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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
ELECTRONIC WASTE MANAGEMENT Current knowledge on electronic waste management strategies, along with future challenges and solutions, supported by case studies Electronic Waste Management maps out numerous aspects of health and environmental impacts associated with electronic waste, thoroughly detailing what we can expect in terms of the use of electronic products and the management of electronic waste in the future. The book assists readers in grasping the fundamentals of the entire e-waste system by covering various factors related to the health and environmental impacts of electronic waste, as well as a perspective on the subject based on current global recycling strategies. Presented in a straightforward and scientific manner, the book also covers many electronic waste management process technologies. By inviting together, a diverse group of experts, including researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals who generously shared their knowledge and experiences in the field to tackling this global issue, Electronic Waste Management enables readers to foster a deeper understanding of the complex issues surrounding electronic waste and to explore innovative solutions that can help mitigate its adverse effects on the environment and health of human and animals. Sample topics covered in Electronic Waste Management include: * Global electronic waste management strategies and different global waste models, including their social, ecological, and economical aspects * Economic impacts of e-waste, including cleanup costs and global loss of valuable resources like metals and plastics * Value creation from electronic waste (closing the loop) and future prospects in sustainable development * Negative impacts of e-waste, including environmental pollution and human health risks, such as when harmful chemicals leach into water sources Electronic Waste Management serves as a highly valuable resource for anyone involved in the global e-waste arena, including producers, users, recyclers, policymakers, academics, researchers, and health workers, by increasing knowledge and awareness surrounding health and environmental impacts that electronic waste poses.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Electronic Waste Management
Policies, Processes, Technologies, and Impact
Edited By
Sunil Kumar
Waste Re-Processing DivisionCSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute(CSIR-NEERI), Maharashtra, India
Vineet Kumar
Department of Microbiology, School of Life SciencesCentral University of Rajasthan, Rajasthan, India
This edition first published 2024
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Kumar, Sunil (Environmental engineer), editor. | Kumar, Vineet (Vineet Kumar Rudra), editor. | John Wiley & Sons, publisher.
Title: Electronic waste management : policies, processes, technologies, and impact / edited by Sunil Kumar, Vineet Kumar.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : JW-Wiley, 2024. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023041026 (print) | LCCN 2023041027 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119891512 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119891529 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119891536 (epub) | ISBN 9781119891543 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic waste.
Classification: LCC TD799.85 .E36 2024 (print) | LCC TD799.85 (ebook) | DDC 621.3815028/6--dc23/eng/20231018
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023041026
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023041027
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © gopixa/Shutterstock
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Editors
List of Contributors
1 Electronic Waste Management in Developing Countries—The Sub-Saharan Africa Experience
2 Contextualizing Electronic Waste for Effective Management in Ghanaian Cities: Local Perspectives and Experiences
3 Multiomics Approaches on Extremophiles and Their Application in the Biological Management of E-waste
4 Worldwide E-waste Management Models: Delving into Pros and Cons and the Way Forward
5 Electronic Waste Management Strategy in a Circular/Control Economy
6 A Global Perspective on E-waste: From Cradle to Grave
7 The Impact of Electronic Waste and Its Implications for Soil, Air, and Water
8 The Environmental Fate of E-waste: Its Impact on Environmental Samples (Soil, Water, and Air)
9 Reuse and Recycling of Electronic Waste from a Global Solution Perspective
10 Circular Economy and the Development of Sustainable Products Through the Application of E-waste
11 Recovery of Non-precious Metals from WEEE Using Emerging Leachants
12 Waste Reduction Strategy: E-waste Recycling and Reuse Protocol
13 Effective Utilization of E-waste in Advanced Energy Technology Processes
14 Mechanical Effects of Recycling Plastics from Electronic Waste in Concrete: A Detailed View
15 Recovery of Rare Earth Elements and Critical Metals from Electronic Waste
16 Finite Element Analysis of Mortars with Recycled PC from Electronic Waste
17 Gamma Radiation Effects on Recycled e-PC: Bisphenol A Leaching
18 Hydrometallurgical Processing of Electronic Waste
19 Influence of Recycled e-Polycarbonate on Mortar Composites Mechanical and Thermal Study
20 Generation, Collection, and Recycling Policies of E-waste Across the Asian Region
21 Recent Innovations in Green Recycling Technologies of E-waste Management
22 Electronic Waste Recycling in Maintaining a Circular Economy
23 The E-waste Scenario: Analytical Techniques for Effective Management
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 Electrical and electronic...
Table 2.2 Local people and planning...
CHAPTER 03
Table 3.1 Biodegradation strategies...
CHAPTER 05
Table 5.1 E-waste treatment methods...
CHAPTER 06
Table 6.1 Different categories...
Table 6.2 The scenario of e-waste...
Table 6.3 Impact on human health...
Table 6.4 List of microbes used...
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.1 Health hazards...
Table 7.2 Health effects...
CHAPTER 08
Table 8.1 Occurrences and dosage...
Table 8.2 Detrimental effects...
Table 8.3 E-waste compositions,...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 Main elements recovered...
Table 10.2 Leaching solutions...
Table 10.3 Extreme acidophile...
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Categorization of...
Table 11.2 Average content of...
Table 11.3 Average content of...
Table 11.4 Results compilation...
Table 11.5 Results compilation...
Table 11.6 Summary of research...
Table 11.7 Summary of research...
CHAPTER 13
Table 13.1 List of dismantlers...
Table 13.2 Proximate and ultimate...
Table 13.3 Properties of typical...
Table 13.4 Waste plastic liquefaction...
Table 13.5 Fuel property comparison...
Table 13.6 Energy analysis of a CLR...
CHAPTER 15
Table 15.1 2020 list of...
Table 15.2 Critical materials...
Table 15.3 Various industrial...
Table 15.4 Critical metals...
Table 15.5 Comparison of...
Table 15.6 Bioleaching of...
CHAPTER 16
Table 16.1 Sand and PC...
Table 16.2 Density and...
Table 16.3 Elastic behaviors...
Table 16.4 Elastic behaviors...
CHAPTER 17
Table 17.1 Relative proportion...
Table 17.2 BPA in one cubic...
Table 17.3 Total BPA present...
CHAPTER 18
Table 18.1 Disadvantages and...
Table 18.2 Comparison of advantages...
Table 18.3 Comparison of different...
CHAPTER 19
Table 19.1 Constituents of control...
CHAPTER 20
Table 20.1 Production rate...
Table 20.2 Regulations, recycling...
CHAPTER 21
Table 21.1 Different physical...
Table 21.2 Different green...
Table 21.3 Various microorganisms...
Table 21.4 Initiatives implemented...
CHAPTER 22
Table 22.1 Classification...
Table 22.2 The European list...
Table 22.3 Quantity of electronics...
Table 22.4 Major hazardous...
Table 22.5 E-waste status...
Table 22.6 Some toxic materials...
CHAPTER 23
Table 23.1 Descriptive analysis.
Table 23.2 E-waste categories.
Table 23.3 Impact assessment...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Ten top nations...
Figure 1.2 Guesstimates of...
Figure 1.3 Informal e-waste...
Figure 1.4 Personal protective...
Figure 1.5 Hazard control...
Figure 1.6 Hindrances to...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Some electrical...
Figure 2.2 Ranking of abundance...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Sustainable Business...
Figure 4.2 Sustainable business...
Figure 4.3 Sustainable business...
Figure 4.4 Blockchain-based circular...
Figure 4.5 Sustainable business...
Figure 4.6 Logical flow diagram...
Figure 4.7 Sustainable business...
Figure 4.8 O2O e-waste collection...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 The 10R strategies...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 The outcomes of an...
Figure 6.2 E-waste generation...
Figure 6.3 Average weight composition...
Figure 6.4 Number of countries...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1a Global e-waste...
Figure 7.1b Global battery...
Figure 7.2a Impact of e-waste.
Figure 7.2b Impact of e-waste.
Figure 7.3 Ribosomal DNA...
Figure 7.4 Two distinct...
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 Characteristic...
Figure 8.2 Ways in which...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 General waste...
Figure 9.2 A typical printed...
Figure 9.3 General capacitor.
Figure 9.4 A typical...
Figure 9.5 Typical cathode...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Some examples...
Figure 10.2 Elements found...
Figure 10.3 Summary of typical...
Figure 10.4 Some chemical...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Average composition...
Figure 11.2 Flow chart of...
Figure 11.3 Most used leaching...
Figure 11.4 Overview of the...
Figure 11.5 Mechanism of metal...
Figure 11.6 Eh-pH stability...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Circular economy...
Figure 12.2 Avoided GHG...
Figure 12.3 Procedures...
Figure 12.4 E-waste management...
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.1 Types of thermal...
Figure 13.2 Possible reaction...
Figure 13.3 Stepwise procedure...
Figure 13.4 Conceptual diagram...
Figure 13.5 Stepwise conversion...
Figure 13.6 (a) Thermal degradation...
Figure 13.7 Schematic diagram...
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 Electronic waste...
Figure 14.2 28-days compressive...
Figure 14.3 Compressive strength...
Figure 14.4 Flexural strength of...
Figure 14.5 Splitting tensile...
Figure 14.6 Tensile strength...
Figure 14.7 Concrete with e-plastic...
Figure 14.8 Resistance of concrete...
Figure 14.9 Effect of e-plastic...
Figure 14.10 Slump of concrete...
Figure 14.11 Cobalt-60 decays...
Figure 14.12 Rougher surface...
CHAPTER 15
Figure 15.1 Critical metals and...
Figure 15.2 Pretreatment stage...
Figure 15.3 Metal extraction...
Figure 15.4 Hydrometallurgical...
Figure 15.5 Mechanisms involved ...
CHAPTER 16
Figure 16.1 Materials: (a) sand ...
Figure 16.2 The compressive...
Figure 16.3 Compressive strain...
Figure 16.4 Geometrical...
Figure 16.5 3D prototypes:...
Figure 16.6 Granulometric...
Figure 16.7 Digital image...
Figure 16.8 (a) Compressive...
Figure 16.9 Densities of GA...
Figure 16.10 In both mortars...
Figure 16.11 Variation of...
Figure 16.12 Equivalent...
Figure 16.13 Comparison...
Figure 16.14 Comparison...
CHAPTER 17
Figure 17.1 Digital images...
Figure 17.2 SEM images...
Figure 17.3 EDS spectra...
Figure 17.4 XRD spectra...
Figure 17.5 FTIR spectra...
Figure 17.6 DSC-TGA thermogram...
Figure 17.8 DSC-TGA thermogram...
Figure 17.7 DSC-TGA thermogram...
Figure 17.9 BPA calibration...
Figure 17.10 BPA concentration...
Figure 17.13 HPLC chromatograms...
Figure 17.12 HPLC chromatogram...
Figure 17.11 HPLC chromatogram...
CHAPTER 18
Figure 18.1 The total amount...
Figure 18.2 The recycling...
Figure 18.3 Schematic diagram...
Figure 18.4 A typical precious...
Figure 18.5 Recovery of...
Figure 18.6 Some magnets...
CHAPTER 19
Figure 19.1 (a) F sand. (b)...
Figure 19.2 Granulometric...
Figure 19.3 Compressive...
Figure 19.4 Flexural strengths. (a)...
Figure 19.5 (a) Thermal conductivity...
Figure 19.6 Water absorption...
Figure 19.7 Densities of GA,...
CHAPTER 20
Figure 20.1 Structure of...
Figure 20.2 Major categories...
Figure 20.3 Collection of...
CHAPTER 21
Figure 21.1 Different categories...
Figure 21.2 Materials fraction...
Figure 21.3 Some basic steps...
CHAPTER 22
Figure 22.1 Circular economy...
Figure 22.2 Decision tree for...
Figure 22.3 Top ten global...
Figure 22.4 Diagram demonstrating...
CHAPTER 23
Figure 23.1a Most relevant...
Figure 23.1b Most relevant...
Figure 23.2 Most influential...
Figure 23.3a Most relevant...
Figure 23.3b Annual scientific...
Figure 23.3c Scientific...
Figure 23.4a Disposal...
Figure 23.4b E-waste management...
Figure 23.4c Value chain...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Preface
Electronic waste (e-waste) is a growing problem around the world. Every year, millions of tons of electronic devices are discarded, and much of this waste ends up in landfills. This can have a number of negative impacts, including environmental pollution, health risks, and economic losses. The environmental impacts and health risks of e-waste are significant. When e-waste is dumped in landfills, it can leach harmful chemicals into the soil and water. These chemicals can contaminate drinking water, harm wildlife, and pollute the air. E-waste also contains hazardous materials, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, which can pose a health risk to people who are exposed to them. The economic impacts of e-waste are also significant. When e-waste is not adequately managed, it can cost millions of dollars to clean up. In addition, the loss of valuable resources, such as metals and plastics, can cost the global economy billions of dollars each year. The unprecedented growth in electronic consumption has brought about a significant challenge—the mounting problem of e-waste. Recognizing the urgency to address this global issue, we are pleased to present Electronic Waste Management: Policies, Processes, Technologies, and Impact.
The primary goal of this book is to foster a deeper understanding of the complex issues surrounding electronic waste and to explore innovative solutions that can help mitigate its adverse effects on the environment and health of humans and animals. We have invited together a diverse group of experts, including researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals, who generously shared their knowledge and experiences in the field to tackling this global issue. Their diverse perspectives and in-depth research have made this book a valuable resource for policymakers, researchers, industry professionals, and anyone interested in understanding and tackling the challenges posed by e-waste disposal.
The chapters of this book encompass a wide range of topics, covering both the theoretical foundations and practical applications of electronic waste management. The journey begins with an examination of the environmental consequences resulting from the presence of electronic waste in our ecosystems. Through rigorous scientific analysis and data-driven insights, we explored the toxicological implications, pollution pathways, and ecological disruptions caused by the mishandling and improper disposal of electronic waste.
This book is intended for a wide audience, including policymakers, businesses, and individuals. It is a valuable resource for anyone who wants to learn more about e-waste management and how to reduce the environmental and social impacts of this growing problem.
We hope that this book will help to raise awareness of the e-waste problem and promote the development of its sustainable management practices around the globe.
Sunil KumarVineet Kumar
Acknowledgment
Dr. Vineet Kumar expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. Pradeep Verma, Professor in the Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences at the Central University of Rajasthan, Rajasthan, India, for his kind and moral support and for providing a fantastic facility in his laboratory in the last phase of compilation of the authors manuscript and to complete this task. Dr. Vineet Kumar gratefully acknowledges the Science and Engineering Research Board, Government of India for providing a Postdoctoral fellowship (F. No.: PDF/2022/000038).
Sunil KumarMaharashtra, India
Vineet KumarRajasthan, India
About the Editors
Sunil Kumar is a well-rounded researcher with more than 22 years of experience in leading, supervising, and undertaking research in the broader field of Environmental Engineering and Science with a focus on Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. Dr. Kumar is a graduate in Environmental Engineering and Management from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He completed his Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. His primary area of expertise is solid waste management (Municipal Solid Waste, Electronic waste etc.) over a wide range of environmental topics including contaminated sites, EIA, and wastewater treatment. His contributions in these fields led to a citation of approx. 15300, h-index of 62, and i10-index of 252 (Google scholar). His contributions since inception at CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), India in 2000 include approx. 300 refereed publications, 05 books, and 40 book chapters, 10 edited volumes, and numerous project reports to various governmental bodies and private, local, and international academic/research bodies. He is the Associate Editor of peer-reviewed journals of international repute i.e., Environmental Chemistry Letter, International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste. He also served as Editorial Board Member of Bioresource Technology, Elsevier during 2017-2023. He has completed more than 22 research projects as PI with 15 (11 awarded) Ph.D. and 20 M. Phil/M. Tech thesis/dissertations. Dr. Kumar was awarded the most prestigious award Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung Jean-Paul-Str.12 D-53173 Bonn, Germany as a Senior Researcher for developing a Global Network and Excellence for more advanced research and technology innovation.
Vineet Kumar is presently working as a National Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences at Central University of Rajasthan, Rajasthan, India. He earned his Ph.D. (2018) in Environmental Microbiology from Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University, Lucknow, India. Dr. Kumar’s research work mainly focuses on the development of integrated and sustainable treatment techniques that can help in minimizing or eliminating hazardous waste in the environment. He has published more than 46 articles in reputed international peer-reviewed Journals with citations of more than 2300, and h-index of 28. In addition, he is the author/co-author of 4 Proceeding Articles, 52 Book Chapters, and 4 Scientific Magazine articles. Moreover, he has published 2 authored and 22 edited books on different aspects of Phy-toremediation, Bioremediation, Wastewater Treatment, Waste Management, Omics, Genomics, and Metagenomics from reputed international publishers. Dr. Kumar has been serving as a guest editor and reviewer in many prestigious International Journals. He has served the editorial board of various reputed journals. He has presented several papers relevant to his research areas at national and international conferences. He is an active member of numerous scientific societies including the Microbiology Society (UK), the Indian Science Congress Association (India), the Association of Microbiologists of India (India), etc. He is the founder of the Society for Green Environment, India (website: www.sgeindia.org). He can be reached at [email protected]; [email protected].
List of Contributors
Solórzano AcostaDirección de Supervisión y Monitoreo en las EstacionesExperimentales AgrariasInstituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria (INIA)LimaPeru
Oyetayo Olaoluwa AdefiranyeDepartment of MicrobiologyFaculty of ScienceUniversity of LagosLagosNigeria
Joshua Adeniyi AdeniranCentre for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion (CNT)University of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Ismaila Adejare AdesiyanRenewable Energy and Biomass Research GroupDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Richard AndiFaculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Biotechnology and OmicsLife Sciences Research GroupUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosLimaPerú
Andrea AppolloniFaculty of EconomicsUniversity of Rome, Tor VergataRomeItaly
Michael Osei AsibeyDepartment of Planning, College of Art and Built EnvironmentKwame Nkrumah University of Science and TechnologyKumasiGhana
Olusola Olaitan AyeleruCentre for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion (CNT)University of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Gonzalo Martínez BarreraLaboratorio de Investigación y Desarrollo de Materiales Avanzados (LIDMA)Facultad de QuímicaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoSan CayetanoMéxico
Carlos Eduardo Barrera DíazFacultad de QuímicaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoSan CayetanoMéxico
Ruchi BhartiDepartment of ChemistryUniversity Institute of SciencesChandigarh UniversityMohali, PunjabIndia
Pritha BhattacharjeeDepartment of Environmental ScienceUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, West BengalIndia
Barnali BhuiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiAssamIndia
Ana Laura De la Colina MartinezFacultad de QuímicaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoTolucaMéxico
Liliana Ivette Ávila CórdobaFacultad de IngenieríaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoTolucaMéxico
Hema DiwanNational Institute of Industrial EngineeringPowaiIndia
Laurence DyerDepartment of Mining Engineering and Metallurgical EngineeringWestern Australian School of MinesCurtin UniversityKalgoorlieAustralia
Humberto EstayAdvanced Mining Technology CenterUniversidad de ChileSantiagoChile
Bimbo Lolade FafoworaSchool of Journalism and Media StudiesRhodes UniversityMakhandaSouth Africa
Department of Mechanical EngineeringOduduwa UniversityIpetumodu, Osun StateNigeria
Flavio Augusto de FreitasCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBAManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Universidade Federal do AmazonasPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Química–PPGQManaus, AmazonasBrasil
María Magdalena García FabilaLaboratorio de Análisis InstrumentalFacultad de QuímicaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoTolucaMéxico
Fernando López GayarreDepartamento de Construcción e Ingeniería de FabricaciónUniversidad de OviedoCampus de GijónGijón, AsturiasSpain
Gopikrishnan TDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Institute of Technology PatnaPatna, BiharIndia
David Joaquín Delgado HernándezFacultad de IngenieríaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoTolucaMéxico
Edwin Hualpa-CutipaSchool of Environmental EngineeringUniversidad ContinentalLimaPerú
Christian IhleDepartment of Mining EngineeringUniversidad de ChileSantiagoChile
Advanced Mining Technology CenterUniversidad de ChileSantiagoChile
Karpagaraj ADepartment of Mechanical EngineeringNational Institute of Technology PuducherryKaraikal, PuducherryIndia
Anmol KaurSatish Chandar Dhawan Government CollegeLudhiana, PunjabIndia
Muammer KayaMining Engineering DepartmentEskisehir Osmangazi UniversityEskisehirTurkey
Daniela Landa-AcuñaEnvironmental EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringPrivate University of the NorthLima–Los Olivos CampusPeru
Facultad de Farmacia y BioquímicaDepartamento Académico de Farmacología, Bromatología y ToxicologíaCentro Latinoamericano de Enseñanza e Investigación en Bacteriología Alimentaria (CLEIBA)Research Group Biotechnology and Omics in Life SciencesUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosLimaPerú
Juan MandyNational Institute of Industrial EngineeringPowaiIndia
Janelle Mendoza LeónInstituto Nacional de Salud–Centro Nacional de Control de CalidadLimaPerú
Facultad de Farmacia y BioquímicaUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosLimaPerú
Boris Miguel López RebollarInstituto Interamericano de Tecnología y Ciencias del AguaUniversidad Autónoma del Estado de MéxicoSan CayetanoMéxico
Helen Uchenna ModekweRenewable Energy and Biomass Research GroupDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Daniel Nascimento MottaCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBA/SUFRAMAManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Universidade Federal do AmazonasPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia–PPGBIOTECManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Sayan MukherjeeDepartment of Environmental ScienceUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, West BengalIndia
Aniruddha MukhopadhyayDepartment of Environmental ScienceUniversity of CalcuttaKolkata, West BengalIndia
Md Shah NewazFaculty of EconomicsUniversity of RomeTor VergataRomeItaly
Nitha T.S.National Institute of Industrial EngineeringPowaiIndia
Fernando Ureña NúñezInstituto Nacional de Investigaciones NuclearesLa Marquesa OcoyoacacMéxico
Tarhemba Tobias NyamCentre for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion (CNT)University of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Renewable Energy and Biomass Research GroupDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Olawale Charles OgunnigboSchool of Journalism and Media StudiesRhodes UniversityMakhandaSouth Africa
Peter Apata OlubambiCentre for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion (CNT)University of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Renewable Energy and Biomass Research GroupDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Matthew Adah OnuCentre for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion (CNT)University of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Renewable Energy and Biomass Research GroupDepartment of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of JohannesburgJohannesburgSouth Africa
Annu PandeyDepartment of ChemistryUniversity Institute of SciencesChandigarh UniversityMohali, PunjabIndia
Shekhar Jyoti PathakDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiAssamIndia
Carlos PereaDepartment of Mining EngineeringUniversidad de ChileSantiagoChile
Advanced Mining Technology CenterUniversidad de ChileSantiagoChile
William PinheiroCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBAManaus, AmazonasBrazil
Chemistry Graduate Program–PPGQFederal University of Amazonas–UFAMManaus, AmazonasBrazil
Prabu VairakannuDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology GuwahatiAssamIndia
Vanessa Leal de Queiroz HerminoCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBAManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Universidade Federal do AmazonasPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia–PPGBIOTECManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Ginarajadaça Ferreira dos Santos OliveiraCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBAManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Renu SharmaDepartment of ChemistryUniversity Institute of SciencesChandigarh UniversityMohali, PunjabIndia
Vidya Shetty KDepartment of Chemical EngineeringNational Institute of Technology Karnataka, SurathkalSrinivasnagarSurathkal, MangaloreIndia
Edson Pablo da SilvaCentro de Biotecnologia da Amazônia–CBAManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Instituto de Tecnologia e Educação Galileo da AmazôniaManaus, AmazonasBrasilUniversidade Federal do AmazonasPrograma de Pós-Graduação em Biotecnologia–PPGBIOTECManaus, AmazonasBrasil
Rajwinder SinghDepartment of Civil EngineeringDR BR Ambedkar National Institute of TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia
Shri Krishna SinghDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Institute of Technology PatnaPatna, BiharIndia
Karanvir Singh SohalGeo Media Engineering and Consultancy Services Pvt. Ltd.Bathinda, PunjabIndia
Sedevino SophiaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringNational Institute of Technology Karnataka, SurathkalSrinivasnagarSurathkal, MangaloreIndia
Ajay ThakurDepartment of ChemistryUniversity Institute of SciencesChandigarh UniversityMohali, PunjabIndia
Arti ThankiUniStar Environment & Research Labs Pvt. Ltd.Dahej, GujaratIndia
Angela Manka TitaMining Engineering DepartmentEskisehir Osmangazi UniversityEskisehirTurkey
Monika VermaDepartment of ChemistryUniversity Institute of SciencesChandigarh UniversityMohali, PunjabIndia
Akhilesh Kumar YadavDepartment of Mining EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology Bharti Hindu UniversityVaranasiUttar PradeshIndia
1 Electronic Waste Management in Developing Countries—The Sub-Saharan Africa Experience
Helen Uchenna Modekwe1, Olusola Olaitan Ayeleru2,*, Joshua Adeniyi Adeniran3, Bimbo Lolade Fafowora4, Matthew Adah Onu2, Tarhemba Tobias Nyam2, and Peter Apata Olubambi2
1 Renewable Energy and Biomass Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa2 Centre for Nanoengineering and Advanced Material, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2028, South Africa3 Hydrogen South Africa (HySA) Systems Competence Centre, South African Institute for Advanced Materials Chemistry (SAIAMC), University of the Western Cape, South Africa4 School of Journalism and Media Studies, Rhodes University, South Africa* Corresponding author
1.1 Introduction
The twenty-first century has witnessed a continued increase in the rise of a technology-driven economy. Such is the rise in dominance of the fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0 or 4IR), which is predominantly driven by electrical and electronic gadgets in this era (Ssewanyana and Busler 2007). The increase in demand for the use of electronic equipment during this era of the fourth industrial revolution has led to the proliferation of the market, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Asia, with cheaper electronic gadgets, many of which are of inferior quality and thus have a shorter life span compared to premium quality electronic gadgets (Kumar and Dixit 2018). The use of inferior quality or substandard electronic appliances has led to an increase in electronic waste (e-waste) generation in many parts of the world, particularly in developing nations where the appetite for the consumption of substandard or secondhand electronic appliances is high (Maphosa and Maphosa 2020). Indiscriminate disposal of e-waste is a worrisome trend that needs to be curtailed in SSA. Heacock et al. (2016) reported that ~42 million tons of e-waste were generated worldwide in 2014, and this number will continue to increase if the situation is left unchecked (Heacock et al. 2016). E-waste is the remains of spoiled or scrapped electronic or computer gadgets such as laptops, mobile phones, televisions, electronic tablets, etc. Often, especially in the SSA region and other developing nations of the world, these items are dumped in landfill sites (LSs) as waste with no proper regulation (Asante et al. 2019). E-waste poses environmental and health hazards to the human population if it is not properly checked. For example, mobile phones and computer batteries contain harmful chemicals that are poisonous to people and the environment if they are not properly disposed of. Some of these noxious chemicals include arsenic, lead, and mercury, which are potentially carcinogenic in nature (Tetteh and Lengel 2017).
A proper framework for disposing of e-waste and its enforcement is lacking in many SSA countries (Asante et al. 2019). Only a few countries in SSA have policies on the handling of e-waste. South Africa, Rwanda, and Uganda are reported to be among the nations in SSA to have enacted laws or formulated policies on the handling of e-waste (Baldé et al. 2017). In many parts of the developing world, collection, sorting, and management of e-waste are done in an unorganized and elementary manner that poses a risk to the health of the untrained men and women who work in the e-waste recycling sector (Bakhiyi et al. 2018). Most of these workers handle e-waste without wearing protective personal equipment (PPE). This development puts the region at risk of economical, health, and environmental catastrophes if the situation is not put under control. Another worrisome trend that has been reported in the management of e-waste in SSA is the prevalence of use of minors (young boys and girls) for the collection of e-waste (Huang et al. 2014; Oteng-Ababio 2010). These are children who should be in school but who due to the endemic poverty in the region are forced to engage in the horrible task of e-waste collection and handling in the informal and unregulated terrain to make ends meet (World Health Organization 2021).
Consequently, this study provides an overview of the regulations needed to curb the worrisome trend of the proliferation of substandard electronic appliances in Sub-Saharan African markets, the standards and certification systems for secondhand electrical and electronic devices, policy instruments, and recycling facilities required for proper handling/effective e-waste recycling, and the roles of informal sectors and wastes pickers in e-waste recycling.
1.2 Description of the Study Area
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is one of the most populated regions of the world. It is estimated that the region had a population of ~1.7 billion in 2021 (World Bank Group 2022). Most of the population is reported to be young people, with ~60% being under 30 years of age (United Nations 2022). The population of the youth has been predicted to increase in the SSA region (Garcia and Fares 2008). The relatively high population of SSA and the consequent higher proportion of the youth in the region make the region susceptible to the purchase of electronic equipment, especially with the potential affinity of young people to the use of electronic gadgets.
Poverty is one of the major challenges that are endemic in SSA. In most of the countries in the SSA region, the per capita income is low, thus adding to poverty. With the low financial purchasing power of many people in the SSA, the attraction for low-quality electronic gadgets becomes alluring due to their affordable prices. This development makes the SSA region an environment with the potential for an increase in e-waste generation if proper policies or guidelines are not put in place to ameliorate the menace of e-waste generation. The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) (3) emphasizes the need for the attainment of good health and well-being (Salvo et al. 2021). To attain this goal in the SSA by the year 2030, serious efforts must be made to address the proliferation of substandard new electronic facilities or the moribund used electronic gadgets that have infiltrated the SSA region. The expired and substandard electronic equipment has the capacity to remain in the dumping sites for many years since it is usually non-biodegradable. This, in addition to the challenge of improper sanitation in the majority of countries in the SSA region, particularly in the low income areas/suburbs that coincidentally include the major percentage of the population, can lead to serious health and environmental challenges.
1.3 Global Regulatory Perspectives and Origin of Substandard Products in the Developing Countries
The European Union passed the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive in 2003. The legislation was designed to prevent the generation of electrical and electronic waste and promote recovery through reuse, refurbishing, recycling, etc. in order to reduce the amount of waste generated to a minimum, while improving the environmental performance of economic operators involved in waste treatment (Umesi and Onyia 2008). Again, the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive sets limits on the use of various toxic components and materials used in electronic devices, hence, requiring the need for substitution with environmentally friendly options (Umesi and Onyia 2008). Several studies have reported the illegal trans-border movement of used EEE and e-waste from developed countries to developing countries including the Sub-Saharan African countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, etc., some of which are masked as “donations” mislabeled, smuggled, and undeclared as commercial goods, have been reported (Maphosa and Maphosa 2020; Odeyingbo et al. 2019; Okorhi et al. 2019; Oteng-Ababio et al. 2020). Developing countries (SSA inclusive) have become the receiver of both standard and substandard electrical and electronic goods because of the lack of institutionalized quality assurance mechanisms and weak safety rules and regulations, unlike in the developed countries (Omobowale 2012). Figure 1.1 shows the list of top ten countries globally based on the quantity of e-waste generated in 2016, and Figure 1.2 shows guesstimates of e-waste generated for every grouping in 2016.
Figure 1.1 Ten top nations in the world by the quantity of e-waste generated. Adapted from https://cdn.statcdn.com/Infographic/images/normal/2283.jpeg.
Figure 1.2 Guesstimates of e-waste generated for every class in 2016. Adapted from Lenz et al., 2019.
During the time of standards and labeling in energy-efficient appliances in Europe in the 1970s, European countries started to dispose of their used, outdated, and energy-inefficient electrical/electronic appliances (Agyarko et al. 2020). Waste management companies and individuals in Europe began to ship all discarded energy-inefficient appliances to developing countries including the Sub-Saharan African countries (Agyarko et al. 2020). The SSA market saw a huge influx of used and secondhand electrical and electronics equipment such as air-conditioners, refrigerators, electric irons, washing machines, heaters, microwave ovens, etc. from Europe and other western countries (Agyarko et al. 2020). This market grew and boomed in Ghana until the appliance performance regulation was initiated in mid-2000s, and by June 2013, a ban on the importation of used refrigerators and air-conditioners was imposed (Agyarko et al. 2020; Oteng-Ababio et al. 2020). It is estimated that between 2010 and 2014, about 157 000 tons of new and used/waste EEE were imported into Ghana (Oteng-Ababio et al. 2020). However, the implementation and compliance of this regulatory ban on such importation at the port of entry by the enforcement officials were challenged due to some manipulations and interference from politicians, importers, and influential people in society whose businesses seemed disrupted by the ban (Agyarko et al. 2020). Ghana’s Appliance Labelling and Standards Program (GEALSP) was launched as part of the plan for the control of substandard appliances and the promotion of appliances’ energy efficiency in Ghana. The Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) were also established for refrigerators, air conditioners, and lighting systems (Agyarko et al. 2020). Strict regulations and control for high energy standards on these appliances were due to the influx of used and junk energy-inefficient appliances in addition to some faulty components such as thermostats, compressors, etc., which escalated the appliances’ electricity consumption, and the energy supply and utilization in Ghana were badly affected at that time (Agyarko et al. 2020). Other measures such as the use of the phone app “Certified Appliance App” are being developed to enable customers to verify the energy performance labels of air conditioners and refrigerators before purchasing (Agyarko et al. 2020).
In the Nigerian context, the inflow of substandard electronics and electrical goods started during the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), which was introduced in the mid 1980s by the Nigerian government. The program resulted in the economy dwindling, which affected the purchasing power of Nigerians, with most of the populace living in abject poverty unable to afford the purchase of luxury products (Omobowale 2012). Then, came the onset of several counterfeit and substandard goods popularly referred to as “Taiwan” imported from Asian countries (Omobowale 2012). The Taiwan are new substandard electronics gadgets that replicate the popular electronic brands but are, however, poor in quality and break down after a very short time (Omobowale 2012). Shortly after, the Nigerian electronics market was infiltrated with yet another substandard product from China named and referred to as “Chinco”. According to Omobowale (2012), these substandard products are imported by “Nigerian importers who specify very low standards to be produced for them by the Chinese manufacturers to make the products more affordable to potential buyers and as well make a substantial profit.” Hence, the Chinco replaced the Taiwan substandard products (Omobowale 2012). Taiwan and Chinco substandard gadgets continued in the Nigerian market until the 1990s, when the secondhand gadgets called “Tokunbo” slowly started flooding into the market from the developed countries of Europe, the United States, Japan, etc. (Omobowale 2012). Consumers prefer secondhand electronic gadgets mostly because of their affordability and durability compared to substandard new products. Thus, the increased demand and consumption of used Tokunbo electronic gadgets has made Nigeria a destination of used and secondhand products, which eventually translates into e-waste because the products are nearly at the end of their life cycle (Omobowale 2012). In 1989, Nigeria became a signatory to the Basel Convention on controlling trans-boundary movement and disposal of hazardous waste. The Basel Convention agreement was adopted in March 1989 and was enforced in May 1992 (Umesi and Onyia 2008). It was aimed at taking all necessary practical steps in regulating the movement of hazardous waste including EEE waste between countries in such a way that human health and the environment are protected against the adverse effects of such waste (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008b; Umesi and Onyia 2008).
The Nigerian government, like other Sub-Saharan African nations, failed to properly enforce or implement the regulatory provision of the Basel Convention and the Basel Action Network (BAN), which stipulates adequate testing and labeling of imported used electronic gadgets to certify their functionality and quality to ensure that they do not result in hazardous waste or constitute a nuisance to the environment (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008b). Also, in Nigeria, like most SSA nations, there is no specific legislation dealing with e-waste, and no integrated framework as regards the monitoring and management of hazardous and toxic waste as well as checking the illicit trade in secondhand electronic gadgets, and there is lax enforcement of the existing laws dealing with general waste management (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008b). Several regulations and standards have been published, which include the Federal Environment Protection Agency Act No. 58 of 1988 as amended by Act 59 of 1992 and further amended by Act 14 of 1999 (Umesi and Onyia 2008). Under this act, the Federal Ministry of Environment was established and entrusted with the responsibility of protecting the environment. The grassroots approach to the management, monitoring, and pollution control was initiated by states through the Environmental Protection Agencies (EPAs) (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008b). Regulations under the National Environmental Protection strategies are as follows:
The provisions of Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Wastes Regulation S.1.9 of 1999 enforce restrictions on the release of toxic substances and specify rules and guidelines for pollution monitoring.
The Waste Management Regulations S.1.15 of 1991 stipulates rules and guidelines for the collection, treatment, and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes, providing a broad list of chemical wastes and chemicals categorized according to their toxicity (Umesi and Onyia 2008).
Other regulations to control/limit the introduction of substandard electrical and electronic appliances and components into Nigeria were the Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions) Act Cap HI LFN of 2004, the National Environmental (Sanitation and Waste Control) Regulations S.1. 28 of 2009, and the National Environmental (Electrical/Electronics Sector) Regulations S.1. No. 23 of 2011 (Basel Convention) (Okorhi et al. 2019). It should be noted that the Harmful Waste Act in Nigeria described the banning of materials based on their effects rather than on their composition (Sthiannopkao and Wong 2013). One of the problems in regulating substandard EEE or issues associated with e-waste management in Nigeria is lax enforcement by regulatory agencies such as the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON), Nigeria Customs Services (NCS), National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA), etc. (Nnorom and Odeyingbo 2020).
According to Maphosa and Maphosa (2020), e-waste policies in South Africa rely mainly on various legislation covering hazardous waste management, hence no specific policies/regulations on e-waste have been legislated (Maphosa and Maphosa 2020). Generally, the implementation of laws and regulations on e-waste in SSA is very challenging, and it arises from inter-regional trade negligence, and corrupt agency officials and market inspectors that allow the black market, smuggling, and substandard products and components to persist in the SSA market (Oteng-Ababio et al. 2020).
1.4 Standards and Certification System for Secondhand Electrical and Electronic Devices
Trade in secondhand devices has enhanced resource recovery; however, it has also made effective disposal of electrical and electronic devices more complex due to their short life expectancy (Lee and Lee 2013). In most countries’ export regulations, secondhand electrical and electronic devices are exported with no secondhand mark (code), and on several occasions they are treated as e-scrap (Nnorom and Osibanjo 2008a). On the other hand, imported secondhand/used electrical and electronic goods usually undergo quality approval procedures in importing countries, where they are handled the same way as imported new devices (Lee and Lee 2013). Therefore, data on exportation and importation declarations are unreliable since the term “used” is frequently omitted on exportation and importation affirmations, and waste is recurrently declared as used goods (Lee and Lee 2013). This makes it impossible to regulate the tracking of secondhand goods and collection of the needed data to manage the inflow of exported and imported devices for quality assurance or a sound recycling system (Lee and Lee 2013). Each country has its own standard regulatory requirements for electrical and electronic devices that are expected to be met before the importation of the product into the country. These local laws and product regulations are put in place to ascertain that imported goods are harmless and sound, of good quality, and suitable for the intended needs of the consumers (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2016).
1.5 Policy Instruments and Recycling Facilities for Proper Handling/Effective E-waste Recycling
In today’s world, the dynamics in electronic products are catalysts for social and economic development (Murthy and Ramakrishna 2022; Zlamparet et al. 2017). This has led to the enormous number of out-of-date products culminating in e-waste globally, and if not properly managed, it will constitute a large environmental and health hazard in the future. The problem of e-waste is of special concern in developing nations, especially in Asia and Africa, since a large quantity of these products are exported as secondhand goods into these continents (Abalansa et al. 2021; Dhingra and Maheshwari 2018; Sovacool 2019). Most of the nations in Asia and Africa often do not have the policies, legal frameworks, rules, expertise, and infrastructure required to safely managed e-waste in an environmentally friendly and healthy way (Abalansa et al. 2021; Maphosa and Maphosa 2020). Also, there is usually a lack of understanding of the adverse effects of inadequate e-waste management, hence the continuous proliferation of e-waste in the regions. So, it is crucial for every country to create legal, regulatory, and policy frameworks that will enable the environmentally responsible handling of e-waste. These frameworks should cover both the design and organization of the e-waste management system and its implementation in accordance with strict minimum standards (International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 2018).
1.5.1 Policies on E-waste for Proper Management
The increase in technological evolution and demand for electronic devices has brought about the drastic generation of e-waste (Borthakur 2020). The management of e-waste is crucial to the environment and to public health. The policy of recycling, reusing, and reducing consumption has been postulated by a group of researchers (Alblooshi et al. 2022). Feng et al. (2019), in their studies, suggested that remanufacturing policy incorporated with subsidy policy and carbon tax policy play a very important regulatory role in accelerating the recycling industry and carbon emission control (Feng et al. 2019). The use of subsidy instruments to provide incentives and motivation is adopted by the government to encourage producers to remanufacture goods. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is another approach to promoting the reduce, reuse, and recycle model in e-waste management (Bimir 2020). With this strategy, producers become involved in the provision of solutions to the environmental and health impacts of e-waste. EPR places the responsibility on both producers and consumers for pollution caused by their activities rather than the local or national government being responsible for the costs of disposal (Bimir 2020; OECD 2019). The e-waste and End-of-Life Vehicle directives from Europe provide a way for original equipment manufacturers to manage the end-of-life of their products by identifying practical ways to lessen waste and environmental problems brought about by the products (implementation of the take-back recovery system) (Zlamparet et al. 2017). This approach enhances the use of remanufacturing, which enables firms and industries to grow their economies and create new jobs.
Currently, policies and regulations on e-waste are being developed across the globe by different countries; about 78 nations have put policies, laws, or regulations in place to deal with the problem of e-waste (Forti et al. 2020; Maes and Preston-Whyte 2022). The Bamako Convention in Africa, international labor standards, international laws, and conventions (the Basel Convention and the Rotterdam Convention) and national laws that promote the stop of exportation of electronic materials of environmental concerns to developing nations are some of steps being taken to address the issues associated with e-waste management (Abalansa et al. 2021). Indeed, different nations have policies, rules, and regulations that cover actions to control the spread of e-waste at the national, regional, and international levels. Nevertheless, the problem still exists because of inadequate implementation and enforcement, coupled with legal loopholes. Despite the 1991 Bamako Convention, a regional treaty in the African continent that prohibited the importation of dangerous wastes into Africa and regulated the trans-boundary movement of this waste within Africa (Daum et al. 2017; Maes and Preston-Whyte 2022), the problem of importation of secondhand goods is still prevalent within the African region (Sovacool 2019). In Latin America, the Agreement on Environmental Cooperation of North America and the Mercosur Policy Agreement of 2006 to control the management of e-waste are still in force (Forti et al. 2020). India has also introduced specific policies and guidelines to deal with e-waste. For example, the Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of E-Waste were approved by the Ministry of Environment and Forest in 2008 (Borthakur 2020). Narrowing down the legislative framework on e-waste in Africa, there is a lack of commitment to formulating guidelines and policies for e-waste management. The continent ratified the Basel Convention, which most of the countries in the region are yet to formally pass into law (Baldé et al. 2017). South Africa, Rwanda, and Uganda have been reported as the only countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that have taken some measures in enacting policies and laws toward the management of e-waste (Maphosa and Maphosa 2020). According to Bimir (2020), there are various laws and regulations on environmental standards that existed in most African countries before the advent of e-waste (Bimir 2020); however, these standards are not up to date. Hence, there is a need for a comprehensive review of some of the environmental laws to adequately incorporate e-waste management and its enforcement structure.
1.5.2 Recycling Facilities and Proper Handling
Recycling and reusing e-waste are integral parts of e-waste management that encompass economic, environmental, and health benefits (Shahabuddin et al. 2023). Recycling e-waste could be done in a formal or an informal setting. Formal e-waste recycling involves the dismantling of the devices, extricating and classifying the materials for mechanical shredding, which are sorted with advanced separation machinery (Cho 2018). It is expedient for companies to follow health and safety guidelines and apply contamination control tools that minimize the health and environmental exposures of e-waste. In the informal approach, e-waste materials are collected, assembled, and literally burned to melt away non-valuable materials and manually disassemble the items by hand to extract valuable materials (Cho 2018; Maes and Preston-Whyte 2022). This practice is highly hazardous, as in most cases the workers do not make use of protective equipment and lack awareness of the danger of their practices (Annamalai 2015). Figure 1.3 depicts informal e-waste handling in Guiyu in China. Informal e-waste recycling is serving as a source of income for some impoverished urban people and the sector is contributing ~25% of e-waste recycling in South Africa with ~9000 workers (Maes and Preston-Whyte 2022). In Ghana, e-waste activities generated an average of US$187 million, creating employment of ~200 000 persons in the country in 2014 (Oteng-Ababio and Amankwaa 2014). Despite the financial benefits among the poor, the basic processing by the informal sectors creates elevated environmental and health consequences (Maes and Preston-Whyte 2022; Maphosa and Maphosa 2020; Yang et al. 2018).
Figure 1.3 Informal e-waste handling in Guiyu in China. (Photo credit: Basel actionnetwork. This work is shared under a Creative Commons Attribution–Non-Commercial–No Derivative Works License, and copyright has been granted by the authors).(Source: baselactionnetwork / Flickr / CC BY-ND 2.0.)
1.6 Roles of Informal Sectors and Wastes Pickers in E-waste Recycling
Informal waste pickers play a principal role at the initial stages of e-waste management as the wastes generated from homes and businesses are be collected and sorted by them (Shahabuddin et al. 2023). The collection of e-waste could be done by formal public or private and informal waste pickers. The informal collectors play an important role in providing a pick-up service and collecting e-waste that could remain stored or be improperly disposed of (International Labour Organization 2014). According to the International Labour Organization, informal sector waste workers are individual or small groups of enterprises that intervene in waste management without being registered and without being formally levied for such services. Gupta (2012) stated that without the involvement of the informal sector (waste pickers, scrap collectors, traders, and recyclers), the waste management systems of many developing nations would be difficult to achieve (Gupta 2012). In the formal sector in developed countries, government-funded agencies are responsible for most waste collection and treatment. With the lack of resources in many developing nations, the formal sector cannot keep pace with rapid waste production, and this has made the activities of the informal waste pickers and scavengers thrive (Yang et al. 2018). The informal waste pickers move around the streets, open spaces, and even go to dumpsites to salvage recyclable and reusable materials from the mixed waste stream and itemize them for the next operational stage (Samson et al. 2020). Even though the informal sector tends not to be recognized officially in the waste management stream, the members provide substantial contributions to the waste management services of municipalities by collecting, organizing, processing, and trading waste materials in the recycling processes (Gupta 2012). A study in the Republic of South Africa has recently proposed integration guidelines for the incorporation of informal waste pickers into the mainstream of waste management as they are key actors in the extraction of recyclables from the waste stream (Barnes et al. 2022; Samson et al. 2020). The roles of informal players in waste management can never be underestimated in developing nations, hence, adequate support and encouragement from government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and voluntary donors are to be provided to enhance their health and safety as they currently serve as the backbone of the system that diverts recyclables away from landfills to recyclers in most developing nations. In general, policies that will encourage the informal sectors’ integration should be put in place, which will lead to a rise in the rate of material recovery (Gupta 2012). Yang et al. (2018) stated that the effective integration of the formal and informal sectors could enhance recycling, livelihoods, and occupational and environmental health, in addition to reduction in the cost of waste management (Yang et al. 2018).
1.7 Legislation to Separate Residential Areas from Electronic Markets
A great amount of e-waste has been produced recently, and the unregulated disposal and recycling are particularly hazardous to the environment (Ghosh et al. 2022). Due to the threat of pollution, it is expedient to provide a clear separation of residential areas from electronic markets to avoid exposure of people to pollutants. This required urban planning and implementation so that residential areas can be demarcated from both the electronic market and e-waste dumpsites. People living around e-waste recycling facilities are susceptible to health and safety threats, such as radiation exposure and inhalation of harmful compounds (Maphosa and Maphosa 2020). The dismantled e-waste materials that may require disposal often contain traces of harmful substances, which could pollute the underground water, thereby endangering the life of people sourcing water from shallow aquifers (Kowsar et al. 2010). A healthy environment is the right of everyone and, as such, governments of nations of the world need to put modalities in place that guarantee the safety of residents in the provision of social amenities including citing the electronic market. There is a need for an institutional framework to oversee and assess the human and administrative capacity of enforcing the compliance of developmental planning (Amin et al. 2021). Nigeria like most other countries in SSA lacks legislation on electronic facilities versus residential areas. This has brought a high level of exposure of residents in Nigeria to e-waste contamination. Therefore, the federal government of Nigeria (FGN) needs to legislate the separation of electronics markets from residential areas to prevent continuous exposure to e-waste pollution (Shamim et al. 2015). There is a growing need for governments of countries in SSA to design national legislation and strategy for electronics stewardship that will drastically reduce the exposure to e-waste hazards (Fischer et al. 2020; Lebbie et al. 2021; Mutsau et al. 2015). The environmental and health concerns emanating from e-waste require initiatives toward responsible e-waste management (Borthakur 2020; Madanhire et al. 2020). For instance, the South African Constitution establishes fundamental environmental rights, such as the right to a healthy environment, fair administrative actions, and information access. This serves as the foundation for the nation’s environmental and waste management laws (Lawhon 2013; Nel 2016).
1.8 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for Workers in the Electronic Markets
Personal protective equipment (PPE) shields those who wear it in opposition to any form of hazard at the workplace (National Audit Office 2020). PPE (Figure 1.4) consists of aprons, gloves, face masks, goggles, faceshields, etc. (World Health Organization [WHO] 2020). Since e-waste management and recycling in the developing nations is predominantly run by the informal sectors, it is the responsibility of the government and nongovernmental organizations to train workers at the e-waste recycling sites on when PPE is required, what PPE is required, how long to use PPE, the drawbacks of PPE, and the preservation of PPE (Occupational Safety and Health Administration 2004). Due to its limitations, PPE is the minimum efficient approach to control risk in the workplace. Although it offers a way to shield workers from being exposed to possible dangers, since it is left up to the workers to choose which PPE to wear, when to wear it, and how to take care of it, the possibility of being exposed to risk becomes very high (UW Environmental Health & Safety Department 2022). Therefore, to reduce risks at the e-waste recycling facility, the choice of the safest action becomes very crucial, and this is via engineering or administrative control. The selection of each control is done via a “hierarchy of controls” (Figure 1.5) that ranks controls based on their effectiveness (UW Environmental Health & Safety Department 2022).
Figure 1.4
