Essential Oils E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2178

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Essential oils This exciting new volume, written and edited by some of the world's foremost experts in the field, provides up-to-date information about the chemical structure of essential oils, as well as their therapeutic and biological actions. It defines their functional uses while evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of their application in various sectors. Essential oils have been used by global communities for centuries, for different purposes such as medicinal, flavoring, preservatives, perfumery, aromatherapy, dentistry, cosmetics, insecticide, fungicide, and bactericide, among others. Essential oils are natural and biodegradable substances, usually non-toxic or with low toxicity to humans. Essential oils are botanical products that have volatile nature, known for their special odor, and found to be effective in the treatment of oxidative stress, cancer, epilepsy, skin allergies, indigestion, headache, insomnia, muscular pain, respiratory problems, etc. Essential oils principally enhance resistance to abiotic stress and protection against aquatic herbivores. They possess antimicrobial, antifungal, antitumor, and antioxidant properties. Essential oils are known to be volatile and susceptible to degradation from various ambient conditions, including temperature, air, light, and humidity, which limits their applications. Encapsulation is a proven technique that can protect essential oils and enable their use in various applications. This book aims to provide current knowledge on the chemical structure, therapeutic, and biological activities of essential oils, as well as to describe their functional uses and assess the benefits and drawbacks of their usage in various fields. By exploring the latest research on essential oils and their encapsulation, this book offers valuable insights and practical guidance for anyone interested in the science and application of these fascinating compounds.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 A Methodological Approach of Plant Essential Oils and their Isolated Bioactive Components for Antiviral Activities

1.1 Introduction

1.2 General Chemical Properties and Bioactivity

1.3 Antiviral Mechanisms

1.4 Assessment of Antiviral Activities

via In Vitro

Assays

1.5 Activities of Essential Oils in Relation to Their Bioactive Components

1.6 Antiviral Activities as Compared to the Polarity of Bioactive Components

1.7

In Vivo

Studies of Essential Oils for its Antiviral Effect

1.8 Activities In-Respect to the Available Antivirals

1.9 Antiviral Essential Oils and Their Bioactive Components Loaded in Nanosystems

1.10 Conclusion

References

2 Essential Oils Used to Inhibit Bacterial Growth in Food

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Chemistry of Essential Oils

2.3 Essential Oils Against Microorganisms in Food Products

2.4 Application of Essential Oils in the Food Industry

2.5 Essential Oil Extraction Techniques

2.6 Conclusions

References

3 Industrial Application of Essential Oils

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Essential Oils

Conclusion

Declaration about Copyright

References

4 Influence of Biotic and Abiotic Factors on the Production and Composition of Essential Oils

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Essential Oil Characteristics

4.3 Factors Influencing Essential Oils Production and Composition

4.4 Abiotic Factors

4.5 Biotic Factors

4.6 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

References

5 Investigation of Antiviral Effects of Essential Oils

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Viruses: Structure, Characteristics, and Replication

5.3

In Vitro

Antiviral Activity and Mechanism of Action Investigations of Essential Oils and Essential Oil Components

5.4 The Antiviral Efficacy of Essential Oils on Viruses Affecting Different Body Systems

5.5 The Antiviral Efficacy of Essential Oils on Phyto-Pathogenic Viruses

5.6 The Antiviral Efficacy of the Essential Oils on Animal‑Infecting Viruses

5.7 Synergistic Effect of Essential Oil Components with Known Antiviral Drugs

5.8 Aromatherapy and its Role as an Antiviral Agent

5.9 Route of Essential Oil Administration

5.10 Nano-Formulated Essential Oils: A Promising Approach to Enhance Antiviral Activity

5.11 Safety of Essential Oils

5.12 Antiviral Essential Oils: Drawbacks versus Future Perspectives

5.13 Summary

References

6

Mentha

sp. Essential Oil and Its Applicability in Brazil

Introduction

6.1 Ethnobotany of the

Mentha

in Brazil

6.2 Chemical Constituents of

Mentha

Oil

6.3 Evaluation of Biological Activities of

Mentha

Essential Oils

6.4 Toxicity of Essential Oils from

Mentha

Used in Folk Medicine

6.5 Final Considerations and Perspectives

References

7 Microbial Influence on Plants for Enhanced Production of Active Secondary Metabolites

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Classes of Plants Secondary Metabolites

7.3 Secondary Metabolites Production from Plants

7.4 Interaction of Microorganisms in the Rhizosphere

7.5 Influence of Bacteria and Fungi on Plants

Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

8 Valorization of Limonene Over Acid Solid Catalysts

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Limonene Reactions with Alcohols

8.3 Hydration and Acetoxylation

8.4 Conversion of Limonene into

p

-Cymene

8.5 Conclusions

References

9 Elucidating the Role of Essential Oils in Pharmaceutical and Industrial Applications

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Extraction of Volatile Oils from Various Sources

9.3 Role of Essential Oils in Industry

9.4 Pharmacological Effects of Essential Oils

9.5 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgment

References

10 Uses of Essential Oils in Different Sectors

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Food and Beverage

10.3 Packaging

10.4 Cosmetic and Perfumery

10.5 Aromatherapy

10.6 Medical

10.7 Agriculture

10.8 Textile

10.9 Cleaning Household

10.10 Safety of Essential Oils

Conclusion

References

11 Chemical Composition and Pharmacological Activities of Essential Oils

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Anticancer

11.3 Anti-Inflammatory

11.4 Anti-Viral

11.5 Anti-Fungal

11.6 Antidiabetic

11.7 Larvicidal Activity

11.8 Anti-Bacterial

Conclusion

Conflicts of Interest

Acknowledgements

References

12 Augmented Stability and Efficacy of Essential Oils Through Encapsulation Approach

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Various Strategies for Encapsulation of Essential Oils

12.3 Conclusions

References

13 Antimicrobial Effect of Essential Oils for Food Application

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Biotechnological Strategies for Extracting Essential Oils for Food Application

13.3 Methods for Evaluating the EO Inhibitory Activity

In Vitro

13.4 Influence of Extraction Methods on the Antimicrobial Compounds in Essential Oils

13.5 Inhibition of Bacteria by Essential Oils in Food

13.6 Use of Essential Oils in Packaging or Food Contact Surfaces

13.7 Effect of Encapsulation of Essential Oils on the Inhibitory Activity against Bacteria

13.8 Conclusions

References

14 Antioxidant or Antimicrobial Nature of Essential Oils to Minimize Food Waste

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Essential Oils Chemical Composition

14.3 Essential Oils: Their Antimicrobial Activity and Mode of Action

14.4 EO Used in Food Packaging

14.5 Application of EO in Different Food Products

14.6 Legal Aspects of the Use of EO in Food

14.7 Conclusion

References

15 Application of Essential Oils to Biofilms

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Definition of Biofilm

15.3 Principles of Biofilm Formation

15.4 Benefits of Biofilm to Microorganism

15.5 Mechanisms of Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents

15.6 Global Threat of Biofilms

15.7 Essential Oils

15.8 Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Effects of EOs

15.9 Antibacterial Mechanism of Action

15.10 Strategies for Improving the Antibiofilm Efficacy of EOs

15.11 Common Methods for Determination of Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activities of EOs

15.12 Limitations of EOs Usage

Conclusion

References

16 Biological Applications of Essential Oil

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Sources of Essential Oil

16.3 Extraction of Essential Oil

16.4 Phytochemistry of Essential Oil

16.5 Biological Applications

16.6 Essential Oil Safety Issue

16.7 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

17 Current Status and Advancement of Biopesticides from Essential Oil for Agriculture, Food Storage, and Household Applications

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides in Agriculture

17.3 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides for Food Storage

17.4 Application of Essential Oil Biopesticides for Household Pests

17.5 Delivery of Biopesticides

17.6 Pesticidal Action of Biopesticides

17.7 Conclusion and Constraints

17.8 Acknowledgement

References

18 Essential Oil Used as Larvicides and Ovicides

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Important Aspects of Essential Oils

18.3 Larvicides and Ovicides

18.4 Conclusion

References

19 Essential Oil-Based Biopesticides

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Phytochemistry and Sources of Essential Oils

19.3 Biological Activity of Essential Oil Biopesticides

19.4 Synergistic Formulations of Essential Oils

19.5 Toxic Effects of Essential Oils on Mammals and Non-Target Organisms

19.6 Advantages, Current Constraints and Long-Term Prospects

19.7 Conclusion

References

20 Essential Oils Obtained from Algae: Biodiversity and Ecological Importance

20.1 Introduction

20.2 What are Essential Oils?

20.3 Chemical Structure and Biological Activity from Algal Essential Oils

20.4 Ecological Importance of Essential Oils in Marine System

20.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

21 Gas Chromatography-Olfactometry (GC‑O) of Essential Oils and Volatile Extracts

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Historical Aspects

21.3 GC-O Methodologies

21.4 Different GC-O Application to Assess for Essential Oils’ Odorants

Acknowledgements

Funding

References

22

In Vitro

and

In Vivo

Methods Used to Assess the Biological Potential of Essential Oils

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Chemistry of EOs

22.3

In Vitro

Methods Used to Assess the Biological Potential of EOs

22.4 Evaluation of Antioxidant Potential

22.5 Antimicrobial Activities of Essential Oils

22.6 Essential Oils as Natural Antimicrobial Agents

22.7 Anticancer Activity of Essential Oils

22.8 Cell Culture and Treatment

22.9 Determination of Cell Viability

22.10 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

23 Biological Potential of Essential Oils: Evaluation Strategies

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Biological Activities of Essential Oils

23.3

In Vitro

Assessment of Biological Activities

23.4

In Vivo

Assessment of Biological Activities

23.5 Conclusion

References

24 Algal Essential Oils and Their Importance in the Ecosystem

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Algal Essential Oils

24.3 Factors Affecting Algae Essential Oil Production

24.4 Ecological Importance of Algal Essential Oils

24.5 Pheromone Properties of Algal Essential Oils

24.6 Algal Essential Oils in “Beach-Odor”

24.7 Algal Essential Oils in “Off-Odor”

24.8 Antibacterial Activities of Algal Essential Oils

24.9 Antifungal Activities of Algal Essential Oils

24.10 Conclusion

References

25 Classical Methods for Obtaining Essential Oils

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Classical Methods for Extracting Essential Oils

25.3 Chromatographic Technique for Analysis of Essential Oil

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

26 A Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oil Determination Methods

Abbreviations

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Chemical Composition of EOs

26.3 EO and Its Group

26.4 Biological Activity: Pathway Cell

26.5 Classical Methods for Extraction of Essential Oils

26.6 Contemporary Extraction Methods

26.7 Conclusion

References

27 Encapsulation of Essential Oils

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Encapsulation

27.3 Process Simulation and Economic Evaluation

Concluding Remarks and Prospects

References

28 Encapsulated Essential Oils: Main Techniques to Increase Shelf-Life

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Coating Materials

28.3 Techniques for Essential Oil Encapsulation

28.4 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgment

References

29 Encapsulation Technologies of Essential Oils for Various Industrial Applications

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Encapsulation Technique

29.3 Conclusions

References

30 Extraction of Essential Oils with Supercritical Fluid

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Why Use Supercritical Carbon Dioxide to Extract Essential Oils?

30.3 Commercial Equipment Used for Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Essential Oils: Bench and Industrial Scale

30.4 Patent Survey

30.5 Economic Evaluation

30.6 Life Cycle Assessment

30.7 Current Outlook and Prospects

References

31 Advantages of Essential Oil Extraction Using Supercritical Fluid: Process Optimization and Effect of Different Processing Parameters on Extraction Efficiency

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Essential Oils

31.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

31.4 Superiorities of SFE over Other Extraction Methods

31.5 Extraction of EOs by Supercritical Fluid

31.6 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils Extracted via SFE

31.7 Optimization

31.8 Conclusion

References

32 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Essential Oils from Natural Sources: Mathematical Modeling and Applications

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Essential Oils

32.3 Conventional Extraction Methods

32.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

32.5 Typical Behavior and Mathematical Modeling

32.6 Parameters Affecting the CO

2

-Supercritical Fluid Extraction

32.7 Scale-Up and Economic Analysis

32.8 Applications

32.9 Final Considerations

References

33 Fundamentals, Mathematical Models, and Extraction Processes with Supercritical Fluids

33.1 Introduction: Background

33.2 Fundamentals of Supercritical Fluid Extraction

33.3 The Extraction Process

33.4 Separation

33.5 Recent Application of Supercritical Extraction of Essential Oils and Industrial Application of Supercritical Fluid Extraction Processes

33.6 Novel and Future Perspectives of Supercritical Fluid Extraction for Essential Oils

References

34 Supercritical CO

2

Extraction as a Clean Technology Tool for Isolation of Essential Oils

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Essential Oils

34.3 Applications of EOs

34.4 Extraction Methods

34.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SCFE)

34.6 Parameters Influencing SCFE of EOs

34.7 Optimization of SCFE Process

34.8 Mathematical Modeling of Extraction Curves

34.9 Coupled or Assisted SCFE

34.10 Conclusion

References

35 Classical Techniques for Extracting Essential Oils from Plants

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Market Value of Essential Oils

35.3 Sources of Essential Oils

35.4 Chemical Nature of Essential Oils

35.5 Extraction of Essential Oils

35.6 Conclusion

References

36 Acquisition of Essential Oils Through Traditional Techniques

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Obtaining Essential Oils

36.3 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgment

References

37 Essential Oils: Chemical Composition and Methods of Extraction

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Chemical Assemblage of Essential Oils

37.3 Extraction of Essential Oils Key Factors are Involved in Determining the Extraction Method

37.4 Conclusion

References

38 Dental Applications of Essential Oils

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Background

38.3 Preparation of Essential Oils

38.4 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils

38.5 Methods of Application of Essential Oil for Dental Uses

38.6 Therapeutic Actions of Essential Oil for Dental Uses

38.7 Dental/Oral Conditions Treated by Essential Oils

38.8 Dental Applications of Essential Oils

38.9 Safety Issues in Relation to Use of Essential Oils

38.10 Research

38.11 Conclusion

References

39 Essential Oil-Based Therapies

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Essential Oil-Rich Plants

39.3 How Essential Oil Therapy Works

39.4 Essential Oil-Based Therapies

39.5 How to Use EOs?

Conclusion

References

40 Clinical Applications of Essential Oils

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Aromatherapy

40.3 Mode of Action of Essential Oils in Aromatherapy

40.4 Classification of Aromatherapy

40.5 Essential Oils from Various Parts of the Plants Used in Aromatherapy

40.6 Essential Oil-Based Therapies

40.7 Safety Issues Related to Essential Oil-Based Therapy

40.8 Conclusion

References

41 Therapeutic Role of Essential Oils

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Uses of Essential Oils

41.3 Classification of Aromatherapy

41.4 Role of Essential Oil in Clinical Practice

41.5 Applications of Edible Essential Oil on Therapy

41.6 Risky EOs to Children

41.7 Side Effects of EOs

41.8 Therapeutic Guidelines and Safety Precautions

41.9 Conclusions

Declaration About Copyright

References

42 Plant Essential Oils and Their Constituents for Therapeutic Benefits

42.1 Introduction

42.2 Biological Activities

42.3 Conclusion

References

43 Essential Oils Used in Packaging: Perspectives and Limitations

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Essential Oils: Definition, Preparation, and Composition

43.3 Essential Oils: Medicinal and Biological Functions

43.4 Functional Application of Essential Oils

43.5 Active Packaging Material Based on Essential Oils

43.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

Index

Also of Interest

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Some common sources of antiviral essential oils.

Table 1.2 Few common bioactive essential oil components with antiviral propert...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Bioactivities attributed to different components in essential oils.

Table 2.2 Application of essential oils in the food industry.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 Plant parts that contain essential oils [4, 7, 9].

Table 3.2 Essential oils used in cancer treatment.

Table 3.3 Some crop products used as bio-pesticides [71, 78].

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Effect of different abiotic factors on essential oils production of ...

Table 4.2 Effect of biotic factors on essential oils production of some aromat...

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Effect of EOs and their derivatives on different viruses.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Species of the Mentha genus used by traditional Brazilian peoples an...

Table 6.2 Characterized compounds from

Mentha sp

.

Table 6.3 Biological antimicrobial activities of

Mentha

sp

.

Table 6.4 Lethal dose (LD) of Mentha in different studies.

Table 6.5 Inhibitory or cytotoxic concentration that kills 50% of cells or mic...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Types of microbial interaction.

Table 7.2 Types of interaction between microorganisms and hosts.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Limonene alkoxylation: conversion and selectivity.

Table 8.2 Limonene hydration and acetoxylation: conversion and selectivity.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Source, major compounds and extraction methods of essential oils.

Table 9.2 Oxygenated compounds in essential oils.

Table 9.3 Essential oil used in preservation of food products.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Industrial applications of essential oils.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Essential oils/compounds with their structures and activities.

Table 11.2 Plants and their constituents used for different types of cancers.

Table 11.3 Plants and their main constituents for anti-inflammatory activity.

Table 11.4 Plants/terpenes and their derivatives tested against virus infected...

Table 11.5 Plants and their main components for anti-virus activity.

Table 11.6 Essential oils for anti-fungal activity.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Various techniques for encapsulating essential oils.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Enzymes obtained from microorganisms used in the production of esse...

Table 13.2 Extraction methods used aiming to evaluate the effect on compounds ...

Table 13.3 Minimum inhibitory concentration and extraction methods used for di...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Examples of active films containing EOs as main constituents and th...

Table 14.2 Application of EO in different food products.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Chemical constituents and major components of common EOs.

Table 15.2 Common EOs with antibiofilm activity.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Usage of different plant parts in essential oil extraction.

Table 16.2 Applications of essential oils for common diseases.

Table 16.3 Effect of essential oils on the different cancer cells.

Table 16.4 Antibacterial activity of essential oils extracted from some medici...

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Types of essential oil in agricultural biopesticide, active compone...

Table 17.2 Plant essential oil and its use against storage pests.

Table 17.3 Types of essential oil in household biopesticide, active components...

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Different essential oils and their components which act as larvicid...

Table 18.2 Essential oils as ovicide against different insect and pest species...

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Some common plant essential oils and primary constituents.

Table 19.2 Examples of EOs exhibiting antibacterial activities against phytopa...

Table 19.3 Examples of EOs exhibiting herbicidal activities against various pl...

Chapter 20

Table 20.1 Pheromones from algae species.

Chapter 21

Table 21.1 Odorants identified through GC-O (posterior intensity method) in

B.

...

Chapter 22

Table 22.1 Antioxidant activities EOs of various plants.

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Therapeutic applications of essential oils obtain from various plan...

Table 23.2 List of essential oils and their mechanism of action against specif...

Table 23.3 Antioxidant assay methods.

Table 23.4 Tests to evaluate anti-inflammatory activity.

Table 23.5 Experimental models to evaluate anti-inflammatory activity.

Table 23.6

In vivo

antioxidant activity assessment.

Table 23.7 Anticancer activity assessment of essential oils.

Table 23.8 Assessment of antidiabetic potential of EOs.

Chapter 24

Table 24.1 Common compounds present in algal essential oils.

Chapter 26

Table 26.1 Sources of essential oils.

Chapter 27

Table 27.1 The process parameters used for the encapsulation of essential oils...

Table 27.2 Recent applications of encapsulated essential oils.

Chapter 28

Table 28.1 Encapsulation of EOs by different methodologies and coating materia...

Chapter 29

Table 29.1 Major chemical compounds identified in different essential oils.

Table 29.2 An overview of the common encapsulation methods of EOs (adapted fro...

Table 29.3 Applications of encapsulated essential oils in the food industry.

Chapter 30

Table 30.1 Recent reviewed works on the processing parameters used for SFE of ...

Chapter 31

Table 31.1 Comparison of between supercritical fluid extraction and convention...

Chapter 32

Table 32.1 Comparison of conventional extraction, pure CO

2

supercritical extra...

Table 32.2 Better parameters achieved in different SFE studies for yield and m...

Chapter 33

Table 33.1 Properties of some typical solvents for supercritical fluid extract...

Chapter 34

Table 34.1 Comparison of physical properties of organic compounds in different...

Table 34.2 Critical properties of common supercritical fluids [47].

Table 34.3 Summary of recent literature on SC-CO

2

extraction of EOs from plant...

Table 34.4 Optimization of SCF process for extraction of EOs from various plan...

Chapter 35

Table 35.1 List of essential oils with their chemical constituents.

Table 35.2 Essential oils extracted via hydrodistillation along with their sou...

Table 35.3 List of essential oils extracted via steam distillation along with ...

Table 35.4 Essential oils extracted via solvent extraction method along with t...

Table 35.5 Essential oils extracted by cold press method along with their sour...

Chapter 36

Table 36.1 Application of classical techniques for extracting essential oils f...

Chapter 37

Table 37.1 Essential oils from different parts of the plants.

Table 37.2 Major compound of essential oil and their MIC values against treatm...

Chapter 38

Table 38.1 Dental/oral conditions treated by essential oils.

Chapter 39

Table 39.1 Summary of commonly used essential oils for the treatment of differ...

Table 39.2 The therapeutic use of herbal essential oils in cardiovascular diso...

Chapter 40

Table 40.1 Major historical timelines showing evolution of modern aromatherapy...

Table 40.2 Essential oils used in cosmetic preparations [11].

Table 40.3 Essential oils used in massage aromatherapy.

Table 40.4 Some examples of essential oils intended for oral administration.

Table 40.5 Various parts of the plants having essential oils and their therape...

Table 40.6 Essential oil containing plants responsible for analgesic and anti-...

Chapter 41

Table 41.1 Sources of essential oils [6–8].

Table 41.2 Types and benefits of essential oils [6–8].

Table 41.3 Therapeutic uses of EOs [9].

Table 41.4 EO sources and applications on aromatherapy [18, 20].

Table 41.5 Role of essential oils in clinical practice [21–30].

Table 41.6 Therapeutic application of edible essential oils [31–35].

Table 41.7 Specific side effects of popular EOs [48, 49].

Table 41.8 Therapeutic guidelines based on age [50, 51].

Chapter 42

Table 42.1 Some popular plant derived essential oils.

Table 42.2 Some biological activities of EOs: Plants.

Chapter 43

Table 43.1 Active food packaging films based on plant extracts/essential oils.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Few proven antiviral essential oil components.

Figure 1.2 Replication cycle of virus.

Figure 1.3 Essential oil activities on specific target sites during the viral ...

Figure 1.4 Time of addition experiment.

Figure 1.5 Diagrammatic representation of expansion of the diameter of virus b...

Figure 1.6 Diagrammatic representation of capsid disintegration of Murine Noro...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 General overview of some essential oil activities and uses (Source:...

Figure 2.2 Scheme of the use of Edible films designed to extend the shelf life...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Oil extraction methods from different plant sources.

Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of EO’s in industries.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Environmental factors affecting the production of secondary metabol...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Chemical structures of some selected compounds from different essen...

Figure 5.2 Viral replication [28].

Figure 5.3

In vitro

assays for investigation of antiviral activities of EOs an...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Major chemical constituents identified in Mentha essential oils (1:...

Figure 6.2 Flowchart for the evaluation of the biological activities of Mentha...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Applications of plants secondary metabolites.

Figure 7.2 Classes of plants secondary metabolites and their examples.

Figure 7.3 Direct and indirect mechanism of action of plant growth-promoting R...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Alkoxylation reaction of limonene (R is an alkyl group of the alcoh...

Figure 8.2 Scheme of reaction between limonene and water.

Figure 8.3 Scheme of the limonene acetoxylation.

Figure 8.4 Scheme of limonene transformation into p-cymene.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Major properties & application of essential oils.

Figure 9.2 The key bioactive component of immortelle essential oil.

Figure 9.3 The 2D diagram of major bioactive components of German chamomile es...

Figure 9.4 Major chemical constituents of peppermint oil.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Leading industries in essential oil usage.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Plant source and their advantages.

Figure 11.2 Applications of essential oil obtained from various plant parts.

Figure 11.3 Main constituents for anti-cancer activity.

Figure 11.4 Terpenoids for anti-inflammatory.

Figure 11.5 Phenylpropanoid derivatives for anti-inflammatory activity.

Figure 11.6 Families of coronavirus.

Figure 11.7 Main constituents for antiviral activity.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 A diagrammatic representation of advantages of essential oil encap...

Figure 12.2 Representation of various nanoencapsulation techniques for essenti...

Figure 12.3 Schematic representation of fabrication of essential oils-loaded e...

Figure 12.4 Schematic representation of enhanced antimicrobial activity of mic...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Strategies for essential oils’ extraction.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 The action mechanisms of essential oils (self-drawn).

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Schematic representation of different stages of biofilm formation.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Extraction of essential oils.

Figure 16.2 Biological applications of essential oils.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 Publication of research articles and patents on essential oil biop...

Figure 17.2 Illustration of nanoencapsulation of essential oils.

Figure 17.3 Possible pesticidal action of essential oil biopesticides.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Important aspects of essential oils.

Figure 18.2 Essential oils as larvicides and ovicides.

Figure 18.3 Various essential oils that are useful as larvicide against mosqui...

Figure 18.4 Essential oil acting as ovicide against

P. humanus captis

(Human h...

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Chemical structures of selected components of essential oils.

Figure 19.2 Octopamine, acetylcholine, and GABA neurotransmitter.

Figure 19.3 Mechanism of action of EOs in essential oils in insects. (Adapted ...

Figure 19.4 General pathways of EOs’ pesticide action discussed in this chapte...

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Examples of chemical structures described in the algal essential o...

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Olfatometric port.

Figure 21.2 Differences between the consensus aromagram and Charm aromagram fo...

Figure 21.3 Aromagrams obtained through GC-O (posterior intensity method) for ...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Chemical structures of key compounds present in EOs.

Figure 22.2 The chemical structures of BHA (a), BHT (b), TBHQ (c), and ascorbi...

Figure 22.3 DPPH free radical scavenging principle (redraw and amended the mec...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 Biological activities of essential oils.

Figure 23.2 The arm-in-cage (AIC) test for measuring the efficacy of topical m...

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Ecological importance of algal essential oils.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 Components of different plants used for essential oil extraction.

Figure 25.2 The important component of EOs of different plant sources (MTH: Mo...

Figure 25.3 Maceration process to obtain EOs.

Figure 25.4 Working of mechanical treatment for essential oil extraction.

Figure 25.5 Old illustration of water distillation apparatus. Original, create...

Figure 25.6 The setup for EO extraction used in 1900s.

Figure 25.7 Hydro-distillation for extraction of essential oil using simple co...

Figure 25.8 (a) Clevenger-type apparatus and (b) Microwave assisted hydro-dist...

Figure 25.9 Graphical description of Ohmic-assisted hydro-distillation assembl...

Figure 25.10 Steam distillation apparatus.

Figure 25.11 Cold pressing apparatus for separation of oil.

Figure 25.12 An overview of soxhlet apparatus assembly.

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 (a) Single Isoprene unit; (b) Monoterpenes (acyclic); (c) Sesquite...

Figure 26.2 Formation of terpene from monoterpenes to sesquiterpenes.

Figure 26.3 Steam distillation method.

Figure 26.4 Extraction of EOs using hydrodistillation equipment.

Figure 26.5 Microwave steam-distillation method.

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1 The number of publications registered in Scopus database.

Figure 27.2 Schematic diagram of spray drying.

Figure 27.3 Schematic diagram of freeze drying.

Figure 27.4 Schematic diagram of electrospraying and electrospinning.

Figure 27.5 Schematic diagram of supercritical technology system for encapsula...

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 Main challenges for the encapsulation of essential oils by spray d...

Figure 28.2 Schematic representation of the complex coacervation process (Auth...

Figure 28.3 Schematic representation of the extrusion technologies. (a) jet-cu...

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 General encapsulation technique of essential oils and applications...

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Schematic comparative diagram of methods used to extract essential...

Figure 30.2 Models and stages of LCA.

Figure 30.3 A life-cycle inventory process applied to a SFE of essential oil u...

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Supercritical fluid extraction unit. Taken with permission from [3...

Figure 31.2 Impact of particle size on the extraction yield of sesame oil (50°...

Chapter 32

Figure 32.1 Stages of CO

2

-SFE. Adapted from: [56].

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1 Number of publications focused on the extraction of essential oils...

Figure 33.2 Representative phase diagram of water. CP: critical point, Tc: Cri...

Figure 33.3 (Left) Density isotherms of carbon dioxide, (Right) Viscosity isot...

Figure 33.4 Typical lab-scale supercritical fluid extraction setup. (1) CO

2

cy...

Figure 33.5 Typical industrial-scale supercritical fluid extraction process. (...

Figure 33.6 (a) Typical extraction kinetic curve. (b) Two-step extraction kine...

Figure 33.7 Effect of pressure on the extraction of thyme with supercritical c...

Figure 33.8 Examples of the supercritical CO

2

cycles in compressor (left) and ...

Chapter 34

Figure 34.1 A generic phase diagram of pure compound.

Figure 34.2 Flow diagram of a supercritical fluid extraction process.

Chapter 35

Figure 35.1 Structures of some essential oil components.

Figure 35.2 Factors affecting the choice of extraction methods of essential oi...

Figure 35.3 Classical and conventional extraction methods of essential oils.

Figure 35.4 Flow diagram of hydrodistillation process.

Figure 35.5 Flow diagram of steam distillation process.

Figure 35.6 Flow diagram of solvent extraction process.

Figure 35.7 Flow diagram of cold pressing method/expression process.

Figure 35.8 Diagram of cold enfleurage process.

Figure 35.9 Diagram of maceration process.

Chapter 36

Figure 36.1 Representation of the steam distillation system.

Figure 36.2 Representation of the mechanism for extracting essential oil from ...

Chapter 37

Figure 37.1 Chemical structure of various compounds found in different essenti...

Figure 37.2 Schematic diagram for apparatus of hydrodistillation. Figure adapt...

Figure 37.3 Schematic diagram for apparatus of hydro diffusion.

Figure 37.4 Schematic diagram of cold pressing extraction.

Figure 37.5 Schematic diagram for apparatus of steam distillation.

Figure 37.6 Flow diagram of supercritical fluid extraction apparatus. Figure a...

Figure 37.7 Schematic diagram for microwave-assisted extraction of essential o...

Figure 37.8 Schematic diagram for apparatus of the ultrasound-assisted extract...

Chapter 38

Figure 38.1 Eugenol oil.

Chapter 39

Figure 39.1 Graphic expression of citronella grass.

Figure 39.2 Graphic expression of peppermint.

Figure 39.3 Graphic expression of Lavender.

Figure 39.4 Graphic expression of tea-tree.

Figure 39.5 Graphic expression of Eucalyptus.

Figure 39.6 Graphic expression of Chamomile.

Figure 39.7 Graphic expression of Patchouli.

Figure 39.8 Graphic expression of Ylang-Ylang.

Figure 39.9 Graphic expression of Bergamout.

Figure 39.10 Graphic expression of Geranium.

Figure 39.11 Graphic expression of Lemon.

Figure 39.12 Graphic expressions of Eczema.

Figure 39.13 Possible side-effects and symptoms of some essential oils when us...

Chapter 40

Figure 40.1 Classification of aromatherapy.

Figure 40.2 Essential oil-based therapies.

Figure 40.3 Various pain conditions in which EOs are used.

Figure 40.4 Bioactive components of essential oil used for their analgesic and...

Chapter 41

Figure 41.1 Applications of essential oils on therapy.

Figure 41.2 Applications of edible essential oils on therapy.

Chapter 42

Figure 42.1 World Map of the countries with the highest number of publications...

Figure 42.2 Timeline of important events in history of essential oils.

Figure 42.3 Some of the components of

Citrus limon

essential oil with their st...

Figure 42.4 Membrane rupture caused by EO in a bacterial cell, resulting in ba...

Figure 42.5 Cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria.

Figure 42.6 Common mode of action of essential oils on bacteria.

Chapter 43

Figure 43.1 Essential oils extraction techniques.

Figure 43.2 Functional/industrial application of essential oils.

Figure 43.3 Functional application forms of essential oils.

Figure 43.4 Advantages of essential oils.

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

Also of Interest

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

Pages

ii

iii

iv

xxvii

xxviii

xxix

xxx

xxxi

xxxii

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

125

126

127

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

157

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

264

265

266

267

268

269

270

271

272

273

274

275

276

277

278

279

280

281

282

283

284

285

286

287

288

289

291

292

293

294

295

296

297

298

299

300

301

302

303

304

305

306

307

308

309

310

311

312

313

315

316

317

318

319

320

321

322

323

324

325

326

327

328

329

330

331

332

333

334

335

336

337

338

339

340

341

342

343

344

345

346

347

348

349

350

351

352

353

354

355

356

357

358

359

361

362

363

364

365

366

367

368

369

370

371

372

373

374

375

376

377

378

379

380

381

382

383

384

385

386

387

388

389

390

391

392

393

394

395

396

397

398

399

400

401

402

403

404

405

406

407

408

409

410

411

412

413

414

415

416

417

418

419

420

421

422

423

424

425

427

428

429

430

431

432

433

434

435

436

437

438

439

440

441

442

443

444

445

446

447

448

449

450

451

452

453

454

455

456

457

458

459

460

461

462

463

465

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473

474

475

476

477

478

479

480

481

482

483

484

485

486

487

488

489

490

491

492

493

494

495

496

497

498

499

500

501

502

503

504

505

506

507

508

509

510

511

512

513

514

515

516

517

518

519

521

522

523

524

525

526

527

528

529

530

531

532

533

534

535

536

537

538

539

540

541

542

543

544

545

546

547

548

549

551

552

553

554

555

556

557

558

559

560

561

562

563

564

565

566

567

568

569

570

571

572

573

574

575

576

577

578

579

580

581

582

583

584

585

586

587

588

589

590

591

592

593

594

595

596

597

598

599

600

601

603

604

605

606

607

608

609

610

611

612

613

614

615

616

617

619

620

621

622

623

624

625

626

627

628

629

630

631

632

633

634

635

636

637

638

639

640

641

642

643

644

645

646

647

648

649

650

651

652

653

654

655

656

657

658

659

660

661

662

663

664

665

666

667

668

669

670

671

672

673

674

675

676

677

678

679

680

681

682

683

684

685

686

687

688

689

690

691

692

693

694

695

696

697

698

699

700

701

702

703

704

705

707

708

709

710

711

712

713

714

716

715

717

718

719

720

721

722

723

724

725

726

727

728

729

730

731

732

733

734

735

736

737

738

739

741

742

743

744

745

746

747

748

749

750

751

752

753

754

755

756

757

758

759

760

761

762

763

764

765

767

768

769

770

771

772

773

774

775

776

777

778

779

780

781

782

783

784

785

786

787

788

789

790

791

792

793

795

796

797

798

799

780

801

802

803

804

805

806

807

808

809

810

811

812

813

814

815

816

817

818

819

820

821

822

823

824

825

826

827

828

829

830

831

832

833

834

835

836

837

838

839

840

841

842

843

844

845

846

847

848

849

850

851

852

853

854

855

856

857

858

859

860

861

862

863

864

865

866

867

868

869

871

872

873

874

875

876

877

878

879

880

881

882

883

884

885

886

887

888

889

891

892

893

894

895

896

897

898

899

900

901

903

904

905

906

907

908

909

910

911

912

913

914

915

916

917

918

919

920

921

922

923

924

925

926

927

928

929

930

931

933

934

935

936

937

938

939

940

941

942

943

944

945

946

947

948

949

950

951

953

954

955

956

957

958

959

960

961

962

963

964

965

966

967

968

969

970

971

972

973

974

975

976

977

978

979

980

981

982

983

984

985

986

987

988

989

990

991

992

993

994

995

996

997

998

999

1000

1001

1002

1003

1004

1005

1006

1007

1008

1009

1010

1011

1012

1013

1014

1015

1016

1017

1018

1019

1020

1021

1022

1023

1024

1025

1026

1027

1028

1029

1030

1031

1032

1033

1034

1035

1036

1037

1039

1040

1041

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Essential Oils

Extraction Methods and Applications

Edited by

Inamuddin

This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119829355

Front cover image: Pixabay.comCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

Essential oils have been used by global communities for centuries, for different purposes such as medicinal, flavoring, preservatives, perfumery, aromatherapy, dentistry, cosmetics, insecticide, fungicide, bactericide, among others. Essential oils are natural and biodegradable substances, usually non-toxic or with low toxicity to humans. Essential oils are botanical products with having volatile nature and are known for their special odor and are found effective in the treatment of oxidative stress, cancer, epilepsy, skin allergies, indigestion, headache, insomnia, muscular pain, and respiratory problems, etc. Essential oils principally enhance resistance to abiotic stress and protection against aquatic herbivores. They possess antimicrobial, antifungal, antitumor, and antioxidant activities. However, essential oils are easily lost or degraded under ambient conditions (temperature, air, light, and humidity), resulting in limited applications. So, their encapsulation is one of the proven techniques to successfully protect essential oils and enable various applications. The purpose of this book is to offer current knowledge on essential oils’ chemical structure, therapeutic, and biological activities, to describe their functional uses, and to assess the benefits and drawbacks of their usage in many fields.

Essential Oils: Extraction Methods and Applications addresses the topics related to methods of extracting essential oils, biological and therapeutic applications, their uses in different sectors of the industry, and will also address methods and applications of encapsulated essential oils. In addition, we cover issues such as the latest biological applications of essential oils, as well as traditional and modern methods for extracting essential oils. This book should be useful for different industries like pharma, perfumery, flavoring, perfumery, aromatherapy, cosmetics, others and also useful for faculty, researchers, students from academics, and laboratories which are linked to essential oils and their useful properties, applications of the different paradigms. The summaries of the work reported in the following 43 chapters are as follows:

Chapter 1 discusses the plant essential oils and their isolated bioactive components for their potential antiviral activities in detail. The fundamental knowledge of antiviral properties of essential oil along with their mechanisms of actions, efficacy, and safety is needed for their targeted drug delivery systems, which are consequential to their further research, new drug design, and further applications.

Chapter 2 covers the use of essential oils derived from aromatic plants as a safer and more nutritious alternative to artificial preservatives. Essential oils’ natural properties, extraction procedures, and activity against pathogenic and deteriorating microorganisms, as well as their uses in food preservation, are discussed.

Chapter 3 reviews the sources and composition of various essential oils and the variety of extraction methods. Primarily, it focuses on applying essential oils in different industrial sectors like chemicals, food preservation, pharmaceutical, and pesticides, etc.

Chapter 4 focuses on the effect of various abiotic and biotic factors (drought, temperature, salt, heavy metals, UV light, living organisms, etc.) on essential oils production and composition. The importance of these factors to adequate agricultural practices for aromatic plants cultivation and to obtain high-quality essential oils is also discussed.

Chapter 5 emphasizes the potential antiviral effect of essential oils by reviewing some recent literature. It illustrates the different methods implemented to investigate the in vitro antiviral activity of EOs and their components along with their mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the effectiveness of EOs against several viral illnesses that impact human body systems, as well as some plants and animals, are also highlighted.

Chapter 6 discusses Mentha species and their chemical compositions on account of their biological activity as reported by the scientists, with a focus on microbiological activity. Mentha piperita L. is judged to be the most promising of the species offered to be used as an herbal medication.

Chapter 7 describes the plant secondary metabolites that play a significant role as anti-oxidants, anti-cancerous, anti-microbial, and have medicinal properties. The influence of microbes on plants is elaborated in the context of the enhanced production of these secondary metabolites in various stress conditions, with mechanisms of contact briefly elaborated.

Chapter 8 details the valorization of limonene (an essential oil) into compounds with high commercial value by different reactions, such as alkoxylation, hydration, and acetalization over heterogeneous catalysts. Also, the conversion of limonene into p-cymene is studied. Different solid materials, like clays, zeolites, heteropolyacids, and silica with sulfonic groups towards the valorization of limonene are discussed.

Chapter 9 discusses the role of essential oils in various industrial applications, focusing on pharmaceutical, cosmetic manufacturing, food processing, and preservation industry. The major focus dealt with volatile bioactive compounds in essential oils that are responsible for altering synthetic additives with natural composites in food, cosmetics, and medicines.

Chapter 10 discusses the most common uses of essential oils in various sectors. It focuses on the increased use of essential oils in the food, beverage, packaging, cosmetics, perfumery, medical, agriculture, textile, and cleaning industries in line with the increasing awareness and demand of consumers for natural ingredients.

Chapter 11 deals with various pharmacological activities of essential oils and their major chemical components. The mechanism of action and pharmacological targets of various essential oils particularly anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral, antifungal, larvicidal, antidiabetic, and antibacterial activities are discussed in the present chapter. Additionally, the potential efficacy of terpenoids and phenylpropanoids in the treatment of cancer, inflammation, and viral infections are illustrated in this chapter.

Chapter 12 reveals the stability and efficacy associated challenges that are often encountered by essential oils that led to compromised efficiency. Further, the chapter gives insight to overcome these challenges through various encapsulation techniques, their formulation aspect, and the advantages as per the reported literature.

Chapter 13 discusses the antimicrobial effect of essential oils and their food application. Additionally, the biotechnological strategies for extracting essential oils for food application and the methods for evaluating the essential oil’s inhibitory activity are discussed. Moreover, the influence of extraction methods on the antimicrobial compounds in essential oils is also presented.

Chapter 14 epitomizes the application of essential oils in food packaging and food products. Essential oils sources such as plants, fruit, and flowers and their chemical composition are presented in this chapter. The main focus of this chapter is to highlight the potential application of essential oils as an antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant agent in different food packaging and products.

Chapter 15 discusses the use of essential oils against biofilm-forming bacteria. The formation and organization of biofilms and their role in acquiring antibiotic resistance are presented. The main focus is given to provide information on the nature of essential oils, their antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities, and their mechanism of action.

Chapter 16 discusses the biological applications of essential oils such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities and their usage in the treatment of various ailments such as cancer, respiratory tract diseases, cardiovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes. Additionally, the sources and extraction process of essential oil are also discussed.

Chapter 17 details the various essential oils used as biopesticides in agriculture, food storage, and the household. The delivery and the pesticidal modes of action of biopesticides are discussed in detail. The target pest and the active ingredients responsible for the pesticidal action are also presented.

Chapter 18 explicitly describes the larvicidal and ovicidal potential of essential oils with special reference to potent larvicidal activity against mosquito vectors including Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi, A. Albopictus, and the ovicidal activity against human head lice (Pediculus humanus), domestic animal gastrointestinal nematode (Haemonchus contortus) and American bollworm (Armigera Helicoverpa Hubner).

Chapter 19 discusses the primary applications of essential oils as pesticides and their biological activity with a different class of organisms and discusses potential directions for the use of essential oils as pesticides of the future. Additionally, the role of essential oils synergistic compositions and toxic effects of essential oils on non-target organisms are also studied. The main aim of this chapter is to explain the present state of knowledge and recent advances in the phytochemistry of plant essential oils, their biological activity in a variety of species, and their potential as biopesticides.

Chapter 20 details the scientific advancement and discoveries about the biological potential of essential oils from micro and macroalgae, which has been arousing interest in the most diverse industrial applications. The major focus is attributed to the ecological importance and biodiversity of micro and macroalgae under this new market perspective.

Chapter 21 explains how to comprehend the complexity of olfactory responses by developing instrumental ways for objectively analyzing them. Particularly, gas chromatography-olfactometry technology has been profusely employed. An overview of data that may be collected using several gas chromatography-olfactometry techniques on essential oils is described, along with the procedures and foundations involved.

Chapter 22 covers key in vitro and in vivo methods to assess essential oils with a brief description of different protocols. Essential oils are found effective in the treatment of oxidative stress, cancer, skin allergies, headache, insomnia, muscular pain, and respiratory problems.

Chapter 23 details the various evaluation strategies adopted to assess the biological potential of different essential oils. This chapter aims at bringing up a summary and critical appraisal of the reported methods, both in vitro and in vivo, for assessment of the biological activities of essential oils.

Chapter 24 discusses the importance of algal essentials in the ecosystem. It further details environmental factors affecting the production of essential oils and their organic volatile compounds by algae. Their interesting bioactivity that can offer significant benefits and biotechnological relevance are also presented.

Chapter 25 is a good set of classical methods of obtaining essential oils along with their merits and demerits in terms of efficiency, cost, handling, and compatibility. The classical methods, owing to their simplicity, handling, and cost-effectiveness are mostly preferred in all sectors of extracting essential oils.

Chapter 26 discusses different techniques for the extraction of essential oils from plant-based materials. The biological activity, different pathways, and chemical constituents are also discussed in the chapter to investigate the suitable treatment for the extraction purpose.

Chapter 27 reviews the physicochemical/physical methods used to encapsulate essential oils, and the recent application of capsules. Green and non-thermal methods, such as supercritical fluid-based technologies along with electro-spraying reduce processing time, hence enhance encapsulation efficiency, and prolong the shelf life of encapsulated essential oils when compared to conventional processes.

Chapter 28 accounts for general aspects about the techniques of coacervation, extrusion, nano-precipitation, emulsification, spray drying, thin-film hydration method, and supercritical fluid technology and their applications in the essential oils encapsulation.

Chapter 29 presents encapsulation technology of essential oils, including preparation of emulsions, the encapsulation methods, and the release of encapsulated products. Several examples of successful applications and recommendations for future investigations of the encapsulated essential oil products into various industries, such as foods, cosmetics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals are also discussed.

Chapter 30 reviews the advantages of the supercritical fluid extraction of essential oils and updates the readers on the current efforts to reduce the cost of products and the environmental impact provoked by SFE. Also, this chapter discussed in detail the advances in the manufacture of commercial supercritical fluid extraction equipment, the studies of economic feasibility, and the life cycle assessment of supercritical fluid extraction to improve the sustainability of this process.

Chapter 31 discusses the superiority of supercritical fluid extraction of essential oils over other conventional extraction techniques. Furthermore, the effect of different process parameters influencing the efficiency of supercritical fluid extraction is deliberated upon. Optimization of supercritical fluid extraction process is reviewed using different statistical experiments like Box-Behnken design, Central composite design, Taguchi design, and artificial neuron network.

Chapter 32 examines the benefits of using supercritical fluid to extract essential oils, including process parameters and their impacts, as well as examples from the literature. Information regarding industrial interest is also exemplified, such as the scale-up and economic analysis. The importance of mathematical modeling along with its applications are also discussed.

Chapter 33 summarizes the fundamentals of the extraction of essential oils with supercritical fluids at a laboratory, pilot, and industrial scale. The effects of process parameters are analyzed based on thermodynamics and available mathematical models. Finally, the combination of novel green technologies with supercritical fluids like ultrasound, microwave, or membrane separation is briefly discussed.

Chapter 34 provides a basic understanding of supercritical fluids and the role of supercritical CO2 in essential oils extraction. The influence of process parameters in the supercritical fluid extraction process along with optimization using the design of experiments is explained. The applications of various mathematical models for describing extraction curves of supercritical fluid extraction are also presented.

Chapter 35 discusses the classical extraction methodologies of essential oils. The selection of extraction method affects the yield of essential oils as well as their effect on the physicochemical properties. The major focus is given to communicate the chemical composition of essential oils and their pharmaceutical applications.

Chapter 36 addresses the main traditional techniques for extracting essential oils from plant matrices. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed, mainly in terms of their specificities and process parameters as reported in the specialized literature.

Chapter 37