Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
In this handbook and ready reference, editors and authors from academia and industry share their in-depth knowledge of known and novel materials, devices and technologies with the reader. The result is a comprehensive overview of electrochemical energy and conversion methods, including batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, hydrogen generation and storage as well as solar energy conversion. Each chapter addresses electrochemical processes, materials, components, degradation mechanisms, device assembly and manufacturing, while also discussing the challenges and perspectives for each energy storage device in question. In addition, two introductory chapters acquaint readers with the fundamentals of energy storage and conversion, and with the general engineering aspects of electrochemical devices.
With its uniformly structured, self-contained chapters, this is ideal reading for entrants to the field as well as experienced researchers.
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Seitenzahl: 1461
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012
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Table of Contents
Related Titles
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Volume 1
Chapter 1: Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Global Energy Status: Demands, Challenges, and Future Perspectives
1.3 Driving Forces behind Clean and Sustainable Energy Sources
1.4 Green and Sustainable Energy Sources and Their Conversion: Hydro, Biomass, Wind, Solar, Geothermal, and Biofuel
1.5 Electrochemistry: a Technological Overview
1.6 Electrochemical Rechargeable Batteries and Supercapacitors (Li Ion Batteries, Lead-Acid Batteries, NiMH Batteries, Zinc–Air Batteries, Liquid Redox Batteries)
1.7 Light Fuel Generation and Storage: Water Electrolysis, Chloro-Alkaline Electrolysis, Photoelectrochemical and Photocatalytic H2 Generation, and Electroreduction of CO2
1.8 Fuel Cells: Fundamentals to Systems (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells, PEM Fuel Cells, Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, Molten Carbon Fuel Cells, and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells)
1.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
Chapter 2: Electrochemical Engineering Fundamentals
2.1 Electrical Current/Voltage, Faraday's Laws, Electric Efficiency, and Mass Balance
2.2 Electrode Potentials and Electrode–Electrolyte Interfaces
2.3 Electrode Kinetics (Charger Transfer (Butler–Volmer Equation) and Mass Transfer (Diffusion Laws))
2.4 Porous Electrode Theory (Kinetic and Diffusion)
2.5 Structure, Design, and Fabrication of Electrochemical Devices
2.6 Nanomaterials in Electrochemical Applications
References
Chapter 3: Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Main Types and Structures of Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries
3.3 Electrochemical Processes in Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries
3.4 Battery Components (Anode, Cathode, Separator, Endplates, and Current Collector)
3.5 Assembly, Stacking, and Manufacturing of Li Ion Rechargeable Batteries
3.6 Li Ion Battery Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
3.7 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
3.8 Current and Potential Applications of Secondary Li Ion Batteries
References
Chapter 4: Lead-Acid Battery
4.1 General Characteristics and Chemical/Electrochemical Processes in a Lead-Acid Battery
4.2 Battery Components (Anode, Cathode, Separator, Endplates (Current Collector), and Sealing)
4.3 Main Types and Structures of Lead-Acid Batteries
4.4 Charging Lead-Acid Battery
4.5 Maintenance and Failure Mode of a Lead-Acid Battery
4.6 Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Technology
4.7 Lead-Acid Battery Market
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5: Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Rechargeable Batteries
5.1 Introduction to NiMH Rechargeable Batteries
5.2 Electrochemical Processes in Rechargeable Ni-MH Batteries
5.3 Battery Components
5.4 Assembly, Stacking, Configuration, and Manufacturing of Rechargeable Ni-MH Batteries
5.5 Ni-MH Battery Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
5.6 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
5.7 Applications (Portable, Backup Power, and Transportation)
5.8 Challenges and Perspectives of Ni-MH Rechargeable Batteries
References
Chapter 6: Metal–Air Technology
6.1 Metal–Air Technology
6.2 Introduction to Aluminum–Air Technology
6.3 Introduction to Lithium–Air Technology
6.4 Introduction to Zinc–Air Technology
6.5 Introduction to Magnesium–Air Technology
6.6 Structure of Magnesium–Air Cell
6.7 Electrochemical Processes
6.8 Components
6.9 Manufacturing
6.10 Magnesium–Air Battery Performance
6.11 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
6.12 Applications
6.13 Challenges and Perspectives of Magnesium–Air Cells
References
Chapter 7: Liquid Redox Rechargeable Batteries
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Electrochemical Processes in a Redox Flow Battery
7.3 Materials and Properties of Redox Flow Battery
7.4 Redox Flow Battery System
7.5 Performance Evaluation of Redox Flow Battery
7.6 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
7.7 Applications of Redox Flow Batteries
7.8 Perspectives and Challenges of RFB
References
Chapter 8: Electrochemical Supercapacitors
8.1 Introduction to Supercapacitors (Current Technology State and Literature Review)
8.2 Main Types and Structures of Supercapacitors
8.3 Physical/Electrochemical Processes in Supercapacitors
8.4 Supercapacitor Components
8.5 Assembly and Manufacturing of Supercapacitors
8.6 Supercapacitors Stacking and Systems
8.7 Supercapacitor Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
8.8 Supercapacitor Configurations
8.9 Applications
8.10 Challenges and Perspectives of Electrochemical Supercapacitors
References
Volume 2
Chapter 9: Water Electrolysis for Hydrogen Generation
9.1 Introduction to Water Electrolysis
9.2 Thermodynamics
9.3 Kinetics
9.4 Alkaline Water Electrolysis
9.5 PEM Water Electrolysis
9.6 High Temperature Water Electrolysis
9.7 Conclusion
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
References
Chapter 10: Hydrogen Compression, Purification, and Storage
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pressurized Water Electrolysis
10.3 Hydrogen Electrochemical Compression
10.4 Hydrogen Electrochemical Extraction and Purification
10.5 Hydrogen Storage in Hydride-Forming Materials
10.6 Conclusion and Perspectives
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
References
Chapter 11: Solar Cell as an Energy Harvesting Device
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Solar Radiation and Absorption
11.3 Fundamentals of Solar Cells
11.4 Silicon Solar Cell
11.5 Other High-Efficiency Solar Cells
11.6 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
11.7 Routes to Boost the Efficiency of Solar Cells
11.8 Current Ideas for Future Solar Cell
11.9 Summary
References
Chapter 12: Photoelectrochemical Cells for Hydrogen Generation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Main Types and Structures of Photoelectrochemical Cells
12.3 Electrochemical Processes in Photoelectrochemical Cells
12.4 Photoelectrochemical Cell Components
12.5 Assembly of Photoelectrochemical Cells
12.6 Photoelectrochemical Cell Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
12.7 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
12.8 Applications (Portable, Stationary, and Transportation)
12.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13: Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
13.1 Introduction to PEMFCs
13.2 Main Types and Structures of PEMFCs
13.3 Electrochemical Processes in PEMFCs
13.4 PEMFCs Components
13.5 Assembly and Manufacture of PEMFCs
13.6 PEMFC Stacking and System
13.7 PEM Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
13.8 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
13.9 Applications
13.10 Challenges and Perspectives
References
Chapter 14: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Fuel Cell Components
14.3 Assembly and Manufacturing
14.4 Stacking and Balance of the Plant
14.5 Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
14.6 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
14.7 Applications
14.8 Challenges and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 15: Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
15.1 Introduction to Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
15.2 Main Types and Structures of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
15.3 Electrochemical Processes in Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
15.4 Fuel Cell Components
15.5 Assembly and Manufacturing of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
15.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Stacking and Systems
15.7 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: Performance, Testing, and Diagnosis
15.8 Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies
15.9 Applications
15.10 Challenges and Perspectives of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
References
Chapter 16: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
16.1 Introduction to Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
16.2 Current Technologic Status of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
16.3 Electrochemical Processes in Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
16.4 Components of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
16.5 Structure and Performance of MCFCs
16.6 Schematic of MCFC Power Generation Systems
16.7 Fabrication and Operation of MCFCs
16.8 MCFC Power Plant
16.9 Major Factors Affecting the Performance and Lifetime of MCFCs
16.10 Challenges and Perspectives of MCFCs
References
Index
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The Editors
Prof. Dr. Ru-Shi Liu
Department of Chemistry
National Taiwan University
No. 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road
Taipei 10617
Taiwan
Lei Zhang
Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
National Research Council Canada
4250 Wesbrook Mall
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1W5
Canada
Prof. Xueliang Sun
Deparment of Mechanical & Materials
University of Western Ontario
London
Ontario N6A 5B9
Canada
Dr. Hansan Liu
Chemical Sciences Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, TN 37831
USA
Dr. Jiujun Zhang
Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation
National Research Council Canada
4250 Wesbrook Mall
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1W5
Canada
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Preface
In today's world, clean energy technologies, which include energy storage and conversion, play the most important role in the sustainable development of human society, and are becoming the most critical elements in overcoming fossil fuel exhaustion and global pollution. Among clean energy technologies, electrochemical technologies are considered the most feasible, environmentally friendly and sustainable. Electrochemical energy technologies such as secondary (or rechargeable) batteries and fuel cells have been invented and used, or will be used in several important application areas such as transportation, stationary, and portable/micro power. With increasing demand in both energy and power densities of these electrochemical energy devices in various new application areas, further research and development are essential to overcome challenges such as cost and durability, which are considered major obstacles hindering their applications and commercialization. In order to facilitate this new exploration, we believe that a book covering all important areas of electrochemical energy technologies for clean energy storage and conversion, giving an overall picture about these technologies, should be highly desired.
The proposed book will give a comprehensive description of electrochemical energy conversion and storage methods and the latest development, including batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, hydrogen generation and storage, as well as solar energy conversion. It addresses a variety of topics such as electrochemical processes, materials, components, assembly and manufacturing, degradation mechanisms, as well as challenges and strategies. Note that for battery technologies, we have tried our best to focus on rechargeable batteries by excluding primary batteries. With chapter contributions from scientists and engineers with excellent academic records as well as strong industrial expertise, who are at the top of their fields on the cutting edge of technology, the book includes in-depth discussions ranging from comprehensive understanding, to engineering of components and applied devices. We wish that a broader view of various electrochemical energy conversion and storage devices will make this book unique and an essential read for university students including undergraduates and graduates, scientists, and engineers working in related fields. In order to help readers to understand the science and technology of the subject, some important and representative figures, tables, photos, and comprehensive lists of reference papers, will also be presented in this book. Through reading this book, the readers can easily locate the latest information on electrochemical technology, fundamentals, and applications.
In this book, each chapter is relatively independent of the others, a structure which we hope will help readers quickly find topics of interest without necessarily having to read through the whole book. Unavoidably, however, there is some overlap, reflecting the interconnectedness of the research and development in this dynamic field.
We would like to acknowledge with deep appreciation all of our family members for their understanding, strong support, and encouragement.
If any technical errors exist in this book, all editors and chapter authors would deeply appreciate the readers' constructive comments for correction and further improvement.
Ru-Shi Liu, Lei Zhang, Xueliang Sun, Hansan Liu, and Jiujun Zhang
About the Editors
Ru-Shi Liu received his bachelor's degree in chemistry from Shoochow University, Taiwan, in 1981, and his master's in nuclear science from the National Tsing Hua University, two years later. He gained one Ph.D. in chemistry from National Tsing Hua University in 1990, and one from the University of Cambridge in 1992. From 1983 to 1995 he worked as a researcher at the Industrial Technology Research Institute, before joining the Department of Chemistry at the National Taiwan University in 1995 where he became a professor in 1999. He is a recipient of the Excellent Young Person Prize, Excellent Inventor Award (Argentine Medal) and Excellent Young Chemist Award. Professor Liu has over 350 publications in scientific international journals as well as more than 80 patents to his name.
Lei Zhang is a Research Council Officer at the National Re-search Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation. She received her first M.Sc. in inorganic chemistry from Wuhan University in 1993, and her second in materials chemistry from Simon Fraser University, Canada in 2000. She is an adjunct professor at the Federal University of Maranhao, Brazil and at the Zhengzhou University, China, in addition to being an international advisory member of 7th IUPAC International Conference on Novel Materials and their Synthesis and an active member of the Electrochemical Society and the International Society of Electrochemistry. Ms. Zhang has co-authored over 90 publications and holds five US patent applications. Her main research interests include PEM fuel cell electrocatalysis, catalyst layer/electrode structure, metal-air batteries/fuel cells and supercapacitors.
Xueliang (Andy) Sun holds a Canada Research Chair in the development of nanomaterials for clean energy, and is Associate Professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. He received his Ph.D. in materials chemistry in 1999 from the University of Manchester, UK, after which he worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia, and as a research associate at l'Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Canada. He is the recipient of a number of awards, including the Early Researcher award, Canada Research Chair award and University Faculty Scholar award, and has authored or co-authored over 100 papers, 3 book chapters and 8 patents. Over the past decade, Dr. Sun has established a remarkable track record in nanoscience and nanotechnology for clean energy, mainly in the synthesis and structure control of one-dimensional nanomaterials, as well as their applications for fuel cells and Li ion batteries.
Hansan Liu is a researcher at the Oak Ridge National Labo-ratory, US Department of Energy. He obtained his Ph.D. in electrochemistry from Xiamen University where he studied cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. After graduation, he worked at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the National Research Council Canada on electrophotocatalysis and fuel cell electrocatalysis, respectively. He is currently working on next generation high-energy density batteries at ORNL. Dr. Liu has 14 years of research experience in the field of electrochemical energy storage and conversion. His research interests mainly include battery and supercapacitor materials, fuel cell electrocatalysts, and synthesis and applications of high surface area materials. He has authored and co-authored over 70 publications, including 3 books, 4 book chapters and 3 patent applications relating to batteries and fuel cells. Dr. Liu is an active member of the Electrochemical Society and the International Society of Electrochemistry.
Currently a Senior Research Officer and PEM Catalysis Core Competency Leader at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation, Jiujun Zhang received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in electrochemistry from Beijing University, China, in 1982 and 1985, respectively, and his Ph.D. in electrochemistry from Wuhan University in 1988. After this, he took up a position as an associate professor at the Huazhong Normal University, and in 1990 carried out three terms of postdoctoral research at the California Institute of Technology, York University, and the University of British Columbia. Dr. Zhang holds several adjunct professorships, including one at the University of Waterloo and one at the University of British Columbia, and is an active member of The Electrochemical Society, the International Society of Electrochemistry, and the American Chemical Society. He has 240 publications and around 20 patents or patent publications to his name. Dr. Zhang has over 28 years of R & D experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry, including over 14 years of R & D in fuel cell, and three years of experience in electrochemical sensor.
List of Contributors
1
Electrochemical Technologies for Energy Storage and Conversion
Neelu Chouhan and Ru-Shi Liu
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, authors review the contemporary demand, challenges and future prospective of energy resources and discuss the relevant socioeconomical and environmental issues with their impact on global energy status. A sincere effort has been made to explore the better energy options of clean and sustainable energy sources such as hydro, biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuel as an alternative to the conventional energy sources. Electrolysis, photoelectrochemical, and photocatalytic water-splitting techniques were adopted for green and light fuel generation. Advancement in electrochemical technology for energy storage and conversion devices such as rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells are also briefed.
1.2 Global Energy Status: Demands, Challenges, and Future Perspectives
World's economy revolves around the axis of energy prices, which are primarily governed by the political consequences, environmental impact, social acceptance, availability, and demand. Nation-wise world's energy consumption plot (1980–2050) is depicted in Figure 1.1, which rated the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and India as potential energy consumers. Energy consumption rate of our planet in 2007 was 16%, which would be accelerated to an alarming rate of 34% by 2050 (Figure 1.2) [1]. Our severe dependency on oil and electricity makes energy a vital component of our daily life [2]. Soaring prices of oil (starting from $42 per barrel in 2008 to $79 per barrel in 2010, to $108 per barrel in 2020 and $133 per barrel in 2035) as projected in Figure 1.3 [3] and other associated necessary commodities along various burning environmental issues resulted from industrial revolution compel us to give a careful thought on this serious issue. Figure 1.4 assesses the geographical region-wise oil reserve that projects the oil assets and capacities of the different regions [4]. The current global energy scenario is full of uncertainty and faces three major energy challenges in the form of energy demand/energy supply ratio and security and their impact on the environment. The present worldwide population of 6.9 billion needs 14 TW annual energy [5] to sustain the current standard of life. Of the total energy production, 45% is required for industries, 30% for transport, 20% for residential and commercial buildings, and the rest for services such as education, health, finance, government, and social services. Electricity is the world's fastest growing form of end-user energy consumption. Coal provides the largest share in the world's electricity generation, accounting for 42% in 2007, and its share will be largely unchanged through 2035. Rest share of the world's electricity generation is contributed by water, natural gas, nuclear power, hydropower, wind, and solar power. Economic trends and population growth drive the commercial sector activities and the resulting energy use. The need for services (health, educational, financial, and governmental) increases as population increases. Slower expansion of gross domestic product (GDP) and declining population growth rate in many organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD membership) nations contribute to slower anticipated rates of increase in commercial energy demand. In addition, continued efficiency improvements moderate the growth of energy demand over time, as energy-using equipment is replaced with newer and more efficient stock. World's projected population would be quadrupled by 2050, the energy use doubled and electricity consumption tripled to our present energy demand. According to Hubbert's bell-shaped curve [6] of the worldwide oil production projection, we have already attained the peak and now observe a downfall and finally, the oil will last for 200 years () [7]. Lord Ron Oxburgh, former chairman of Shell, gave the statement on oil production possibilities and price, “It is pretty clear that there is not much chance of finding any significant quantity of new cheap oil. Any new or unconventional oil is going to be expensive.” Despite the greenhouse gas concentrations approaching twice as those in the preindustrial period, coal and gasoline are still the major energy sources (34.3% oil, 25.9% coal, 20.9% gas, 13.1% renewables (10.4% combustion renewables and waste, 2.2% hydro, and 1.5% other renewables). Furthermore, alternative sustainable energy sources are still in the experimental stage; for example, some recent studies suggest that biofuels may not be as effective in reducing greenhouse gas emissions as previously thought. As a result, many countries have relaxed or postponed renewal of their mandates [8]. For example, Germany reduced its biofuel quota for 2009 from 6.25 to 5.25%. Therefore, governments, industrialists, and researchers have put their heads together on this leading energy issue with their concerns about the environmental challenges and renewed the interest in development of alternatives to fossil fuels, specifically, nuclear power, and renewable energy sources (wind, solar, biofuel, geothermal, tidal, hydro) using breakthrough concepts (catalysis by design, multielectron transfer) and accelerated application of cutting-edge scientific, engineering, and analytical tools. There are three major options of getting clean energy including carbon neutral energy (fossil fuel in conjunction with carbon sequestration), nuclear, and renewable energy. To satisfy the 10 TW no-carbon energy demands [9], a 38% conservation of energy for the next 50 years via combustion of fossil fuel is required, but the challenge of disposing 25 billion metric ton of CO annually needs to be conquered. The need for nuclear-powered energy required the establishment of 365 GW electric nuclear fission plants per year for 50 years. The amount of annual renewable trappable energy from resources is as follows: the most viable and abundantly sourced solar energy with a capacity of 12 000 TW; integrated overall geothermal energy, 12 TW; globally extractable wind power, 2–4 TW; tidal/ocean current, 2 TW; and hydroelectric energy, 0.5 TW. Among all sources, obviously solar energy stands out as a promising choice of renewable energy, and currently, we are exploiting it only for the satisfaction of 0.1% of the demand. Therefore, by reducing energy demand and emissions accompanied with the use of the diversifying energy sources, we should be able to meet our energy target.
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