield, as at the time, terrorism was becoming the more prevalent form of warfare and the battlefield lines were increasingly blurring – there was no longer a “front line;” the child down the street or the woman coming toward you might just as well have a hand grenade or machine gun as the man wearing camouflage. This is how and where I earned my educational wings, so to speak, and I loved it.
Having been rejected from veterinary school twice prior to landing back on active duty as a commissioned officer (I had previously enlisted as a flute player, then was awarded a scholarship to complete my undergraduate degree and earn my commission), I was lucky to find education as another career option. I completed my Master’s in Educational Leadership while on active duty, fully intending to go into education – likely teaching high school – when I left the military. But, as usual, life had other plans for me. My last boss in the Army convinced me to try for vet school again and, after agonizing through a correspondence course (yes – the preview to online learning was snail mail correspondence courses!) to complete the required second semester of physics, I found myself heading out of the Army and into veterinary school.
It was clear really quickly that veterinary school was going to be the biggest academic challenge I had faced to that point; the pace was fast and the content was variably challenging. But mostly it was the sheer volume of information being thrown at me and my classmates, starting on the first day. I was older and a step or two slower mentally than my classmates, too, which did not help things. But mostly I was frustrated by the less‐than‐ideal educational practices we experienced regularly in the classroom. Day after day we sat in lectures where faculty stood up and read – literally read – their PowerPoint slides to us. To be clear, I fully understood many were doing their best; that they probably had no training in how to teach. And I like to think I would have been just as frustrated had I not already earned a graduate degree in education, but it doesn’t matter in the end. My graduate training certainly gave me specific reasons, rooted in theory and philosophy, for pointing out how inadequate the teaching was, but we have all experienced that poor teaching at the university level – and it is the majority of the time rather than the exception. My vet school experience was certainly good enough, but I felt strongly I could make things better. As I always say, veterinary school is hard. It should be hard and it will always be hard. It does not have to be made harder by crappy teaching.
I say all this to remind you that I came to veterinary education – and therefore this textbook – for a reason. From the beginning of my nontraditional career, I wanted to help veterinary educators be better – and perhaps more than better, maybe even exceptional. There are a few out there who are already exceptional, of course – I had a few myself and I do believe the group is growing. But those who are exceptional have had to work really hard to get there; they have learned by trial and error, through self‐reflection and absorbing the good and bad of their own learning experiences. They have embraced the idea that education – of which teaching is a part – is a discipline in and of itself and come to understand that content knowledge and expertise is helpful, but it is not everything when it comes to educating. Educating, I often say, is the second hardest job in the world.
I have practiced in small animal general practice as a paid veterinarian for over 10 years – some full time, some as a locum. I have worked in some of the most prestigious zoos and wildlife conservation centers as a student and volunteer veterinarian, and I have been lucky to interact with and work on some of the most amazing animals known to humankind. I have mentored a number of new veterinarians and taught hundreds – perhaps thousands – of public health and human medical students. My career has been varied and vast and not what I ever could have anticipated, but it has surely provided me a strong foundation for doing what I do now as I get back to what I love – education. Not just the teaching part, which is one of the best bits, but the rest of it – theory, philosophy, research, curriculum, assessment, classroom management, and on and on…so many I have spoken with in veterinary education who are considering advanced training in the field are surprised that there are specialties, just as in veterinary medicine. I certainly don’t know everything about every piece of the education pie, but I do know quite a bit about some of it.
What I do know I have written about in this textbook. What I know not quite enough about I have either found someone who does or taken up the Herculean task of immersing myself in it enough to make a passable attempt at conveying it to you (see: Chapters 1 and 2). For those sections I had no knowledge of, I asked a slew of contributing authors to cover; authors who come from a variety of backgrounds in both education and veterinary medicine; who have experience in K‐12 classrooms, undergraduate, graduate, and professional classrooms. I have authors who have written numerous chapters for numerous books, and authors who are contributing to a textbook for the very first time. I have worked hard to provide comprehensive and inclusive content with a focus on veterinary education but with broad enough implications to be useful to those in other health professions and, potentially, even those in higher education programs. From theory to leadership, clinical teaching to technology in the classroom, and philosophy to the structure and function of higher education institutions in the United States, I suspect you will find something useful to you if you are in academia at all.
This is my first attempt at editing a textbook and I am so excited to have it completed and published. If I had known then what I know now, it might not ever have happened. But what I find, sometimes, is that diving into the deep end can be the best way to go. Living a life of fear is never going to be a productive one; live boldly and, while there are always risks of failure, there are also opportunities for huge rewards. In this textbook, I find huge reward – not only for the end product, which you hold in your hands, but also in the experience I have gained, the knowledge I have absorbed, and the relationships I have built during the process. You may not find this book as satisfying as I do, but I do hope you will find it useful and a great addition to your library all the same.
Happy reading!Katherine
1Educational Philosophy and Philosophers
Katherine Fogelberg, DVM, PhD (Science Education), MA (Educational Leadership)
Virginia‐Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg, VA, USA
Ying Wang, PhD (Curriculum studies)
Plano East Senior High School, Plano, TX, USA
Section 1: Introduction and Overview
Katherine Fogelberg and Ying Wang
What is philosophy? Merriam‐Webster online defines philosophy in numerous ways, with several of the definitions relating specifically to teaching and learning, including “all learning exclusive of technical precepts and practical arts; the sciences and liberal arts exclusive of medicine, law, and theology (i.e., a doctor of philosophy); the 4‐year college course of a major seminary; a discipline comprising as its core logic, aesthetics, ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology; pursuit of wisdom; a search for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means; the most basic beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group” (accessed 8 March 2022). It appears the scholarly definition of philosophy is most likely a combination of the pursuit of wisdom and a search for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means. Philosophy, in general, is certainly a thinking person's discipline.
Philosophy is also, as you have read, far‐reaching and broad in its aims. It asks the great questions of the universe, whether it is in relation to supreme deities or if particles exist that affect us daily even though we cannot see them. Philosophers ask questions that we often cannot answer; or that we can answer based only on our current knowledge and experiences, knowing that those answers will change and evolve alongside any expansion of knowledge and amassing of new experiences. And, as with anything that becomes too large, pieces have broken off over the ages to form new areas of philosophical thought and inquiry. One of those pieces is the philosophy of education.
Though mostly ignored in preservice teacher preparation programs and largely nonexistent within in‐service teacher professional development, educational philosophies are foundational to educational policies and practices; put differently, we can always trace any decisions and practices in education to some philosophical roots. Unlike most educational courses that exemplify specific skills and what to do in concrete educational scenarios, educational philosophies offer answers to the question of why we do certain things and justify why we forgo other ones in education. This is one reason it is important and helpful for teachers to have a written or otherwise clearly articulated teaching philosophy; it is an opportunity for them to contemplate their beliefs about curriculum, their responsibilities and expectations of students, and how learning takes place in the classroom (Moss and Lee 2010). It is through developing a teaching philosophy that a teacher can better understand why they teach the way they do and how their practice is or is not reflective of their contemporaries. It can also illuminate for other readers the educator's understanding of knowledge, reality, pedagogy, curriculum, ethics, goals of teaching, and so on.
Different educational philosophies have come to prominence and then declined throughout history, sometimes overlapping each other. They have influenced educational policy‐making processes and curriculum components across time and space and continue to do so today. Though not necessarily in opposition to each other, the demise of one educational philosophy is usually accompanied by the rise of another, one that criticizes the current educational philosophy and claims to mitigate, if not fully resolve, certain shortcomings of the one it looks to replace. What drives these ebbs and flows of different philosophical stances? Most often it is moments in history where significant societal changes occurred; this will be further explored later in the chapter as discussions of the varying educational philosophies are presented in more depth.
Part 1: Philosophy of Education Defined
The word “philosophy” consists of two ancient Greek word roots, namely “philo” (love) and “sophia” (wisdom); accordingly, when put together, the word “philosophy” means “love of wisdom.” Thus, philosophy explores worldviews that explain phenomena in usually coherent but abstract terms and provides guiding principles for people in reality. Likewise, educational philosophies reference philosophies that consider practices in education. Educational philosophies underlie educational components ranging from creating curricula to determining classroom instruction, from understanding learning processes to selecting assessments, from writing learning objectives to setting the overall goals of education, and so forth.
The discipline of philosophy generally consists of three branches: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. Metaphysics delves into the study of ontology, rendering questions of what reality is, how we know what is real, and by extension, what is/are truth(s) in our universe. Closely related to ontology, epistemology outlines questions of what knowledge is, what is worth knowing, and how we know. And axiology explores questions of value, or aesthetics and ethics, asking about what is good, beautiful, or valuable. Correspondingly, when these three branches are applied in educational theories, people ponder what curriculum is; question what the nature of knowledge is, and, therefore, what is worth teaching and learning; and ask what the goals or aims of education are. In answering such questions systematically, and based on the major philosophical movements (idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism) four primary schools of educational philosophy emerged – essentialism, perennialism, progressivism, and reconstructivism/resconstructionism (Harmon and Jones 2005; Sandovnik et al. 2018). A fifth has more recently come to prominence: humanism. Humanism is driven by some of the more contemporary educational philosophers – primarily Abraham Maslow, of Maslow's hierarchy fame, created in 1943. However, humanism’s roots are ancient, as with most philosophies, and it will also be explored more deeply later in this chapter.
In defining philosophy writ large, however, it is necessary to define any subplots within the larger plot of philosophy as a discipline. Philosophy of education is a subplot, if you will, of philosophy as a whole, and is defined by Siegel (2009) as “that branch of philosophy that addresses philosophical questions concerning the nature, aims, and problems of education” (p. 3). Although central to the evolution and practice of education, it is rarely taught in traditional philosophy courses; rather, if it is taught, it is generally delivered within departments or programs of education (Noddings 2016). While this may seem odd, philosophy as a whole is often too large to tackle in a single course of study, thus some of its branches are often left to be taught by the discipline under which its title falls, e.g., philosophy of education, philosophy of science, philosophy of goodness or value, philosophy of logic, and others. While these offshoots are seemingly discipline‐specific, it is important to keep in mind that each branch has a common starting place, at least in the Western world: ancient Greece.
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations of Western philosophy through the ages; a philosophy that allowed discipline‐specific philosophies to emerge and, in some cases, burgeon into a full‐blown area of study. Nel Noddings (2016) acknowledges this explicitly in the introduction to her fourth edition of Philosophy of Education, where one section in her first chapter is dedicated to Socrates and Plato; another to Aristotle. In fact, Noddings briefly discusses some of the most impactful historical philosophers of education, from Rousseau (1700s) through Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel (mid‐1800s). Randall Curren (2007) also covers some of the ancient philosophers; both will be referred to extensively in the next section, covering a brief history of educational philosophy.
Before moving into its history, however, let us be sure that we understand what it is that philosophers of education actually do. While philosophers traditionally analyze and work to clarify anything with ambiguity within a content or topic, philosophers of education specifically reflect upon, consider, discuss, and explore “concepts, arguments, theories, and language” (Noddings 2016, p. xiii) related to education as a discipline and as a practice. For example, Noddings (2016) reminds us that questions asked in ancient times about education are still relevant today: “What should be the aims or purposes of education? Who should be educated? Should education differ according to natural interests and abilities? What role should the state play in education?” (p. 1). As you can clearly see, she is not mistaken; these questions are still played out every day in the United States, as we continue to question educational equity and how to attain it; how to best encourage and support students in their efforts to achieve the skills and knowledge needed to both contribute to society and earn a decent living; the extent to which each school is beholden to state policies, procedures, and politics (as I write this there are numerous efforts to ban certain teachings and books across the country, as well as lawsuits from students and parents against schools who have forced religious beliefs and gatherings onto them on school grounds during school hours); and what the real purpose of an education is. Are students required to get a high school education because it is deemed necessary for them to survive and thrive, or because it is necessary for parents to have a place to deposit their children during the workday? Should everyone obtain a university degree? What is the purpose of a university degree, especially if such a degree does not guarantee work in the area studied? So many questions about education. All of these and more are considered by educational philosophers; all of these and more are pieces to the puzzle that is education.
With this in mind, let us dive into a brief history of educational philosophy – both Western and Eastern, after which you will dig into some of the more influential ancient (Eastern) and contemporary (Western) philosophers of education as we lay the foundation for upcoming chapters in this text. The third section begins to group the types of educational philosophies that have evolved over time, beginning with teacher‐centered educational philosophies, moving to learner‐centered educational philosophies in Section 4, and concluding with socially centered educational philosophies in Section 5. You will notice they progress historically from early to present day; however, keep in mind that just because one set of philosophies has fallen out of favor does not mean that it is completely off the radar. It is highly likely that any educator you speak to has beliefs in and approaches to education that are rooted in several of these ‐isms, as I call them; perhaps they would not explicitly recognize them as such, but all have heavily influenced education and educational practices over the centuries.
Section 2: A Brief History of Western Educational Philosophy
Katherine Fogelberg
The Classical Era (600 BCE–476 CE) is widely acknowledged as the birth of Western philosophy as a discipline. It is also where we find the foundations of educational philosophy as we know it established. It is important to acknowledge that the term “classical” should also encompass those rooted in Chinese, Indian, and Arab classical texts; the Chinese roots of educational philosophy are covered later in this chapter. The Indian and Arab roots are not included only because of the editor's lack of connections to scholars with this knowledge; should those emerge and a second edition of this text be warranted, they would be happily incorporated.
From the Western perspective, Socrates (469–399 BCE) is well‐established as the originator of the philosophy of education. It should be noted that Socrates did not use his time to address questions he considered inconsequential; he chose to pursue conversations about big questions – those he felt were meaningful in the larger picture of society and life. You will note, too, that throughout the discussion of Socrates the term “conversation” is more often applied than the term “teaching”; this is because Socrates was never a formal teacher. He never charged for his services; he met his students in their homes and in various public gathering places, and those students were always free to leave or join at their will, answer or not answer as they chose. Thus, it seems fitting to refer to his discussions with students as conversations rather than as lessons or teachings, as the latter terms imply a more formal atmosphere and the compelled presence of students.
Although Socrates did no writing himself, preferring to engage in verbal sparring to make his points, we are familiar with his work through his best‐known student, Plato. Plato's writings were voluminous and are broken into evolutionary units by Classicists that span the early, or Socratic, dialogues, the transitional dialogues, the middle dialogues, and the late dialogues (Curren 2007).
The early dialogues present Socrates as he truly was; constantly questioning and using questions to lead those interested in his conversations into deeper thought about a given topic. His use of constant questioning may be familiar to you as the Socratic method, although not all who use it are as adept at doing so as he was. While many view the Socratic method as merely answering every question with a question, there are finer points to this method that are often overlooked. Noddings (2016) notes that Socrates always started his conversations – that led to learning – with a seemingly simple question, such as “What is truth? or What does it mean to be just?” (p. 3). As the student responded, Socrates would ask a follow‐up question, prompting her or him to think more deeply and come up with a new response. This process – also known as elenchus, or destructive cross‐examination – continued until the teacher, the student, or both believed the analysis had been taken as far as possible in the moment (Noddings 2016). Based on examples of such Socratic conversations, it is apparent that logic, logos, is at the heart of many – perhaps most – of Socrates teachings; he is leading the student into understanding the logic – or lack thereof – behind their original answers when the conversation concludes.
Plato's transitional dialogues depicted Socrates as his true self but begin to interject Plato's attempts at identifying and overcoming issues he sees with Socrates' thinking, while the late dialogues leave Socrates largely out of the writings and are where Plato largely abandons some of the important ideas characteristic of the middle dialogues (Curren 2007). It is the middle dialogues, however, that continue to resonate with today's educational philosophers, as it is here where Plato's utopian state and greatest work, Republic, appears (Curren 2007; Noddings 2016).
Republic is about the equivalent of 10 modern‐day chapters (called books in the translation) and much of its content is focused on the problems of education (Noddings 2016; Curren 2007). In its introduction, Plato provides a cast list, with Socrates being identified as the narrator throughout. As the writing unfolds, the reader witnesses Plato, through Socrates, opine that citizens should have education suited to their capacities, dividing students into three categories: those destined to be artisans and workers; those he called guardians (soldiers), to whom the safety and security of the state were entrusted; and those who would lead (rulers and those in the upper echelons of the guardian class). According to Benjamin Jowett's 2012 translation with introduction, the work reaches its apex in Books V, VI, and VII, where “philosophy reaches the highest point…to which ancient thinkers ever attained” (Jowett 2012, p. 1). This thought is echoed in Curren's text, although in slightly less hyperbolic terms.
As Curren (2007) highlights, there were others who also provided blocks to build the foundation of the philosophy of education upon; more often referred to as sophists and orators, such individuals developed and defended their own approaches to higher education. One of the more prominent orators of his time, Isocrates was a contemporary of Plato who established a school of rhetoric just a few years after Plato opened his Academy. A staunch defender and practitioner of rhetoric as philosophy in the service of politics, Isocrates also believed that “practical wisdom” was gained through education grounded in the study of speech (logos), or the ability to speak well and persuasively (Curren 2007). This is in contrast to Plato's ideas about how practical wisdom was gained; he believed that such wisdom was grounded in systemic knowledge (episteme) – something Isocrates did not believe was attainable by humans (Curren 2007).
However, “The Republic of Plato is also the first treatise upon education, of which the writings of Milton and Locke, Rousseau, Jean Paul, and Goethe are the legitimate descendants” (Jowett 2012, p. 1). Truly, Plato's tome is a foundational writing in educational philosophy; though his ideas started with interactions with Socrates, he would go on to make his mark in the field as the first true philosopher of education. Socrates was his narrator, but it is Plato who historically persists as the primary “influencer” of educational philosophy in ancient times. Although Plato's model of education may be viewed as elitist because he believed that education was primarily to educate the few who were “capable of attaining understanding of the highest forms of knowledge” so they could exercise political power responsibly (Peters et al. 2015, p. 6), it is still his philosophical foundations upon which current Western educational philosophy stands.
The Western philosophers, orators, and sophists persisted until the fall of the Roman Empire, which led to the Dark Ages – the early part of what is collectively known as the Middle, Medieval, or Postclassical era. Spanning from 476 to 1450 ADE, the Middle Ages saw significant strife with the collapse of the Roman Empire and rebuilding efforts during the Dark Ages, an oppressive and often violent Catholic church reaching the height of its power, and the Black Death sweeping through Europe. It is also this era, however, that produced the printing press, an invention that would influence the entire world as it hastened the distribution of the written word to a pace previously unattainable. While not the sole reason for the return to the Classical Era values and philosophies, the printing press certainly aided humanity as it strove to emerge from a difficult social time and helped define the Age of Enlightenment as a pivotal time in human history – as well as educational philosophy.
It would not be until the Early Modern Era that we would see the emergence of additional philosophers who can be viewed as moving educational philosophy forward. During this era, we see philosophy speaking to “eternal truths about rational man as the fount of knowledge” (Peters et al. 2015, p. 6), with Immanuel Kant separating experience from a priori forms of knowledge (a moralist approach). However, John Locke viewed education as an imperative for maintaining and sustaining the social contract (realism), while Jean‐Jacques Rousseau (a naturalist) viewed the power of knowledge as being polluted by society (Peters et al. 2015).
Contemporaries Locke and Rousseau had similar ideas about the importance of education through practical and sensorial experiences, though both protested the likeness of their thought (Peters et al. 2015). Locke is widely acknowledged as the father of liberalism, and his primary aim for education was the production of individuals able to make rational decisions as a citizen within society (Peters et al. 2015). As with Locke, “Kant believed in the importance of inculcating through education a cultivated and ethical sensibility” (Peters et al. 2015, p. 6). However, Kant split from Locke's belief that education was to teach children the adult characteristics required to be part of a civil society. Instead, Kant's view was that children should be viewed as distinct from the adult (Peters et al. 2015). Rousseau also celebrated the notion of childhood, as demonstrated in his well‐known text Emile; he also lauded the natural morality of the child and blamed society for all its deficiencies (Rousseau 1957, as cited in Peters et al. 2015).
Plato (Classical), Kant, Locke, and Rousseau (each from the Enlightenment) are the four foundational masters of Western philosophy; each made contributions to conceptions of what education “ought” to be that were “both pivotal articulations and emblematic of their wider theoretical perspectives on knowledge and the conditions of existence” (Peters et al. 2015, p. 6).
Although in reading the works of each of these philosophers, one might not view education as being overly prominent, all did explicitly recognize education's importance both for achieving some of their societal and theoretical aims and belief that education was the primary site for such aims to be developed (Peters et al. 2015). It should be noted that these philosophers were primarily speaking about educating boys and men, a theme that was not uncommon in Western societies and has had far‐reaching effects that continue today.
With the movement into the Early Modern Era, the European Renaissance began and the oppressive ideals and actions of the Middle Ages receded. This cultural renaissance saw an embrace and valuation of art, music, literature, and philosophy, paving the path to a society in the West built by Europe's exploration and colonization of numerous continents, including Africa and the Americas. Such expansion – coming from significant violence and repression – ultimately resulted in resistance and loss of power, particularly in areas that were so geographically far away from Europe. This diaspora of Europeans who then became different countries resulted in parallel industrialization, urbanization, technological advances, and regional and global conflicts – all of which have led us to the information age, in which we are now fully entrenched.
As with the rest of the world, in the United States through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there were social, cultural, intellectual, and historical pressures that affected the creation of the educational discipline known as philosophy of education. However, Kaminsky (1992) argues that such pressures culminated in a specific date of origin for the philosophy of education as a discipline, that being Sunday, 24 February 1935, in Atlantic City, when the John Dewey Society was established by a group of school superintendents and academics. The formalization of a national public school movement in the early twentieth century, the emergence of the belief that education could be studied as “laboratory science,” and a burgeoning awareness that education was inextricably intertwined with the nation's social order provided the opportunity for John Dewey and a group of other less known scholars and teachers who ended up forming the backbone of the progressive movement in education to take the spotlight (Kaminsky 1992).
Peters et al. (2015) reinforce the idea that a variety of influences created opportunities for changing philosophical views of education. Postwar in the twentieth century, for example, we saw the rise of the analytic tradition, “in which a liberal philosophy that drew very heavily on certain aspects of classicism proposed to analyze education through conceptual analyses” (Peters et al. 2015, p. 6). Although public schools (first known as “common schools”) had been established for almost a century by the time World War II ended (Kober and Rentner 2020), Dewey's emergence during this postwar era in the United States was a bit of luck. In a time during which the U.S.'s receptivity to education as experience was heightened, Dewey and his educational philosophy found widespread acceptance. His philosophy and theories would ultimately shape the educational landscape in the United States and beyond, particularly with respect to increasing child‐centered approaches in the classroom (Peters et al. 2015).
Dewey's – among others – influence cannot be overstated. But his was not the only loud voice in the crowd, as with the establishment of the formal public school system came the inevitable power struggles that accompany any large‐scale institution. As Kaminsky summarizes nicely:
Herbert Spencer and John Dewey made education and educational philosophy an intellectual issue. Populism and progressivism made education a political issue. The muckrakers made education a public issue. And, finally, the social reform movement…was central in confirming the discipline's social conscience. The American Social Science Association placed educational philosophy within the aegis of the social sciences. Then, like the various social sciences, educational philosophy found its way into U.S. universities (p. 180).
And while the educational philosophers in the U.S. were having their moment, others in the Western world were also emerging as scholar leaders. In South America, Paulo Freire was publicly exploring the entrenched inequalities in education, while in Austria Ivan Illich was publishing his ideas about a “deschooling approach” (Peters et al. 2015
