Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Serie: ISTE Invoiced
- Sprache: Englisch
Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics provides an in-depth understanding of the materials, design choices and applications needed for the mitigation of micro- and nano-plastic pollutants from environmental wastewater. This is a topic that continually attracts attention worldwide.
This is an important book for academic institutes and libraries, scientific organizations, and global research industries, and has been created for a wide audience. The book provides the scope of material design, synthesis, detailed mechanisms, spectroscopic analysis, and problem-solving strategies in environmental remediation.
The scope of the book on reactive, functional materials and applications extends far beyond the emerging technologies that possess valuable insights of the synthesis, processing and physiochemical characteristics and their functional properties for academics, postgraduates, research scholars, scientists, technologists, environmental chemists and industrialists. This book presents fifteen chapters, which explore new ideas in processing, designing, synthesis, selection, application, photocatalytic efficiency and economic justifications of emerging materials.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Micro- and Nano-Plastic Pollution: Present Status on Environmental Issues and Photocatalytic Degradation
1.1. Introduction
1.2. MPs and NPs: Sources, impact and health hazards
1.3. Nano-plastics
1.4. Impact of Covid-19 on plastic pollution
1.5. Methods for plastic degradation
1.6. Conclusion
1.7. Future directions for plastic pollution control
1.8. References
2 Metal Oxide-based Smart Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Metal oxide photocatalysts and their characteristics
2.3. Conclusion and future prospectives
2.4. Acknowledgments
2.5. References
3 WO
3
-based Smart Material for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic
3.1. Overview of micro- and nano-plastics
3.2. Photocatalytic degradation mechanism
3.3. Tungsten trioxide (WO
3
)
3.4. Applications and future scope
3.5. References
4 The Chemistry of Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Micro- and nano-plastic
4.3. Carbon nanotube materials
4.4. Coating of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials
4.5. Functionalized carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation materials
4.6. Hetero atom doping of carbon nanotube as photocatalytic degradation material
4.7. Conclusion
4.8. References
5 Environmental Justifications of MXene towards Photocatalytic Capture and Conversion of Micro- and Nano-Plastic
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Nanomaterial catalyzed methods for the degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
5.3. Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
5.4. MXene: a nanomaterial with diverse applications
5.5. Important properties of MXenes
5.6. Application of MXene as photocatalyst
5.7. Application of MXene-based materials for the degradation of organic pollutants
5.8. MXene as photocatalyst for degradation of MPs and NPs
5.9. Conclusion
5.10. References
6 Metal–Organic Framework based on Functional Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Historical background and discovery of metal–organic frameworks
6.3. Bonding in metal–organic frameworks
6.4. Dimensionality of metal–organic frameworks
6.5. Methods for the synthesis of metal–organic frameworks
6.6. Properties of metal–organic frameworks
6.7. Micro- and nano-plastics
6.8. Factors influencing photocatalytic degradation efficiency
6.9. Role of micromotors in photocatalytic degradation of MPs/NPs
6.10. Photocatalytic water purification: removal of micro- and nanoplastics from water
6.11. References
7 Carbon-based Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-plastics
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Classification of carbon-based nanomaterials
7.3. An overview of photocatalysts’ breakdown of MPs and NPs
7.4. Carbonaceous nanomaterials
7.4. Conclusion
7.5. References
8 Graphene-based Materials for Photodegradation of Microand Nano-Plastics
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Graphene-based materials
8.3. Structure and characteristics of graphene-based materials
8.4. Photodegradation and graphene-based materials
8.5. Application of GMBs in removal/degradation/remediation of different pollutants
8.6. Photodegradation of micro- and nano-plastics by graphene-based materials
8.7. Challenges and future perspectives
8.8. Environmental fate of graphene-based materials
8.9. Conclusion
8.10. References
9 2D Nanomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
9.1. Introduction
9.2. 2D materials
9.3. Synthesis of 2D materials
9.4. Properties and applications of 2D materials
9.5. Application of 2D materials in photocatalytic degradation
9.6. Micro- and nano-plastics
9.7. Micro- and nano-plastics identification
9.8. Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic
9.9. Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastic through 2D materials
9.10. Summary and conclusion
9.11. Acknowledgments
9.12. References
10 Hybrid 2D-Smart Materials in Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
10.1. Introduction
10.2. 2D materials: properties and functionalities
10.3. Hybrid 2D-smart materials: design and synthesis
10.4. Mechanisms of photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
10.5. Degradation of micro-plastics in marine environments
10.6. Challenges, limitations and future scopes
10.7. Conclusions
10.8. References
11 Design and Structural Modification of Advanced Biomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Smart biomaterials: overview and selection criteria
11.3. Design principles for enhanced photocatalysis
11.4. Structural modifications for improved efficiency
11.5. Case studies and applications
11.6. Challenges and future perspectives
11.7. Conclusion
11.8. References
12 Nanocomposites: Sustainable Resources for Photodegradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
12.3. Nanocomposites in environmental remediation
12.4. Synthesis of nanocomposites
12.5. Photodegradation mechanisms
12.6. Nanocomposites for micro- and nano-plastic degradation
12.7. Photodegradation efficiency
12.8. Applications and case studies
12.9. Challenges and considerations/future directions
12.10. Conclusion
12.11. Acknowledgments
12.12. References
13 Fabrication of Plant/Biogenic-based Metallic Nanomaterials for Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Environment and micro- and nano-plastics
13.3. Role of nanomaterials in micro- and nano-plastics
13.4. Plant/biogenic metallic nanomaterials
13.5. Degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
13.6. Conclusion and future prospectives
13.7. References
14 Efficiency of Hybrid Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Behavior of micro- and nano-plastics
14.3. Objective of the chapter
14.4. Global plastic production
14.5. Photocatalytic degradation
14.6. Hybrid smart materials for degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
14.7. Conclusions and suggestions for the future
14.8. References
15 Surface Modifications of BiVO
4
Semiconductor Materials for Photocatalytic Degradation of Micro- and Nano-Plastic
15.1. Introduction to micro- and nano-plastic pollution
15.2. Semiconductor photocatalysis in environmental remediation: fundamentals and principles
15.3. Role of BiVO
4
in photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
15.4. Surface modifications of BiVO
4
for enhanced catalytic activity
15.5. Applications and challenges in real-world scenarios
15.6. Conclusion
15.7. References
List of Authors
Index
Other titles from in Materials Science
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Fewer nano- and micro-plastics products present in the environment ...
Table 3.2. Classification of plastic debris as per GESAMP 2015 (Van Cauwenberg...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1. Examples and properties of some of the most commonly used polymers ...
Table 5.2. Different methods for the degradation of plastics (Zheng et al. 202...
Table 5.3. Photocatalytic reaction under two different environments (Li et al....
Table 5.4. Examples of photocatalysts their application in degradation of diff...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1. Example of some synthesized MOFs with the reaction condition
Chapter 7
Table 7.1. Nanomaterials for the breakdown of micro- and nano-plastics
Chapter 8
Table 8.1. Different graphene materials nanocomposites, examples and applicati...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1. Some properties of 2D nanomaterials and their application in differ...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1. Different examples of micro-plastics: biodegradable and nonbiodegr...
Table 13.2. Nano-plastics, their source and particle sizes
Chapter 14
Table 14.1. List of recent hybrid materials reported for photocatalytic degrad...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. Nanomaterials as advanced photocatalysts for plastic conversion.
Figure 1.2. Total annual research report on micro-plastics and nano-plastics (...
Figure 1.3. Fragmentation of plastic waste into micro-plastics and nano-plasti...
Figure 1.4. Classification of plastic particles based on particle dimensions (...
Figure 1.5. Covid-19 materials as a source of micro-plastics in water environm...
Figure 1.6. Photocatalytic breakdown of primary nano-plastics using different ...
Figure 1.7. Schematic illustration of general photocatalytic mechanism of TiO2...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Impact of micro- and nano-plastics on the ecosystem (Ghosh et al. ...
Figure 2.2. Role of metal oxide nanoparticles in various fields for remediatio...
Figure 2.3. Steps of degradation of microplastics at the surface via photocata...
Figure 2.4. (A) Degradation efficiency of micro Pac-Man particles using UV-Spe...
Figure 2.5. Photodegradation mechanism of Polysterene (PS) using TiO2-PANI com...
Figure 2.6. (a) PE weight loss (%) of ZnO-PVP/PE using different capturing age...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. Human exposure to nano- and micro-plastics produced during the Cov...
Figure 3.2. Size classification of plastic particles concerning type of waste.
Figure 3.3. Various structural configurations of semiconductor heterojunctions...
Figure 3.4. The pathway of reactions and production of ROS triggered by the Ti...
Figure 3.5. Various applications of WO
3
-based smart materials.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Degradation of micro-plastic by different ways.
Figure 4.2. Degradation of plastic into micro- and nano-plastic.
Figure 4.3. Doping of TiO
2
on the surface of carbon nanotube.
Figure 4.4. Adsorption of different functional groups on the surface of CNT.
Figure 4.5. FTIR spectra of MWCNTs_ZnO.
Figure 4.6. Noncovalent endohedral and exohedral functionalization of CNT.
Figure 4.7. Doping of heteroatoms.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. Nanomaterials-based catalyst for the degradation of MPs and NPs (D...
Figure 5.2. Various steps involved in the photolytic degradation of MP into ot...
Figure 5.3. Synthesis of MXene involving etching and exfoliation of MAX phases...
Figure 5.4. Schematic diagram for the development of synthetic methods from 20...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1. Structural representation of metal–organic framework
Figure 6.2. MOFs with various dimensionalities: M: metal ions; S: spacer; and ...
Figure 6.3. Mechanism of photodegradation using ZnO−Pt photocatalyst (Tofa et ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1. CBN categorization based on the geometric shape and structure of t...
Figure 7.2. Methods that can be easily implemented to produce CBNs.
Figure 7.3. Evaluation of the catalytic performances of Mn@NCNTs. (A) MPs remo...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1. Classifications of plastic particles by their size measurements.
Figure 8.2. Status of plastic recycling in India with other countries (data fr...
Figure 8.3. Number of research papers published on graphene-based materials ov...
Figure 8.4. Synthesis of graphene.
Figure 8.5. Structure of graphene, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene ox...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1. Classification of 2D materials
Figure 9.2. Structure of graphene and graphene-like materials (GO, h-BN and g-...
Figure 9.3. (a) Top and (b) side views of monolayer TMDs.
Figure 9.4. (a) Top and (b) side views of 2D few-layer phosphorene.
Figure 9.5. Different synthesis approaches for 2D materials (Shanmugam et al. ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1. The generation and chemical potential of highly reactive species ...
Figure 10.2. FTIR spectra of before and after photocatalytic degradation (repr...
Figure 10.3. Degradation of micro-plastics using TiO2/ZnO photocatalyst. The e...
Figure 10.4. Weight reduction of polyester fibers under simulated light exposu...
Figure 10.5. Schematic representation of the hybridization of functional molec...
Figure 10.6. Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation of micro-plastics (Safarp...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1. Advantages of photocatalytic degradation
Figure 11.2. Surface functionalization for targeted activity
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1. Schematic representation of Mechanism of photocatalytic reaction ...
Figure 12.2. Flow chart representation of some binary and ternary semiconducto...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1. Publications on micro- and nano-plastics affecting different envi...
Figure 13.2. Mechanism of degradation of pollutants by photocatalysis.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1. Old and novel strategies for degradation of plastic waste.
Figure 14.2. Estimation of global plastics production
Figure 14.3. Mechanism of photocatalysis.
Figure 14.4. Mechanical properties of BF/CNF fibrous preforms. (a) Representat...
Figure 14.5. Degradation of different micro-plastics by TiO2/ZnO photocatalyst...
Figure 14.6. Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of the nanoflower hybr...
Figure 14.7. (a) type II photocatalytic mechanism for NH2-MIL-88B(Fe)/MoS2 nan...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1. Systematic demonstration of photocatalytic degradation of plastic...
Figure 15.2. Factors affecting the process of photocatalytic efficiency for th...
Figure 15.3. Some of the most commonly used methods for surface modifications ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
List of Authors
Index
Other titles from in Materials Science
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Series EditorGilles Pijaudier-Cabot
Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics
Recent Developments and Future Prospects
Edited by
Laxman Singh
Sunil Kumar
First published 2025 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd 27-37 St George’s Road London SW19 4EU UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 111 River Street Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2025 The rights of Laxman Singh and Sunil Kumar to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024950207
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-83669-009-2
Foreword
Functional materials are the building blocks for empowering today’s modern applied sciences, engineering and technologies. Functional materials are classified in different categories: inorganic, carbonaceous, organic and composite materials/ nanomaterials. Their unique contribution is from the size-dependent variation in optical, electronic, electrical and chemical properties. These materials play a vital role, are superior to bulk materials and cater to the needs of environmental remediation, solar energy industry, hydrogen evolution, photocatalytic conversion, green energy and many others, covering almost the entire range of significant global crises.
This book, entitled Emerging Materials for Photodegradation and Environmental Remediation of Micro- and Nano-Plastics: Recent Developments and Future Prospects (published by ISTE Ltd, London and John Wiley & Sons, New York), edited by Laxman Singh and Sunil Kumar, strives to address the current aspects of functional materials and their applications and to provide comprehensive literature on ongoing research, write-up and review to express the current scenario in the synthesis approaches, which constitute up-to-date reports and findings of their fabrication and applications of various reactive materials, that is, metal oxides, MXenes, metal nanoparticles, green materials, carbon nanotube and composite materials produced using different synthetic approaches of either physical or chemical routes. The academic and research credentials of the experts known in the diverse field of nanostructured materials for energy, biomedical and environmental applications have been employed in preparing, compiling and editing the chapters of this book. It has the potential to serve the community interested in materials engineering and the advancement of nanomaterials toward applications in modern technologies.
I wish the publisher, editors and contributors great success and the book readers, policymakers and other stakeholders will find this book valuable for further research in the materials synthesis, processing, designing and its systematic study in energy and environment for the mitigation of micro- and nano-plastic pollution.
Youngil LEE
University of Ulsan
South Korea
Preface
The purpose of this book is to provide comprehensive knowledge of ongoing research, write-up and review with respect to the current scenario in a wide range of materials design, diversity and environmental application to establish a better quality ecosystem. The plastic industry is one of the fastest developing industries worldwide. The large amount of plastic material waste in nature undergoes degradation into smaller pieces, which ultimately becomes micro-plastics (MPs) and nano-plastics (NPs). MPs are distinctively light, unbreakable and have the capacity to float and are able to travel far throughout the globe. On the other hand, there is very little research into the amounts, kinds and toxic effects of NPs and their impacts on human health.
Current studies on the size distribution properties of the plastic remains have suggested that the probability of continuous breakdown of MPs into nanosized particles is very high. Most of these plastic particles reach the environment via effluent discharge from wastewater treatment plants, owing to the lack of processes for its removal. Once released into the environment, plastic materials are susceptible to structural and chemical degradation from their exposure to biotic and abiotic factors such as friction and UV light. It has been found that MPs and NPs are becoming a global threat due to their intrinsic physicochemical characteristics and the potential effect on ecosystems (including humans). Literature says that MPs and NPs are mostly present in soil and, due to natural erosion, these particles get into water resources, which are mainly rivers and oceans. Photodegradation does not require additional chemicals and does not generate significant by-products or waste.
Photocatalysis occurs when a semiconductor material is irradiated with solar energy to promote the electron’s (e−) migration from the valence band to the conduction band, forming a hole (h+) in the latter. These photogenerated species react with the H2O and O2 adsorbed on the semiconductor’s surface, giving rise to the formation of reactive hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. Here, the photodegradation/ degradation of the NPs and MPs will help to clean the environment and are also useful in decreasing the CO2 emission and environmental pollution. For this purpose, functional materials/nanomaterials can remarkably change their catalytic, adsorption, electrical, thermal, optical and magnetic properties under the influence of parameters, that is, biochemical, pH, humidity content, atmospheric pressure, temperature, stress, electromagnetic waves, electrical or magnetic field, light and moisture. Functional materials also have a wide range of applications in medicine, industry, energy and engineering sectors, and the rise in demand for these materials facilitates the belief that there is a great scope for advance materials in the future. The effectiveness of functional materials and their magnificent properties such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, more reactive sites, which often results in higher reactivity, makes them particularly suitable for photodegradations, adsorptions and catalytic processes. Environmental remediation of pollutants depends mainly on utilizing the different technologies such as chemical reactions, absorption, adsorption, filtration and photocatalysis for the ousting of contaminants from different environmental media such as soil, land, surface, surface strata, surface waters, ponds, streams, groundwater, bedrock, drinking water supply, stream sediments, atmosphere, air, and vegetation and natural resource. Engineered materials are applied to remediate different hazardous contaminants such as heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, oil spills, toxic gases, industrial effluents, sewage, and organic compounds, organic dyes, antibiotics, chlorinated organic compounds, organophosphorus compounds, volatile organic compounds, and halogenated herbicides.
This book provides an overview on a diverse class of functional materials and/or nanomaterials: metal oxide, metal nanoparticle, MXenes, carbonaceous (carbon nanotube and graphene), composites, hybrid, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and green materials, which are better photocatalysts for mitigation of MP and NP pollution. This book also discusses the progress and future perspective of these materials in photocatalytic degradation of MP and NP, exploring the innovative approaches in depth.
This book includes fifteen chapters mainly focusing on functional materials that describe the evolution of design, fabrication and application in photocatalytic degradation of MP and NP to remediate an environmental ecosystem. In this way, this book focuses on materials design, environmental impact, issues and solution at the basic level and is therefore a suitable problem, challenges and opportunity solving resource for a next-generation research environment.
Laxman SINGH
Department of Chemistry
Siddhartha University
Sidharthnagar
India
Sunil KUMAR
Department of Chemistry
L.N.T. College
B.R.A. Bihar University
Muzaffarpur
India
January 2025
Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to thank those who made a significant contribution in shaping this book. I would like to thank the entire team at Cambridge Scholars Publishing Press for collaborating with this book and providing all the necessary assistance. My special thanks go to the publisher ISTE Ltd., who were there to promptly respond to and address all my queries and provide the necessary assistance from the commencement of this book until its completion. I acknowledge and thank all of the authors who contributed their works in the book. A very special thanks to Professor K.D. Mandal and Professor U.S. Rai for encouraging me to work on the contemporary issues related to the environment and energy. I would also like to express my thanks to Professor Prakriti Rai, Dean of Science and my colleagues at the Department of Chemistry, Siddharth University, Kapilvastu, for supporting me and always being there to encourage me in my achievements and accomplishments. I would like to acknowledge the support and love of my parents (Late Shri Indrapal Singh and Smt. Shanti Devi), my elder brother (Late Shri Veerendra Singh), who always supported and encouraged me in my academic career, my loving and beautiful wife Radha and other members of my family. I acknowledge the love of my daughter, Mansi Singh, and my son, Pulkit Singh, who bring joy and happiness into my life, which rejuvenates me in work.
Laxman SINGH
I am highly grateful to all authors for their scientific contributions to make this book energetic and inspiring. The authors were very kind in addressing the comments that enhanced the quality of the chapters. I would like to acknowledge my parents (Sri Jayhind Prasad and Smt. Sunaina Devi) for their deep love and emotional support. A special acknowledgment goes to family members, friends, editors, proofreaders, academic colleagues, research assistants, and content contributors for shaping and managing the structure of this book. Further, I would like to thank my wife (Rangoli Jaiswal) and my son (Rishwik Jaiswal) for their love, affection and cooperation in helping me complete this scientific book. Great thanks goes to my PhD supervisor Dr. Pralay Maiti, Professor, School of Materials Science and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi (U.P.) India. I would also like to acknowledge the Head of the University Department of Chemistry, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, for supporting in research and development at the academic grounds. Special thanks goes to Dr. Avay Kumar Singh, Principal, L.N.T. College, Muzaffarpur, for his catalytic support and to Professor Dinesh Chandra Rai, Vice-Chancellor and Dr. Aprajita Krishna, Registrar, B.R.A. Bihar University, Muzaffarpur, for emotional support in helping me complete this technical task under the academic ecosystem.
Sunil KUMAR
1Micro- and Nano-Plastic Pollution: Present Status on Environmental Issues and Photocatalytic Degradation
Plastic is an artificially produced synthetic polymer synthesized through a process referred to as cracking. Upon infiltrating the environment, plastic waste is gradually split down into smaller particles known as micro-plastics (MPs, with size ranging from 0.1 to 5 mm) and nano-plastics (NPs, which range in size from 1 to 100 nm), together we call these micro-nano-plastics (MNPs). However, MNP particles are highly complex and detailed in their shape, size, density, polymer structure, surface properties, etc. While particle concentrations across various media can differ by as many as ten orders of magnitude, examining such intricate samples can be comparable to searching for a needle in a haystack. MNPs have recently been identified as a significant global environmental pollutant. Studies indicate that as particles travel through the environment, their functional groups bind to organic pollutants such as heavy metals and persistent poisonous chemicals. Advancing eco-friendly plastic conversion technologies is vital for transitioning to a sustainable, less plastic-dependent future.
As a result, in recent times, efforts have been undertaken to incorporate nanomaterials and nanostructures into photocatalytic plastic degradation on the basis of developments in smart material technology using simple photocatalysts. Compared to conventional methods, photodegradation of MNPs can offer a more sustainable alternative for waste plastic reprocessing, as it utilizes solar energy as an energy source and operates at room temperature and pressure. Current efforts focus on the strategic design and surface modification to accomplish smart materials able to capture, transport and disperse MPs with varying shapes and chemical compositions. Catalytic materials used in photocatalysis show significant potential for degrading common plastics. As a result, recent advancements in these small, self-moving equipment are anticipated to drive a major breakthrough in environmental rehabilitation.
Figure 1.1.Nanomaterials as advanced photocatalysts for plastic conversion.
1.1. Introduction
Plastic products have undeniably transformed our daily lives, providing unparalleled convenience owing to their remarkable characteristics such as lightweight quality of plastic makes it an ideal choice for packaging, contributing to reduced transportation costs and energy consumption (Du et al. 2021). Its impressive chemical stability ensures the preservation of goods, preventing decay and prolonging the longevity of numerous products. Moreover, the high durability of plastic means that products made from this material enjoy a prolonged lifespan, reducing the frequency of replacements in comparison to alternative materials. Additionally, the cost-effectiveness of plastic production translates to affordable products for consumers. This has led to a substantial surge in plastic production over the years (Llorente-García et al. 2020). In 2018 alone, an astonishing 360 million tons of plastic products were manufactured globally, highlighting the pervasive use of this versatile material (Long et al. 2019). Projections for 2025 estimate an even more substantial production figure of 500 million tons, underscoring the integral role that plastic plays in various industries (Miao et al. 2020). However, the widespread use of plastic has led to environmental concerns due to the durability that makes plastic products so desirable, which results in their persistence in the environment, contributing significantly to pollution. Insufficient recycling infrastructure and inappropriate waste-disposal activities have been directed to the accretion of plastic waste, threatening to ecosystems and wildlife (Duet al. 2021). While recycling efforts are increasingly prevalent, a noteworthy fraction of plastics, approximately one-third, remains either of reduced size or exhibits complex structures that present challenges for an economically feasible recovery (Garcia and Robertson 2017). Initially, there were concerns about plastic contamination, with the alarming statistic that 79% of all plastics were either ending up in landfills or being illegally dumped (Geyer et al. 2017). However, in the present day, we recognize that the problem of pollution does not end there but the issue extends beyond landfills. Plastics have the capacity to migrate within the environment, traversing rivers to reach freshwater bodies like lakes and lagoons, and ultimately making their way to seas and oceans. Using these marine currents, they can travel vast distances, reaching remote parts of the world (Golden et al. 2016). Owing to their natural water-repellent properties and strong resistance to both physical and chemical breakdown, plastics have the ability to migrate from land-based environments to aquatic ecosystems. The ubiquity of plastics has been identified in diverse environmental systems, including groundwater, soil, and even the air. This broad distribution underscores the extensive reach and impact of plastic pollution across various ecological domains (Alimi et al. 2018; Ng et al. 2018; Astner et al. 2019). New studies indicate that there could be around 5.3 trillion plastic particles presently suspended in the sea, equal to 268,940 tons (Eriksen et al. 2014). These particles consist of various plastics prevalent in our communities, such as polyester, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and nylon (Zhang et al. 2016; Sruthy and Ramasamy 2017). Of these, the specific concern is the notable occurrence of micro-sized PE debris (less than 5 mm), which has attracted attention due to the physical harm it imposes on marine life and the growing risks it poses to public health (Weithmann et al. 2018) (Figures 1.2 and 1.3).
Figure 1.2.Total annual research report on micro-plastics and nano-plastics (source: https://media.springernature.com/full/springerstatic/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11157-021-09609-6/MediaObjects/11157_2021_9609_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp).
Figure 1.3.Fragmentation of plastic waste into micro-plastics and nano-plastics (source: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/cms/asset/ae81c136-86ad-453e-b3f6ac94812dd059/adfm202112120-fig-0001-m.jpg).
1.2. MPs and NPs: Sources, impact and health hazards
1.2.1. Micro-plastics
1.2.1.1. Sources and environmental impact
Plastics released into the environment degrade into MPs (less than 5 μm) and NPs (less than 1 μm) through the combined effects of solar radiation, physical forces and biodegradation (Koelmans et al. 2015; van Weert et al. 2019) (Figure 1.4). Primary MPs are purposely developed in small sizes for specific uses, embracing microbeads in personal care products, microfibers in textiles and plastic pellets in manufacturing. Despite their small size, these particles can accumulate in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, posing environmental risks (Cheng et al. 2021). In response to their environmental impact, several countries, involving Canada and the United States, have implemented bans on MPs in cosmetic products (Ballent et al. 2016). Secondary MPs result from the deprivation of larger plastic debris under conditions, for instance heat, sunlight and aeration (Auta et al. 2017). These elements have an extensive surface area relative to their volume, allowing them to absorb and transport harmful persistent bio-accumulative toxins (PBTs) that can adversely affect environmental and biological systems (Chen et al. 2019; Enfrin et al. 2020; Tang et al. 2020). Conversely, plastic degradation in cold and anoxic aquatic environments is extremely slow, taking centuries to progress (Zhang 2017). MPs manifest in various forms, including pellets, fibers, and fragments, as observed in environmental samples (Klein et al. 2015). This diversity in shape and size, coupled with their persistence and potential for harm, underscores significant challenges in managing and mitigating MP pollution.
Figure 1.4.Classification of plastic particles based on particle dimensions (source: https://nanopartikel.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Seize_nanoplastic_final.png.jpg).
1.2.1.2. MPs in aquatic systems and human exposure
MPs have been sensed in numerous water bodies, with one prevalent source being the sewage discharged from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Studies indicate that the treatment processes employed are not entirely effective in retaining MPs, allowing wastewater run-offs contaminated with MPs to enter municipal waters and rivers (Michielssen et al. 2016), eventually finding their way into the ocean. Once within aquatic ecosystems, MPs are ingested by a various range of marine organisms spanning different trophic levels facilitating their entrance into the food chain (Enfrin et al. 2020). These minuscule particles can pass in the human body through breath and absorption, resulting in cellular damage, inflammation and immune responses. Recent studies found MPs in human blood, with 17 out of 22 samples contaminated. Half had PET from drink bottles, one third had PS from food packaging and one quarter had PE from plastic bags (Leslie et al. 2022). MPs are also found in human faeces (Yan et al. 2022). This can lead to serious health issues such as cancer, chronic problems and harm to development. The consequences of plastic pollution extend beyond environmental damage, posing significant risks to human health (Koelmans et al. 2019; Yuan et al. 2022).
Both primary and secondary MPs pose ecological threats as they can be consumed by marine creatures, being incorporated into the food chain and potentially causing harm to aquatic life. Additionally, these particles may contain or absorb harmful chemicals, contributing to the transfer of contaminating agents in the environment. The effect on human health arises when MPs pass in the food chain, potentially exposing humans to MPs through consuming contaminated seafood or other food sources. In conclusion, the coexistence of primary and secondary MPs highlights the pervasive nature of this environmental issue, with wide-ranging implications for ecosystems and human health. To tackle the issue effectively, it is essential to implement thorough strategies that address the sources, pathways and impacts of MPs in the environment (Liu et al. 2021).
1.3. Nano-plastics
1.3.1. Sources and environmental risks
Similar to MPs, NPs are also classified by their origin into primary or secondary categories. Primary NPs are purposefully manufactured at the nanoscale, whereas minor NPs form from the breakdown and degradation of larger plastic pieces because of their biological or environmental factors (González-Pleiter et al. 2019). The occurrence of principal NPs in the environment has seen a significant rise, primarily attributed to the development and production of engineered nanomaterials intended for application in cosmetics, personal care items, research, various technologies and medical applications (Mattsson et al. 2018).
The small size of nano-sized plastics enhanced their capacity to penetrate living organisms, which anticipates posing a greater threat than MPs (Strungaru et al. 2019). Earlier studies have indicated that NPs serve as carriers for substantial metals and persistent toxic pollutants (POPs) found in the nearby environment (Bradney et al. 2019). Additionally, outcomes from various toxicological investigations have shown that the consumption of NPs and the associated contaminants adversely impact the immune system (Bergami et al. 2019), disrupt metabolism (Brandts et al. 2018), induce neurotoxicity (Sökmen et al. 2020) and interfere with the growth and reproduction processes in aquatic organisms. Nevertheless, there are emerging hypotheses regarding the capability of NPs to act as transporters of pathogens and viruses (Wang et al. 2021). Hence, the dimensions of NPs remain a crucial factor in ecological toxicity, and its impact on this event should be further investigated. While MPs have been identified and measured in diverse environmental samples, information regarding NPs (< 1,000 nm) is notably lacking. The investigation of NPs in actual field samples is in its early stages, with protocols still in the early phases of development and maturation (Mintenig et al. 2018). Urgent efforts are needed to deepen our comprehension of the prevalence of NPs in diverse environments and their potential toxicological impacts on various organisms (Fadare et al. 2020; Li et al. 2020; Materić et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020).
1.4. Impact of Covid-19 on plastic pollution
Figure 1.5.Covid-19 materials as a source of micro-plastics in water environments.
The Covid-19 epidemic has significantly exacerbated plastic pollution (Figure 1.5) due to the widespread usage of PP-based personal protective equipment (PPE). This PPE, when exposed to environmental conditions, degrades into MPs and NPs. Current waste management practices, such as incineration and landfilling, are not sustainable and fail to effectively address the growing plastic waste issue (Fadare and Okoffo 2020). In contrast, pyrolyzing PP-based plastic waste presents a promising alternative. The pyrolysis process can convert over 75% of plastic waste into renewable crude oil, while slow pyrolysis can produce up to 33.50% solid char. This method also generates various volatile by-products, offering potential for diverse applications. To further address the problem, enhancing biodegradable PPE with graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes or Ag-ZnO nanocomposites can improve their self-sanitizing capabilities. Additionally, incorporating recycled PPE into carbon aggregates provides an effective and good approach for rapidly reducing plastic waste (Dey et al. 2023). This combination of innovative waste management techniques and material enhancements represents a comprehensive strategy for tackling the environmental impact of plastic pollution. The sources of MPs are also employed in Covid-19 equipment are shown in Figure 1.5 (Iheanacho et al. 2023).
1.5. Methods for plastic degradation
1.5.1. Current methods for plastic degradation
Conventional methods such as disposal, chemical treatment (Moharir and Kumar 2019) and recycling, typically applied to larger plastic items, are not applicable to MPs due to their diminutive size. Instead, current research is exploring biological degradation and photocatalysis as potential solutions to address this environmental challenge. Microbes can biodegrade MPs through enzymatic processes, decomposing the molecules into smaller parts that can undergo further mineralization steps (Silva et al. 2018). Toxic organic pollutants absorbed by plastic particles, their support for bacterial biofilm growth and their spread via the food chain pose significant hazards to human health. Consequently, nano-/micro-sized plastics pollution has evolved into a pressing worldwide challenge, necessitating the imperative for their definitive elimination. The emergence of self-propelled nano/microrobots stands out as an effective solution for the efficient eradication of NPs/MPs from water. By utilizing the improved physical and chemical characteristics of materials at the nano/microscale and leveraging active motion, these innovative robotic entities demonstrate remarkable effectiveness in addressing this environmental challenge (Urso and Pumera 2022).
1.5.2. Emerging solutions for plastic degradation
1.5.2.1. Photocatalytic degradation of micro- and nano-plastics
In this context, we suggest employing photocatalysis as a promising solution for degrading PE MPs, aiming to reduce their influx into the seas from land-based sources. This approach uses an eco-friendly method where PE is degraded with the help of an N-TiO2 photocatalyst under visible light exposure. Photocatalytic degradation takes place when a semiconductor, illuminated by light with photon energy matching or exceeding its band gap, generates holes (h+) and excited electrons (e−). These holes react with water (H2O) or hydroxyl groups (OH–) to create hydroxyl radicals (OH•), which are extremely effective at breaking down a range of organic pollutants (Cedillo-González et al. 2018) (Figure 1.6). To enhance sustainability, we can employ N-TiO2 as a photocatalyst, which is synthesized using mussel proteins. This process involves using the proteins as a pore-forming agent and a nitrogen basis for doping the photocatalyst, as described by Zeng et al. (2015). This method not only advances the efficacy of the photocatalyst but also aligns with eco-friendly practices. We plan to apply this method to the degradation of PE MPs derived from facial scrubs, which are significant suppliers to marine MP pollution (Napper et al. 2015). By evaluating the effectiveness of this method on real-world samples, we aim to address a critical environmental issue and advance sustainable waste management solutions.
Figure 1.6.Photocatalytic breakdown of primary nano-plastics using different anodized TiO2 structures.
Recent research on the photocatalytic breakdown of plastics has largely concentrated on producing lower molecular weight intermediates, which have potential applications in organic synthesis. While limited, the studies indicate advantages in employing photocatalytic methods for plastic degradation. Through the use of solar radiation and photocatalysts, these methods transform waste into valuable intermediate products, offering potential for the synthesis of new materials. The development of photocatalytic processes utilizing renewable energy sources, particularly solar energy, is increasingly attractive economically, energetically and environmentally (Bratovcic 2019). A noteworthy breakthrough has occurred in the field of materials chemistry, featuring the creation of a singular TiO2 superstructure with rod-like characteristics and inherent self-propulsion capabilities (Figure 1.7). In a singular synthetic process, an array of rod-like microrobots, distinguished by their diverse shapes and featuring multiple trapping sites, has been intricately designed to exploit the inherent asymmetry within the micro-robotic system, thereby optimizing their propulsion dynamics. These autonomous microrobots undergo in situ surface morphology transformation, forming intricate flower-like structures with the integration of a nano-seed array. Under light irradiation and photocatalysis, their surfaces transform into porous flower-like networks, enhancing functionality and enabling efficient entrapment of MPs. This reconfigurable micro-robotic technology marks a significant advance in addressing MP pollution, offering autonomous propulsion and adaptive surface transformations for environmentally conscious degradation (Ullattil and Pumera 2023). Figure 1.7 illustrates the excitation and subsequent transfer of TiO2 to the conduction band (CB). This process underlies the fundamental mechanism for plastics degradation (Nabi et al. 2021).
Figure 1.7.Schematic illustration of general photocatalytic mechanism of TiO2 under light exposure.
1.5.2.2. Nanorobots in plastic degradation
A new method for removing NPs from water employs self-propelled, light-activated FeHCF nanobots constructed from a metal-organic framework. When these nanobots are exposed to visible light, they transition to a metastable electronic state, creating localized electron density imbalances that drive their self-propulsion. This process facilitates the aggregation of FeHCF@NP complexes and enhances the electrostatic attraction of negatively charged nanoparticles to the positively charged surfaces of nanobots. The light-induced charge transfer generates a bipolar effect on the nanobot surface, which significantly improves the binding efficiency of nanoparticles. With an impressive removal capacity of 3,060 mg∙g−1 and a high-rate constant of 0.69 min−1, this advanced approach demonstrates a substantial improvement in performance compared to existing materials, offering a highly effective solution for enhanced separation and purification applications. Beyond its effectiveness in removing plastic pollution, this clean and efficient light-driven method has promising applications in various fields, including nanopatterning, drug and gene delivery, cell manipulation and nano-surgery. Its potential for broad applications highlights its importance in advancing technologies for environmental and biomedical purposes (Jung et al. 2023). A TiO2/graphite (TiO2/C) cathode-based electro-Fenton-like (EF-like) technology was suggested for the efficient breakdown of PVC, a prevalent MP in water. This technology demonstrated significant efficacy in simultaneously achieving cathodic reduction dechlorination and hydroxyl radical (OH) oxidation during PVC degradation. The effect of reaction temperature and initial PVC concentration was examined, with the optimal conditions achieving an impressive 75% dechlorination efficiency following potentiostatic electrolysis at −0.7 V versus Ag/AgCl for 6 h. The research investigated the by-products generated during PVC MP breakdown, highlighting alterations in surface structures and molecular weight. The results suggest a potential degradation pathway for PVC, demonstrating the effectiveness of this TiO2/C cathode-based heterogeneous EF-like method as an environmentally friendly solution for treating MP-contaminated wastewater (Miao et al. 2020).
The use of photocatalysis in water to address MP pollution by focusing on the degradation of primary high-density polyethylene (HDPE) MPs sourced from a commercial facial scrub. The research demonstrates that low pH and low temperature conditions significantly enhance the degradation process. Low pH introduces hydrogen ions (H+), which facilitate the breakdown of the plastic and improve the interrelation between colloidal nanoparticles and HDPE MPs. Simultaneously, reduced temperatures accelerate the breakdown of MPs, expanding their surface area and improving their interaction with C,N-TiO2 photocatalysts. The study finds that varying operational parameters, such as pH and temperature, during photocatalysis can substantially accelerate the degradation of HDPE MPs. These conditions create a synergistic effect that improves the efficiency of the degradation process, creating it a promising method for mitigating MP pollution. This approach offers a potential solution to environmental issues caused by MPs and highlights the importance of optimizing photocatalytic conditions to enhance the effectiveness of plastic-waste treatment (Ariza-Tarazona et al. 2020).
1.6. Conclusion
Plastic, despite its widespread utility, has become one of the most significant environmental challenges of our time due to its persistence in various ecosystems and its ability to degrade into harmful MPs and NPs. While plastic’s lightweight and durable properties offer economic and practical benefits, the lack of efficient disposal and recycling mechanisms has resulted in severe ecological impacts, with plastic waste polluting oceans, rivers, soils and even the air. MPs, originating from both primary sources like cosmetics and the breakdown of larger plastic items, are now found across ecosystems, including human food and water supplies. The potential health risks posed by these particles, from immune system disruption to cancer, demand urgent attention to curb plastic pollution, enhance waste management and explore alternatives to plastic use.
1.7. Future directions for plastic pollution control
Studies have already shown the presence of trillions of MPs in oceans, freshwater systems and even human blood, suggesting that plastic particles will continue to penetrate deep into the biosphere and food chain. In the coming decades, the issue of MP and NP will likely escalate as the production of plastic continues to grow. However, advancements in nanotechnology offer a promising solution, particularly through the development of photocatalytic nanomaterials such as titanium dioxide (TiO2) that can degrade plastics using sunlight. Innovations like self-propelled nanorobots and sustainable nanomaterials could be deployed in water systems to break down plastics in real time, while their integration into filtration systems and waste management processes will help prevent further environmental contamination. Although challenges remain in certain ecosystems, future strategies involving nanomaterial-enhanced biodegradation, coupled with advancements in recycling and waste management technologies, will be pivotal in addressing the escalating global crisis of MP and NP pollution.
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Note
Chapter written by Monika VERMA, Yashaswini and Sujata KUNDAN.
