Emerging Threats and Countermeasures in Cybersecurity E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Advances in Antenna, Microwave, and Communication Engineering
- Sprache: Englisch
This book is an essential resource for anyone seeking to stay ahead in the dynamic field of cybersecurity, providing a comprehensive toolkit for understanding and combating digital threats and offering practical, insightful guidance ideal for cybersecurity professionals, digital forensic investigators, legal practitioners, law enforcement, scholars, and students.
In the rapidly evolving domain of digital security, this book emerges as a vital guide for understanding and addressing the sophisticated landscape of cyber threats. This in-depth volume, featuring contributions from renowned experts, provides a thorough examination of the current state and future challenges in digital security and forensic analysis. The book is meticulously organized into seven sections (excluding conclusion), each focusing on a critical aspect of cybersecurity. It begins with a comprehensive overview of the latest trends and threats in the field, setting the stage for deeper explorations in subsequent sections. Readers will gain insights into a range of topics, from the intricacies of advanced persistent threats and malware, to the security nuances of cyber-physical systems and the Internet of Things (IoT).
The book covers cutting-edge topics like blockchain, cryptography, social engineering, cloud security, and data privacy, blending theory with practical case studies. It’s a practical guide for cybersecurity professionals, forensic investigators, legal practitioners, law enforcement, scholars, and students. Offering a comprehensive toolkit for combating digital threats, it’s essential for staying ahead in the fast-evolving field of cybersecurity.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Emerging Threats and Trends in Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Threats Faced by Digital Forensics
1.3 Cybersecurity Threats in 2023 (Figure 1.2)
1.4 New Era of Technology and Their Risks
1.5 Challenges for Digital Forensics
1.6 Impact of Mobile Gadgets on Cybersecurity
1.7 The Vulnerabilities in Wireless Mobile Data Exchange
1.8 Network Segmentation and its Applications
1.9 Relationship Between Privacy and Security
1.10 Recent Trends in Digital Forensics
1.11 Opportunities in this Field
1.12 Future Enhancements in Digital Forensics
1.13 Cybersecurity and Cyber Forensics in Smart Cities
1.14 Network Security and Forensics
1.15 Software and Social Engineering Attacks on RSA
1.16 Cyber Threats and Cybersecurity
1.17 Conclusion
Bibliography
2 Toward Reliable Image Forensics: Deep Learning-Based Forgery Detection
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fundamentals of Image Forensics
2.3 Deep Learning in Image Forensics
2.4 Datasets of Image Forgery Detection
2.5 Feature Extraction and Representation
2.6 Model Training and Evaluation
2.7 Challenges and Future Scope
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Understanding and Mitigating Advanced Persistent Threats in a Dynamic Cyber Landscape
3.1 Introduction
3.2 APT Lifecycle
3.3 Characteristics and Methods of APTs
3.4 APT Detection
3.5 Mitigation Techniques
3.6 Case Study: CozyDuke APT
Conclusion
References
4 Class-Imbalanced Problems in Malware Analysis and Detection in Classification Algorithms
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Related Work
4.4 Detailed Overview of the Methodology
4.5 Discussion and Challenges
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Malware Analysis and Detection: New Approaches and Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Malware
5.3 Case Studies
5.4 Future Aspects
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 State-of-the-Art in Ransomware Analysis and Detection
6.1 Introduction
References
7 Cyber-Physical System Security: Challenges and Countermeasures
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Challenges in CPS Security
7.3 Security Risks and Consequences
7.4 Key Considerations for CPS Security
7.5 Countermeasures for CPS Security
7.6 Case Studies and Examples
7.7 Future Directions and Emerging Technologies
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 Unraveling the Ethical Conundrum: Privacy Challenges in the Realm of Digital Forensics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Fundamental Concepts in Digital Forensics
8.3 Privacy Concerns in AI Technology: Security Systems and Cyber Forensics
8.4 Maintaining Integrity of Evidence in Forensic Investigations
8.5 Ethical Obligations of Forensic Investigators
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 IoT and Smart Device Security: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Growth of IoT and Smart Devices
9.3 Emerging Threat Landscape
9.4 Device Vulnerabilities and Exploits
9.5 Data Privacy and Leakage
9.6 Network Attacks and Amplification
9.7 Physical Attacks on Smart Devices
9.8 Supply Chain Risks in IoT Ecosystem
9.9 Lack of Standardization in IoT Security
9.10 Countermeasures and Best Practices
9.11 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
10 Advanced Security for IoT and Smart Devices: Addressing Modern Threats and Solutions
10.1 Introduction
10.2 IoT and Smart Device Landscape
10.3 Emerging Threats in IoT and Smart Device Security
10.4 Vulnerabilities in IoT and Smart Devices
10.5 Countermeasures and Best Practices
10.6 Security Standards and Regulations
10.7 Security Testing and Assessment
10.8 Incident Response and Recovery
10.9 Case Studies: Real-World Examples
10.10 Future Trends and Challenges
10.11 Conclusion
References
11 Threats and Countermeasures for IoT and Smart Devices
11.1 Introduction
11.2 IoT Architecture
11.3 Security in the Application Layer of IoT
11.4 Literature Survey
11.5 Results and Discussion
11.6 Conclusion and Future Work
References
12 Insider Threat Detection and Prevention: New Approaches and Tools
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Insider Attack: A Big Picture
12.3 Tools and Technology for Insider Threat Detection
12.4 Results and Discussions
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 A Holistic Framework for Insider Threat Detection and Analysis Upon Security and Privacy for Data Management Services
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Defining Insider Threats
13.3 Know Your Critical Assets in Data Management Services
13.4 Insider Risk Management
13.5 Diving Deeper Into Holistic Framework
13.6 Conclusion
References
14 Revolutionizing SEO: Exploring the Synergy of Blockchain Technology and Search Ecosystems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Features of Blockchain
14.3 Literature Review
14.4 Integrating Blockchain into Search Ecosystems for Enhancing SEO
14.5 Integration of Blockchain in Search Ecosystems
14.6 Concept of Decentralized Search Platforms and Role in SEO Improvement
14.7 Use Cases and Projects Illustrating Blockchain Integration in Search Ecosystems
14.8 Future Trends and Implications
14.9 Potential Implications for the SEO Industry and Online Marketing Strategies
14.10 Conclusion
References
15 Emerging Trends and Future Directions of Blockchain Technology in Education
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Overview of Blockchain Technology in Education
15.3 Emerging Trends in Blockchain and Education
15.4 Implications for the Future of Education
15.5 Future Directions for Blockchain in Education
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Social Engineering Attacks: Detection and Prevention
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Phases of Social Engineering
16.3 Methods of Social Engineering
16.4 Insider Threat
16.5 Impersonation on Social Media Platforms
16.6 Identity Theft
16.7 Social Engineering Detection and Prevention
16.8 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
17 Social Engineering Attacks in Industrial Internet of Things and Smart Industry: Detection and Prevention
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Phases of Social Engineering Attacks
17.3 Social Engineering Attacks in IoT and IIoT
17.4 Techniques of Social Engineering Attacks
17.5 Social Engineering Attack Vectors
17.6 Social Engineering Attack Detection and Prevention Techniques
17.7 Real-World Social Engineering Attacks in the Industry
17.8 Challenges and Future Prospective in Social Engineering Attacks
17.9 Future Prospective and Recommendations
17.10 Conclusion
References
18 Cloud Security Essentials: A Detailed Exploration
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Importance of Cloud Security
18.3 Key Cloud Security Concerns
18.4 Cloud Security Challenges
18.5 Cloud Security Challenges and Strategies
18.6 Common Threats in Cloud Security
18.7 Best Practices for Cloud Security
18.8 Conclusion
References
19 Data Privacy and Protection: Legal and Ethical Challenges
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fundamental Concepts of Data Privacy and Protection
19.3 Legal Frameworks for Data Privacy and Protection: Overview of Global Data Protection Laws
19.4 Rights and Principles Underpinning Data Privacy
19.5 Challenges in Implementing Data Privacy Regulations
19.6 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection and Usage: Transparency and Informed Consent
19.7 Emerging Technologies and Ethical Dilemmas: Impact of AI, IoT, and Biometrics on Data Privacy
19.8 Legal and Ethical Reactions to Data Breach and Privacy Incidents: Legal Requirements for Notifying Data Breach
19.9 Surveillance, National Security, and Individual Privacy: Striking a Balance: Privacy vs. National Security [14]
19.10 Regulatory Enforcement and Accountability: Role of Data Protection Authorities
19.11 Future Trends and Considerations: Evolving Legal Landscapes and Global Harmonization
19.12 Conclusion: Navigating the Nexus of Data Privacy and Protection [23]
References
20 Future Direction in Digital Forensics and Cyber Security
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Evolution of Crime
20.3 Existing Cybercrime Rate in India and World
20.4 Emerging Cybercrime and its Future
20.5 Recent Paradigm Shift in Cyber Menace
20.6 Cyber Security
20.7 Artificial Intelligence
20.8 Contemporary Condition of Digital Forensics
20.9 Challenges of Digital Forensics
20.10 Legal Aspect of Cyber Laws
20.11 Prevention Against Cybercrimes
20.12 Conclusion
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Well-known public datasets for detecting image forgeries.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Summary of the recent research proposed for class imbalance.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Future directions and technologies.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Issues concerning privacy and their key points.
Table 8.2 Obligations in digital forensics.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 IoT device vulnerabilities and their impact on security.
Table 9.2 Security and its impact on IOT along with its mitigation strategy.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Security provided by IoT protocols.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Comparison between blockchain and search ecosystem for SEO.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Detection techniques with respective tools.
Table 16.2 Social engineering prevention.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Cloud security challenges and strategies
Table 18.2 Best practices for cloud security.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Types of threats faced by digital forensics.
Figure 1.2 Cybersecurity threats.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Example of deep fake manipulation (source BBC News) [1].
Figure 2.2 A timeline showing some of the significant events in the history of...
Figure 2.3 Types of forgery detection techniques.
Figure 2.4 Architecture of CNN.
Figure 2.5 Architecture of GAN.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 APT life cycle [1].
Figure 3.2 APT characteristics.
Figure 3.3 Cyber kill chain.
Figure 3.4 Methods for APT detection.
Figure 3.5 Anomaly detection methods.
Figure 3.6 Behavioral analysis methods.
Figure 3.7 Techniques for APT mitigation.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Class-imbalanced techniques.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Download and set up VMware Workstation.
Figure 5.2 Interface to create a new virtual machine.
Figure 5.3 Click on play virtual machine to run it.
Figure 5.4 Choose splunk enterprise, give username and password then the insta...
Figure 5.5 Trojan horse malware [26].
Figure 5.6 Complete the installation process and set up splunk enterprise.
Figure 5.7 Using splunk enterprise to gather data from splunk forwarder.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Type of ransomware based on propagation, function, characteristics....
Figure 6.2 Phases of evolution of ransomware.
Figure 6.3 Lifecycle of ransomware.
Figure 6.4 Ransomware detection techniques.
Figure 6.5 Recent statistics.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Characteristics and advantages of CPS.
Figure 7.2 Scenario of security in CPS.
Figure 7.3 Security vulnerabilities in CPS.
Figure 7.4 Key considerations for security in CPS.
Figure 7.5 Countermeasures for CPS security.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Applications of IoT.
Figure 10.2 Security threats in IoT.
Figure 10.3 Countermeasures to secure IoT.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 IoT architecture consists of three layers.
Figure 11.2 Five-layer IoT architecture.
Figure 11.3 IoT application layer protocols.
Figure 11.4 Frequent hazards at the IoT physical layer.
Figure 11.5 Frequent hazards at the network layer.
Figure 11.6 Frequent hazards at the application layer.
Figure 11.7 Significant risks in IoT layers.
Figure 11.8 Conventional strategies are employed as a defense against IoT atta...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Types of insider attacker.
Figure 12.2 Percentage of insider attacks (source: www.ekransystem.com).
Figure 12.3 Classification of detection techniques.
Figure 12.4 Key aspects of DLP.
Figure 12.5 EDR architecture.
Figure 12.6 SIEM architecture (source: https://intellipaat.com/blog/what-is-si...
Figure 12.7 Components of Cloud-based IDS.
Figure 12.8 Comparison.
Figure 12.9 ML methods.
Figure 12.10 Data rate and false-positive rate for various algorithms.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Holistic framework for DMS.
Figure 13.2 Holistic framework for DMS.
Figure 13.3 Real-time cyberattack on norse honeypots (image by Christiaan Cole...
Figure 13.4 Working of role-based access control.
Figure 13.5 Working of the lightweight directory access protocol.
Figure 13.6 Working of VigilEnt Policy Center Architecture.
Figure 13.7 Data vault.
Figure 13.8 The figure shown is a Bitcoin to represent the concept of blockcha...
Figure 13.9 Concept of facial recognition using the mobile phone (image by Mik...
Figure 13.10 Powerful processor capable of doing machine learning.
Figure 13.11 The figure shown is a radio frequency identity card where its com...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 (a) Build index time. (b) Search time.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Blockchain’s current uses in education.
Figure 15.2 Emerging trends in blockchain and education.
Figure 15.3 Advancements in blockchain technology and their potential impact....
Figure 15.4 Benefits and challenges of adopting emerging blockchain trends.
Figure 15.5 Opportunities for educational institutions and stakeholders.
Figure 15.6 Research directions and areas for further exploration.
Figure 15.7 Integration of emerging technologies with blockchain in education....
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Phases of social engineering.
Figure 16.2 Methods of social engineering.
Figure 16.3 Sign of catfishing.
Figure 16.4 Sign of deepfake attack.
Figure 16.5 Insider threat statistics.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Phishing attack way.
Figure 17.2 Pretexting attack techniques/types.
Figure 17.3 Security misconfiguration.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Requirement of cloud security.
Figure 18.2 Cloud security considerations.
Figure 18.3 Data exploits factors.
Figure 18.4 Solution of restrict insecure API.
Figure 18.5 Acts and regulations for compliance and legal issues.
Figure 18.6 Shared responsibility.
Figure 18.7 Weak points of network security and solutions.
Figure 18.8 Threats of cloud security.
Figure 18.9 Data security and privacy framework.
Figure 18.10 Diagram of Identity and Access Management (IAM).
Figure 18.11 Mitigating API vulnerabilities.
Figure 18.12 Evolving threat landscape.
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Venn diagram illustrating the intersection of data privacy and dat...
Figure 19.2 World map highlighting countries with significant data protection ...
Figure 19.3 Personal privacy and digital life Venn diagram.
Figure 19.4 Graph illustrating the increasing number of data breach incidents....
Figure 19.5 Privacy preservation techniques.
Figure 19.6 Timeline showcasing the evolution of global data protection laws....
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Common types of cybercrime in 2021 (data source: The FBI’s Interne...
Figure 20.2 Cybercrime classification.
Figure 20.3 Number of cybercrime cases registered in India over the years (dat...
Figure 20.4 Cybercrime cases filled in 2020 in India (state-wise) (data source...
Figure 20.5 Emerging fields of cybercrime.
Figure 20.6 Threats of artificial intelligence.
Figure 20.7 Major cyber laws existing in India.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Advances in Cyber Security
Series Editor: Rashmi Agrawal and D. Ganesh Gopal
Scope: The purpose of this book series is to present books that are specifically designed to address the critical security challenges in today’s computing world including cloud and mobile environments and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches of cryptography, blockchain and other defense mechanisms. The book series presents some of the state-of-the-art research work in the field of blockchain, cryptography and security in computing and communications. It is a valuable source of knowledge for researchers, engineers, practitioners, graduates, and doctoral students who are working in the field of blockchain, cryptography, network security, and security and privacy issues in the Internet of Things (IoT). It will also be useful for faculty members of graduate schools and universities. The book series provides a comprehensive look at the various facets of cloud security: infrastructure, network, services, compliance and users. It will provide real-world case studies to articulate the real and perceived risks and challenges in deploying and managing services in a cloud infrastructure from a security perspective. The book series will serve as a platform for books dealing with security concerns of decentralized applications (DApps) and smart contracts that operate on an open blockchain. The book series will be a comprehensive and up-to-date reference on information security and assurance. Bringing together the knowledge, skills, techniques, and tools required of IT security professionals, it facilitates the up-to-date understanding required to stay one step ahead of evolving threats, standards, and regulations.
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Emerging Threats and Countermeasures in Cybersecurity
Edited by
Gulshan Shrivastava
Rudra Pratap Ojha
Shashank Awasthi
Himani Bansal
and
Kavita Sharma
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ISBN 9781394230570
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Preface
In the contemporary era, the frontlines of security have transcended the physical to embrace the digital domain. This shift underscores the veracity of the prediction that the next World War will be fought through circuits and algorithms. The rapid advent and integration of smart technologies, ranging from remote computing and the Internet of Things (IoT) to artificial intelligence, are fundamentally reshaping urban environments into interconnected smart cities. These innovations offer immense potential to enhance the quality of life through real-time data exchanges and seamless connectivity. However, they expose significant vulnerabilities that cybercriminals and privacy breaches can exploit. In response to these growing challenges, the field of digital forensics has evolved, encompassing diverse domains such as cloud forensics and social media investigations.
This edited book, Emerging Threats and Countermeasures in Cybersecurity brings together an array of research and insights from leading experts in the field. The comprehensive chapters explore the multifaceted landscape of digital forensics and cybersecurity, addressing the latest threats, methodologies, and technologies used to safeguard our digital frontiers.
The first chapter, Towards Reliable Image Forensics: Deep Learning Based Forgery Detection, delves into techniques for determining the authenticity of images, a critical aspect of combating fake news and digital misinformation. Leveraging machine learning and deep learning, this chapter offers a comparative analysis of traditional and modern methods, showcasing the enhanced precision achieved through advanced algorithms.
Understanding and Mitigating Advanced Persistent Threats in a Dynamic Cyber Landscape addresses the sophisticated nature of APTs and their persistent and stealthy tactics. The chapter provides a detailed lifecycle of APTs and emphasizes the need for robust security measures and proactive incident response strategies to counter these threats.
In Class Imbalanced Problems in Malware Analysis and Detection in Classification Algorithms, the focus shifts to the challenges posed by imbalanced datasets in malware detection. The chapter reviews various machine learning techniques to handle these imbalances, ensuring effective threat classification and mitigation.
Malware Analysis and Detection: New Approaches and Techniques highlights the evolving landscape of malware and the necessity for innovative analysis and detection methodologies. This chapter covers dynamic and static analysis techniques, presenting a holistic approach to understanding and countering malware threats.
The critical issue of ransomware is explored in State-of-the-Art in Ransomware Analysis and Detection, which discusses detection and data recovery techniques. This chapter provides valuable insights into developing more robust tools to mitigate the impacts of ransomware attacks.
Cyber-Physical System Security: Challenges and Countermeasures offers an in-depth examination of the security challenges associated with CPS, discussing threats, vulnerabilities, and the importance of a multi-layered security approach. The chapter covers real-world case studies and innovative security measures to protect CPS environments.
Privacy concerns in digital forensics are the focal point of Unraveling the Ethical Conundrum: Privacy Challenges in the Realm of Digital Forensics. This chapter explores the balance between privacy rights and the necessity of digital forensic investigations, offering a nuanced perspective on data protection and legal considerations.
The security of IoT and smart devices is critically analyzed in IoT and Smart Device Security: Emerging Threats and Countermeasures and Advanced Security for IoT and Smart Devices: Addressing Modern Threats and Solutions. These chapters discuss the unique vulnerabilities of IoT ecosystems and propose comprehensive security frameworks to protect these devices from modern cyber threats.
Threats and Countermeasures for IoT and Smart Devices continues the discussion, focusing on privacy concerns and specific security issues at various levels of IoT communication. The chapter thoroughly analyses security breaches and effective countermeasures to ensure data integrity and confidentiality.
Insider threats are a significant concern for organizations, as discussed in Insider Threat Detection and Prevention: New Approaches and Tools. This chapter reviews strategies to detect and mitigate insider threats using advanced AI and machine learning technologies.
A Holistic Framework for Insider Threat Detection and Analysis upon Security and Privacy for Data Management Services examines the necessity for a holistic framework for data management services. This chapter provides a comprehensive approach to managing insider threats, emphasizing risk assessment and mitigation.
Revolutionizing SEO: Exploring the Synergy of Blockchain Technology and Search Ecosystems explores the integration of blockchain technology into SEO, highlighting the potential transformation in the search ecosystem. This chapter provides insights into how blockchain can enhance trust, transparency, and security in digital marketing.
Emerging Trends and Future Directions of Blockchain Technology in Education discusses the application of blockchain in the education sector. This chapter covers the potential benefits and challenges, presenting case studies and future research directions.
The detection and prevention of social engineering attacks are covered in Social Engineering Attacks: Detection and Prevention and Social Engineering Attacks in Industrial Internet of Things and Smart Industry: Detection and Prevention. These chapters offer a comprehensive overview of social engineering techniques and effective countermeasures supported by real-world examples.
Cloud Security Essentials: A Detailed Exploration delves into protecting data and resources in cloud environments. It covers critical areas such as data encryption, access management, regulatory compliance, and advanced threat detection. By the end of this chapter, readers will have a solid grasp of cloud security principles and practical strategies to strengthen their organization’s defences.
Data Privacy and Protection: Legal and Ethical Challenges examines today’s digital world’s pressing data privacy issues. This chapter explores fundamental principles like the right to privacy, consent, and confidentiality. It also looks at the impact of legal frameworks like the GDPR on businesses and individuals and tackles ethical concerns about data collection, algorithmic biases, and emerging technologies. The balance between privacy and national security is a central theme, emphasizing the need for strong legal and ethical guidelines.
Future Direction in Digital Forensics and Cyber Security takes a forward-looking approach to the rapidly evolving fields of digital forensics and cybersecurity. It highlights the growing importance of these areas due to the rise in cybercrime and the challenges posed by advanced technologies like the dark web. This chapter underscores the urgent need for continued advancements in digital forensics and cybersecurity to counteract the increasing threats in our digital age effectively.
As you delve into the chapters of this book, you will gain a deeper understanding of the emerging threats and trends in digital forensics and cybersecurity. The authors’ collective expertise provides a valuable resource for academics, industry professionals, and policymakers navigating the complex and ever-evolving digital landscape.
We hope this book is a vital tool in your journey to enhance digital security and forensics practices, ultimately contributing to a safer and more secure digital world.
Dr. Gulshan Shrivastava,
School of Computer Science Engineering & Technology, Bennett University, Greater Noida, UP, India
Dr. Rudra Pratap Ojha,
Department of CSE, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Dr. Shashank Awasthi,
Department of CSE, GL Bajaj Institute of Technology & Management, Greater Noida, UP, India
Dr. Himani Bansal,
Department of CSE & IT, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, UP, India
Dr. Kavita Sharma,
Department of CSE, Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida, India
1Emerging Threats and Trends in Digital Forensics and Cybersecurity
Sethu Laksmi S., Lekshmi Das, Razil S.R. Khan and Pooja Chakraborty*
Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Annai Fathima College of Arts and Science, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract
In an era where the battlegrounds of warfare have transcended physical landscapes to the intricate realm of computers and technology, the adage that the next World War will be fought through circuits and algorithms holds true. The advent of smart technologies, epitomized by the remote computing, Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence, is reshaping urban landscapes into smart cities. These connected metropolises harness innovations, like the interweb and IoT, seamlessly integrating real-time data exchanges that enhance the day-to-day lives of their residents. As our world hurtles toward a digital frontier propelled by rapid technological evolution, the symbiosis between humanity and the digital realm becomes increasingly pronounced. However, this adaptation comes at a cost exposing vulnerabilities to cybercrimes and breaches of privacy that compromise the security of individuals. In response to these challenges, the field of cyber forensics has emerged encompassing domains, such as cloud forensics and investigations, into social networking platforms.
This chapter explores the multifaceted landscape of digital forensics, weaving together various disciplines including network forensics, computer jurisprudence, online gaming, and social media forensics. The dynamic evolution of technology has not only transformed the global landscape but has also driven this chapter toward a profound paradigm shift in its approach to understanding and addressing cybercrimes. Technologies, like cloud forensics and social media forensics, play a pivotal role providing cybersecurity experts with digital footprints essential for identifying and apprehending cybercriminals. By delving into the intricacies of digital forensics, the analysis within this chapter unravels the nuances of emerging fields. From the initial stages of recognition and pre-capture to the critical steps of inspection, affirmation, and evidence handling, the methodologies presented shed light on the novel dimensions of digital forensics in our technologically driven age.
Keywords: Digital forensics, cybercrime, cybersecurity, internet, network
1.1 Introduction
The emergence of Web 2.0 technologies and the recent strides in the digital landscape have fundamentally reshaped the global paradigm. The proliferation of digital tools has not only revolutionized the way we operate but has also given rise to new dimensions in cybercrime. As access to the web becomes more ubiquitous, coupled with sophisticated feature advancements, concerns about safety and security have reached unprecedented levels. Malicious techniques, tools, and software are deployed daily wreaking havoc on both well-known networks and those of individual users.
In response to this escalating digital arms race, computer forensics has emerged as a critical discipline. It encompasses the meticulous processes of displaying, verifying, assessing, restoring, and distinguishing data and artifacts from automated and digital devices ultimately safeguarding the privacy of users. However, as digital forensics methodologies evolve, so do the tactics employed by cybercriminals. There is a growing trend of scammers adeptly employing anti-forensics tools to either fabricate or completely obliterate digital evidence.
The field of computer forensics finds itself at the forefront of an ongoing battle facing new and distinctive challenges. Cyber threats and malicious software are equipped with highly intricate and potent anti-forensics strategies adding layers of complexity to the investigative process. Navigating this landscape requires a keen exploration of these daring adversaries while concurrently staying abreast of the latest advancements in digital forensics methodologies.
1.2 Threats Faced by Digital Forensics
The following are the challenges being faced by digital forensics (Figure 1.1):
1.2.1 Technical Challenges
The creation of digital apparatus has permitted equal admission to several chances and also generated the digital forensics empire to face different oppositions. Various researchers have been assessing and learning known digital forensics issues. Digital forensics systems are susceptible to technical threats that endanger the coherence of the systems. Technical oppositions are those theoretical warnings that can be consigned using be-alive functions, deals, and skillfulness. A portion of tremendous threats interrelated besides digital forensics is encoded, which is a vast capacity of data and inconsistency surrounded by distinct forensic requirements. Transmission technology promotion has made smart encipher products and facilities accessible and widely available. Because of this, the encipher code and grade are more complicated increasing the time and difficulty of presenting cryptoanalysis.
Figure 1.1 Types of threats faced by digital forensics.
1.2.2 Operational Challenges
Digital cameras are conscious in their scope of operation. Conventional IT environments attired on assumption data processing have blended interior event management operations to ensure the most outstanding security. This activity exercises invasion observation systems; log file analysis; and coordinating, identifying, and analyzing loss of data, hackers, and trespassers. For cloud users, these privacy experiences can be arduous. The safety occasion accommodates business and private data and is furnished with anti-forensic apparatus; scammers can abduct or demolish possible proof. The absence of a systematic plan of action and activity in computer forensics disgustingly risks proof removal and examination activity. With the expanding and maturing of digital mechanics, digital forensic inspection is no longer restricted to miniature computer systems but is now a visualized habitat that involves abnormal connections and various storage gadgets. The quick improvement in cloud computing forced corporations to powerfully exchange how they approve, enlarge, and scheme for IT master plans. Cloud forensics needs a preparation aspect, which further endangers computer forensic functioning. Physical analysis and conflict of hard drives are alternate credible functioning provocations that are looked after by computer forensics. Because of the frequent increase in capacity, a small portion of facts is used for inspection, and many figures are rejected. This led to a breach of the user’s security, which created extra threads to the computer’s forensic function.
1.2.3 Personnel-Related Challenges
Personnel-related challenge hazard is the honesty of digital proof. The most eminent challenge is the absence of experienced forensic staff, which gradually affects the activity of digital forensics. Another dare is a chain of custody. One of the most prominent problems in digital forensic examination is that it acquires mechanical controls of the proofs that are not feasible in digital surroundings. Because of the single automation process and administrational laws, productively controlling the chain of events is a primary challenge in digital forensics. From that, it can be entrenched that personnel-related threats make a substantial provocation to old forensic functions. Sometimes, computer forensic expertise either deteriorates to document their job or directly cannot ensure lawful applications that further create a significant warning to computer forensic analysis.
1.3 Cybersecurity Threats in 2023 (Figure 1.2)
1.3.1 Social Engineering
Social engineering persists as one of the mass vicious hacking methods used by scammers mainly because it depends on artificial misconception sooner than technical helplessness. This makes attackers more murderous, and breaching a security system is much easier. In 2023, social engineering strategy was a crucial procedure for acquiring workers’ information and aptitude. Over 75% of chosen computer attacks initiate with an email. Phishing is one of the top causes of data violation after using aptitude and crypto-worm.
Figure 1.2 Cybersecurity threats.
1.3.2 Third-Party Exposure
In the future, computer criminals will have easy access to less guarded networks and third parties with access to the hacker’s target. In 2023, third-party violations set off an even more critical warning as companies progressively take up individualistic fabricators to finish work once full-time workers control them. Since COVID-19, the FBI has clocked in a 300% expansion in cyberattacks. Several studies predict that distant work has made it accessible for scammers and computer criminals to take benefit of the crowd.
1.3.3 Configuration Mistakes
In 2023, the continued cooperation collision of the COVID-19 epidemic, sociopolitical disorder, and economic pressure were more likely to increase workers’ inattentive corrections establishing mass practicable chances for computer criminals.
1.3.4 Poor Cyber Hygiene
Cyber hygiene means routine practices concerning apparatus, like dodging defenseless Wi-Fi networks, and executing safeguards, like virtual private networks.
1.3.5 Cloud Vulnerabilities
Clouds would become more protective over time, but it is not valid. IBM reports that cloud vulnerabilities have risen much more than in the last 5 years. It is an ongoing, fastest developing cybersecurity market segment; new expansions in cloud safety involve the assumption of zero trust cloud safety planning. They are directed to function as though the network has already been agreed to execute needed corroboration at each step ends with every sign rather than permitting encouraged access to acknowledged devices within the network perimeter.
1.3.6 Mobile Device Vulnerabilities
Mobile device sensitivity has recently been aggravated by gains in distant work, which compelled the institutions to initiate the “come down your own devices” clause. Computer criminals have also started to choose mobile device administration systems, which are sarcastically intended to allow institutions to control company tools in a way that keeps mass-produced data protected.
1.3.7 Internet of Things (IoT)
The standard smart device is charged in less than 5 min of attaching to the network, and it is neglected that a digital home with a wide scale of IoT devices may be cast as having many cyberattacks.
1.3.8 Ransomware
Ransomware attacks are not a recent risk; they have become remarkably too costly in recent years. They also cost institutions in the form of earnings lost in the period when scammers gain system access for crypto-worms. Recently, ransomware intrusion continues and progresses as criminal corporations look to avoid the OFAC block list and put pressure on strategy for remission. Ransomware is a service provider that allows users to install predeveloped crypto virus apparatus to carry out attacks in interchange with a scale of all fortunate ransom remissions. Of all crypto-worm sufferers, 32% pay the payment; however, they only get 65% of their data in return.
1.3.9 Poor Data Management
Data operation is more than just holding your container and operation systems. Breaches produced by information management corrections can be just as expensive as higher-technology cybersecurity offenses. In 2023, experts expected to deliver a gained transfer away from considerable information toward the correct data. Automated programs are the same as spider webs. On that one side, it can be felt all around the whole construction.
1.3.10 Inadequate Post-Attack Procedures
Security holes should be stitched instantly next to a digital security attack. Most companies have been faced with a cybersecurity breach. In 2023, the most progressively popular element is acquiring a contribution model for reinforcement management operating system patching as a service outcome that constantly amends and smudges boosting patch speed and planning.
1.4 New Era of Technology and Their Risks
Each new technology has its challenges. Some of the latest technologies are autonomous vehicles, 5G, and robotic automation.
1.4.1 Autonomous Vehicles
Complete autonomous and self-driving vehicles, quite a decagon further becoming normal, are bound to transform a lot of things. This technology initiates challenges such as hacking and stealing. There is also concern regarding the accountability for these vehicles if the program or computer were to break down or misinterpret information.
1.4.2 Artificial Intelligence
With the expanding increase in artificial intelligence, there is a high possibility of a lack of success in carrying critical data. Artificial intelligence sets down the utmost trust in the credibility of data to construct its resolution, which means that our data must be more detailed than ever. There are further risks to values when it comes to AI.
1.4.3 Robotics and Robotics Process Automation
So many features of our lives inspire robotics. The necessity for robotics is also expanding due to the quantity of time we dominate with other things that need to be boosted. The current style of robotics is more evolved than robot vacuums. There is a lot of money and experimentation going into drones and robotic soldiers on the front line, and safety is engaged here, so ensuring yourself from corrections that drones build as resistance to human mistakes will become an element.
1.4.4 Internet of Things (IoT)
Besides more things attached to Wi-Fi and the network, there are many threats involving created data, hacking, destruction, and transporting additions to what the purchaser needs, but securing consumer information is progressively demanding. Mechanism gets traditional, and scammers accept/take on responsibility. Firmware and programs must continuously be modernized, and in time, the hardware must be restored because of the conflicts with recent technology and the incapacity to secure it from poor actors.
1.4.5 5G
5G can be a stimulant that will also operate a revolution in other regions of technology that we have before described in IoT, machine learning, and computerization. Presently, our mobile internet is very restricting. There have been, until now, slow speeds, finite distances, and a bounded number of device relationships. 5G will have low, faster speeds, many attached devices, and even decreased power utilization. The step from 2G to 3G to 4G was the greater extent, but the step from 4G to 5G is much more metamorphic. It will enlarge and unlock transformation in methods we have seen only in movies. The challenge is that protection and security will decrease behind the speed of development and alteration.
1.5 Challenges for Digital Forensics
The following are the challenges for digital forensics:
1.5.1 High Speed and Volumes
These are the goods of IoT and cyber-corporal systems tools and its consequences on current cyber forensics. Matters associated with obtaining, keeping, and extracting large quantities of information for forensic causes have been creating troubles for no less than a decapod. They are now compounded by accessibility and universal retailing of digital data.
1.5.2 Explosion Complexity
Traces are no longer constricted within one moderator even though they occur dispersed within various bodily or essential sites such as online social platforms, cloud assets, and personnel internet-attached storage components. Inadequately computerizing some duties has been highly considered by the cyber investigation group because it can rapidly degenerate the standard of investigation.
1.5.3 Development of Standards
Despite scientific progress, files are now the more well-liked technological remnants that should be collected, classified, and analyzed. The examination of cutting-edge cybercrimes compelled collectively extracting information or making use of storage and calculation. So, a prominent step for cyber forensics residents will be the advancement of correct outstanding themes and considerations.
1.5.4 Privacy-Preserving Investigations
Individuals show cyberspace into other sides of their lives mainly through online social platforms or websites. However, unhappily gathering data to rebuild and find an offense can seriously infringe on consumers’ isolation and is connected to another barrier when cloud computing is included.
1.5.5 Legitimacy
The recent framework is complicated and constructive often changing its difficulty at the boundary or assigning some duties to third parties.
1.5.6 Rise of Anti-Forensic Techniques
Offensive factors encircle encoding, confusion, and disguising methods involving data covering. Cyber forensics is essential to inquiry into the truth, frequently profoundly integrated with its cyber addition. Recent digital regions are exposed to cybercriminal occupation and cheating, which are dominant to financial losses or threats for people. So, the current wave of forensic equipment shall be arranged to help diversify investigators, maintain privacy, and provide extensibility.
1.6 Impact of Mobile Gadgets on Cybersecurity
The universal use of mobile devices is an attribute of immediate society, including workplace settings. Mobile devices naturally clash with cybersecurity since the kind of data saved and accessed on them gains security care. Using mobile devices more habitually has many benefits but also creates new cybersecurity issues such as higher financial threats, data loss, and non-compliance issues. Encouraging cybersecurity is critical in the current world because people depend more on computer networks to save and share their secured data and information. Mobile devices result in cybersecurity; the worldwide use of mobile devices is a quality of modern society involving workplace settings. Mobile devices have a significant influence on cybersecurity since the kind of data that are saved and accessed on them gains security considerations. The apps that users install onto a device are also subject to cybersecurity challenges, as is the device itself. It is not feasible to oppose the donation of mobile devices to increase cybersecurity. There is only education and being a cautious and learned mobile device user as a heal-all for cyberattacks. Cyberattacks can be reduced by keeping devices updated to avoid downloading desired data from unknown sources and concerning material related to personal gadgets. It is essential to notice the evolution in cyber safety. Then, the considerable use of mobile gadgets tends to cause uncertain company network cyber safety, which can affect the stealing of data and notable economic losses.
1.7 The Vulnerabilities in Wireless Mobile Data Exchange
Wireless mobile information interchanges are also known as Wireless Data Communication. It means the transference of digital information through wireless networks using devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Wireless information exchange gives many benefits involving comfort and flexibility. It also acquires different vulnerabilities, and it can agree with the protection and privacy of consumer data. Some of the challenges faced by wireless mobile data exchange are as follows:
1.7.1 Interception of Data
Wireless data communication uses radio waves to transfer data, which can be blocked by attackers using technical tools that gather financial information and personal data.
1.7.2 Malware Attacks
Wireless can be contaminated with malware, which can take data or manage devices. Malware can be circulated through different means such as phishing emails, malicious websites, and fake apps.
1.7.3 Rogue Access Points
Attackers can set up rogue access points to impersonate lawful networks and trick users into attaching to them. This allows attackers to stop data and steal sensitive facts.
1.7.4 Denial of Service Attacks
Scammers or attackers can introduce contradiction of system attacks to flood wireless platforms with traffic. This ultimately leads the system to become slow.
1.7.5 Weak Encryption
Wireless network encryption is used to secure data, but some protocols are feebler than others. Attackers can utilize weak encryption to increase data access and ensure the network’s protection.
To imitate these vulnerabilities, users can use strong passwords, keep away from unbarred Wi-Fi networks, keep devices and software up to date, and use virtual private networks (VPNs) to encode data. Network administrators can also execute security measures, such as firewalls, intervention detection and averting systems, and encryption contracts, to protect wireless networks from attacks.
Ways to protect data in wireless mobile data exchange:
Using strong passwords
Avoiding unbarred Wi-Fi connections
Holding devices and operating systems up to date
Using VPNs
Executing network security measures
Being careful of suspicious emails and websites
Using antivirus software
1.8 Network Segmentation and its Applications
Network segmentation allows network executives to manage the issue of network jams between subnetworks based on unfiltered plans. The group uses dispersion to upgrade auditing, fast performance, confine technical issues, and, most prominently, enhance security. With network partition, website security personnel have equipment with high power that is used to stop uncertified consumers and secure static IP addresses, even if unusual members or spiteful scammers have advantages such as purchaser’s personal data, corporate economic documents, and primarily personal intellectual property.
1.8.1 Applications
Guest wireless network
User’s group access
Public cloud security
PCI DSS observation
1.8.2 Benefits of Network Segmentation
Stronger network security
Less obstruction, better performance
Reduced scope of compliance
Safer endpoints and users
More superficial risk examination and damage control
1.9 Relationship Between Privacy and Security
1.9.1 Security
Security means protection as opposed to unauthorized access.
Security gives shelter for all types of data and facts involving the ones that are saved electronically.
Security can be attained without privacy.
Security programs target all kinds of facts and assets.
It applies security protocols to give confidentiality, honesty, and accessibility to information assets.
Security provides the potential to be confident that decisions are taken into consideration.
1.9.2 Privacy
Privacy explains the courage to protect personally identifiable theories.
Privacy means guarding sensitive information based on individuals and organizations.
Privacy cannot be attained without security data.
It means the preservation of private rights concerning the extraction of personal data.
1.10 Recent Trends in Digital Forensics
Now, this world is filled with social systems, and the development in the field of digital apparatus has increased the rate of cybercrimes. Therefore, it improved modern techniques and requirements and allowed hackers or cybercrime attackers to penetrate exceptionally well and quickly into this environment. So, to decrease the rate of cybercrime, digital forensics is used by certainty experts, scholars, and law enforcement bureaus. As there is development in computer forensics, scammers are utilizing anti-forensic apparatus to slow down or entirely delete digital proof. So, it is essential to identify the challenges and discover the recent trends in digital forensics.
1.10.1 Cloud Forensics
It has been used more frequently in recent years. It has been used to help numerous regions of human life. A large number of businesses examine this alteration. Many organizations and institutions move their consequences beyond the cloud every day. Switching to cloud infrastructure has several advantages, such as decreased IT cost, expansibility, access to mechanized updates, business progression, etc. This has led to various government and private companies’ universal acquisition of this technology. To ensure fortune and decrease the possibility of single-point negligence, these double data centers replicate information like the Communication Service Providers (CSPs). So, safety and the ever-expanding amount of cybercrimes present in these cloud surroundings are the major blocks for institutions moving their system to the cloud.
Cloud forensics is the most recent technology in forensic science, and it has also gained much attention because it provides an enormous resource pool, cost-essential solution, energy, and broad gain to storage. Cloud computing, a mixture of personal and public imitations, exists in security, database, integration, and software.
More institutions and organizations shift their services and products to the other side of the cloud daily. This is because of several advantages, including lowered cost of IT framework access to preprogrammed updates and increased stability. As a result, this technology has been accepted by the government and private companies. Also, the communication service provider has developed several information centers worldwide in several authorities that provide us the cloud favor for ensuring value success and service accessibility. The increased number of computer crimes is a vital hurdle for institutions to shift their systems to this program. Certain analysts see cloud forensics since forensic investigation is complex. So, cloud forensics has now acquired the attention of forensic examiners to solve cloud-based computing problems. This could now be explained as the possible application of cyber forensics in a cloud-based condition. The principle uses scientific and proven procedures and technological executions even in the cloud surroundings. These are done via informing, investigation, protection, assemblage, and recognition of digital information. The characteristics of this technology include a high degree of visualization and multitenancy. The series of steps included in cloud forensics depend upon the formation and the assisting model of cloud forensics.
1.10.2 Social Media Forensics
It is a section of the Network Forensics parts. Social networking websites, like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, etc., have been exposed to several attacks and risks. Social platform posts can benefit examiners if their capacity is sufficiently examined in the criminal investigation system. This is an open origin of data about potential observers, suspects, and criminals and is also perfect for describing. This technology also offers a modern and diverse subdivision of the origin of information such as text messages, contact lists, geolocation information, demographic data, etc. It also helps to start a blamable versus not blamable punishment by the sensibly identified social media evidence.
Technological advancement has now increased the acceptance of social media sites and become a chief source of enculturation. Consumers usually share their personal information, make accounts, and engage in social structure through these websites. Social media platforms include LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, etc. Dated now revealed several cyber risks and malware. A cyberattack on social platforms can occur outside the system, on the internet, or within the network. The attacks on the outside systems usually involve DDoS or DoS (Denial of Service) when the offense happens within the internet, including recovering cookies information. The social media platform is considered supreme for profiling and is an absolute data source regarding future offenders, suspects, and observers. Therefore, social media forensics is the upcoming field in cyber forensics. The studies show that this technology is essential for following digital evidence spread across social platforms and is exceptionally well organized in analyzing, verifying, and obtaining digital evidence. The first benefit of Google Image Search is that it is a technology that provides outcomes in a web directory tab. It has made an upcoming fashion in the field of cyber forensics.
1.10.3 IoT Forensics
It is a modern model that accesses ground expanding in the present atmosphere of mobile communications. This technology provides a broad scope of benefits for private and business implementations. The attack on ransomware, Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, demolition of the Internet of Things network, and cloud monitoring are the notable risks of IoT devices. It presents various distinctive and compound risks in the field of IoT Forensics. The usual origin of shreds of proof arrives from PCs, smartphones, servers, or gateways.
It is the recent pattern that has switched the way mobile communication happens. IoT is a trend that can be explained as the interrelationship of electronic gadgets that combines circumstantial knowledge and observing powers to implement tasks logically. The IoT devices involve smartphones, tablets, laptops, personal computers, and several inserted mobile gadgets. The extension of IoT has permitted consumers to transfer their information across various social websites. They can contact one another through a network using programming combined or directly. The growth of IoT Forensics is because it consists of several multiplex and individual risks in the field of cyber forensics. It allows investigators to trace cybercrimes, which helps prevent these types of crimes. This is merged with cyber forensic instruments and techniques. It produces a considerable quantity of information, and gaining data enlarges the workloads on the detail renters; therefore, IoT Forensics is the recent vogue in the cyber forensics domain due to its capacity to give circumstantial and cyber evidence.
1.11 Opportunities in this Field
1.11.1 USB Forensics
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is the broadly used warehouse nowadays. It is observed as it is productive for movability and dimensions. Usually, a USB director is used to ensure security surrounding the USB drive. So, because of this easy availability, it is also used in managing cybercrimes. The vulnerability is increased when the users go through the consumer certificate activity, which makes it suspicious of cyberattacks. So, the USB starts to generate an Internet Protocol address, and then it can be pre-owned to trace the USB by passing efforts. The USB is perfect for theft and demolition capacity of computer evidence due to easy accessibility, cheapness, and small form factors. Inadvertently or deliberately, spiteful programs and viruses can be invested in the system or stand-alone digital complex through USB. So, as an outcome, the scammers can entirely remove or conceal their hostile acts. Therefore, this USB software is now suited for an essential role in the field of digital inspection, which allows the forensic expert to detect evidence of USB connections. Forensic investigators can identify several file-related procedures involving opening documents or emulating pictures through such traces. In this forensic period, these gadgets can identify the footmarks in the computer surroundings essential in forensic inspection.
1.11.2 Intrusion Detection
Intrusion detection methods have now set off an essential zone of gain in computer forensics due to the rapidly increasing web attacks. It can inspect interference efforts that build an undependable or impractical system, obtain access to critical computer evidence, or control information. These mechanics are perfect for computer forensic examiners because they disclose doubtful online behavior. Forensic examiners can quickly identify even if the computer security mechanics have come to terms or if the information is being taken from uncertified locations. The forensic expert can use these data to separate the functional data, which can be introduced before a court of law as potential evidence. It has opened the way to various opportunities because it also detects market information to identify the character of the offense. The main intention is recognizing the capacity for spiteful effort and ambiguous calculations. It can also be pre-owned to withdraw digital proof in secular, lawful, and illegal happenings. The aim is referred to as analyzing the exploitation of computer webs and mechanics by both outermost perforations and employees. Forensic expertise can follow the activities of criminals while obtaining sufficient evidence. These systems can also make sure that the evidence that is obtained is safe.
