Estuarine Cities Facing Global Change E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
At the heart of the globalization of trade and of economies, estuarine cities are at the forefront of accelerating global change. They must confront the tensions generated by their demographic and socio-economic attractions and their ecological vulnerability linked to their location in trade flows, downstream of rivers and at the interface between land and sea. Using the examples of the estuarine cities of the Gironde, the Loire and the Seine and their specific challenges, such as climate change, flood risk, biodiversity, port flows and urban planning, this book analyzes their emerging trajectories guided by proactive governance of global change.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Introduction
References
Part 1: The Water of the Cities and the Water of the Fields
1 The Governance of Socio-Ecological Interdependencies
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Drinking water supply in Gironde, the history of a transfer from surface water to deep groundwater
1.3. Metropolitan territorial conceptions in the face of forestry references
1.4. The refinement of models and the rising criticism
1.5. Conclusion
1.6. References
2 Ecological Engineering in a Controversial Drinking Water Production Project
2.1. The socio-hydrogeological configuration of the Landes du Médoc catchment area (Gironde)
2.2. An ecological engineering solution
2.3. How much of the extracted water must be reinjected?
2.4. When and where should the extracted water be reinjected?
2.5. Conclusion
2.6. References
Part 2: Protecting Against Risks, by the Estuary, and for the Estuary
3 Living in a City Exposed to Flood Risk
3.1. Residential location and risk as economic issues
3.2. Empirical strategy of the hedonic price model
3.3. Bordeaux Métropole study area and data
3.4. A multifaceted city
3.5. Conclusion
3.6. References
4 The Ecological Restoration of Estuaries
4.1. Habitats, biodiversity and ecosystem services
4.2. Causes of the ecological degradation of estuaries
4.3. Ecological restoration of estuaries for the protection of biodiversity
4.4. Examples of ecological restoration in estuaries
4.5. Conclusion
4.6. References
5 Sensemaking in the Face of Estuarine Flood Risk Mitigation
5.1. The conceptual framework of narrative analysis
5.2. Ethical theories invoked and associated meta-narratives
5.3. For deliberative risk governance
5.4. Conclusion
5.5. References
Part 3: When the Estuary Makes the City
6 The Estuarine City as an Allegory for Changes in Solidarity
6.1. Cleansing the metropolitan idea of the stench of its emissions and ecological irresponsibility
6.2. From the conquest of land to the recognition of territories
6.3. From equality to territorial cohesion
6.4. Conclusion
6.5. References
7 Nantes and the Loire
7.1. Emergence of the estuarine dimension: from the city of Nantes–Saint-Nazaire to the opening of the “Terre d’Estuaire” museum
7.2. When Nantes and the Loire drifted apart: a progressive denial of the city’s estuarine dimension
7.3. Building a new relationship between Nantes Métropole and its estuary: the desire for the Loire
7.4. Conclusion
7.5. References
Part 4: Anticipating the Future of Estuarine Cities
8 Past and Future Socio-Ecological Pathways of the Seine Estuary
8.1. The Seine estuary as a socio-ecological system
8.2. The successive phases of port traffic
8.3. The energy supply of the Seine basin
8.4. The contribution of ports to the agri-food system of the Seine basin
8.5. The era of globalized trade in manufactured goods
8.6. What is the future of the Seine estuary?
8.7. Conclusion
8.8. References
9 Metropolitan Trajectories for Anticipatory Governance of Urban Biodiversity
9.1. The challenges of an attractive city faced with ecological injunctions: contextual elements of emerging governance
9.2. The cognitive stakes of a collaborative territorial prospective
9.3. Scenarios of metropolitan trajectories: contrasted political–ecological footprints
9.4. Conclusion
9.5. References
Conclusion
References
List of Authors
Index
Other titles from iSTE in Ecological Science
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
Table of the key parameters used in the heuristic model
Table 2.2
Enduring drawdown (areas and percentages) in the unconfined aquife
...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1
Variables used in the model and their main characteristics
Table 3.2
Results of the SDM estimation
Table 3.3
Direct, indirect and total effects of variables on prices. The ris
...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1
Map showing territorial interdependencies through the substitutio
...
Figure 1.2
Technical dimension of the dewatering of an aquifer in the surfac
...
Figure 1.3
Evolution of the maximum impact on the environment (Phonème V3):
...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1
Potential impacts of water collection in the confined aquifer.
Figure 2.2
Percentage of permanent drawdown in the unconfined aquifer as a f
...
Figure 2.3
Percentage of permanent drawdown in the unconfined aquifer as a f
...
Figure 2.4
Percentage of permanent drawdown in the unconfined aquifer as a f
...
Figure 2.5
Piezometric maps showing the free aquifer simulated by different
...
Figure 2.6
A wide rather than deep drainage ditch to avoid draining wetlands
...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
a) The Bordeaux city and its neighboring territories. b) location
...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1
The systemic basis of ecological restoration.
Figure 4.2
Active and passive responses to ecosystem degradation
Figure 4.3
Aerial view of the Mortagne marsh in 1957, before the constructio
...
Figure 4.4
Aerial views of the Mortagne marsh. Top left, the polder before t
...
Figure 4.5
Dike retreat on the Scheldt estuary, the Hedwig-Prosper polder (f
...
Figure 4.6
Reversal of the dike at the Lillo site on the Scheldt estuary in
...
Figure 4.7
Controlled reduced tide (CRT) operation. a) Storage area operatio
...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Map showing the course of the Seine from Le Havre to Pont-de-l’Ar
...
Figure 8.2
Morphological transformation of the Seine estuary and evolution o
...
Figure 8.3
Main goods making up the import and export traffic of the ports o
...
Figure 8.4
Primary energy consumption in the Seine basin since the mid-19th
...
Figure 8.5
a) Production and importation of P ores and phosphate fertilizers
...
Figure 8.6
a) Territorial specialization of agricultural regions in northwes
...
Figure 8.7
a) Cereal production, human and animal consumption of cereals, an
...
Figure 8.8
a) Changes in employment in the Seine basin from 1968 to 2016. b)
...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1
Cognitive model of the metropolitan socio-ecological system (Sahr
...
Figure 9.2
Scenario trajectories co-constructed by the participants (Sahraou
...
Figure 9.3
Mapping the five prospective scenarios (Sahraoui et al. 2021).
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Conclusion
List of Authors
Index
Other titles from iSTE in Ecological Science
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Series EditorFrançoise Gaill
Estuarine Cities Facing Global Change
Towards Anticipatory Governance
Edited by
Denis SallesGlenn MainguyCharles de Godoy Leski
Published with the support of the Centre Emile Durkheim(CNRS/Sciences Po Bordeaux/University of Bordeaux/Idex)
First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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© ISTE Ltd 2023The rights of Denis Salles, Glenn Mainguy and Charles de Godoy Leski to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023930943
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-710-1
About the Authors
Gilles Billen is Emeritus Director of Research at CNRS, attached to the UMR Metis at the University of Sorbonne, France. His research focuses mainly on agro-food systems from a biogeochemical perspective.
Henrique Cabral is Director of Research at INRAE, Cestas. He was a full professor at the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon (FCUL), and Director of the Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre (MARE) and the Oceanography Centre in Portugal. His current research focuses on the impacts of global change on estuarine and coastal systems.
Cécile Capderrey is a coastal engineer at BRGM in Orléans, France. She is a member of the Coastal Risk and Climate Change research unit.
Jeanne Dachary-Bernard is a research fellow in economics at INRAE, center for Bordeaux, in the ETTIS research unit. She works on the influence of environmental risks, on individual residential choices and on adaptation to climate change.
Alain Dupuy is Professor of Hydrogeology at the Bordeaux Polytechnic Institute (Bordeaux INP), France and has been Director of ENSEGID-Bordeaux INP (École nationale supérieure en environnement, géoressources et ingénierie du développement durable) since 2013. He is a member of the EPOC Laboratory within the PROMESS team, where he coordinates research on pressure, mass and energy transfers in multilayer aquifers.
Michael Elliott is Professor of Estuarine and Coastal Sciences at the University of Hull, UK, and was the Director of the former Institute of Estuarine and Coastal Studies (IECS). His teaching, research and consultancy activities focus on estuarine and marine ecology, policy, governance and management.
Josette Garnier is a research director at CNRS and coordinates the UMR Metis biogeochemistry team at the University of Sorbonne, France. From 2007 to 2018, she directed the Ile-de-France Federation of Environmental Research (FIRE), which brings together 18 laboratories from a wide range of disciplines. She is a member of the French Academy of Agriculture. Her research activities cover a wide range of topics, from the biogeochemistry of agro-ecosystems to the ecological functioning of aquatic environments in the land–sea continuum.
Charles de Godoy Leski is a CNRS contract researcher at the Laboratoire de géographie physique (UMR 8591) and a research associate at the Centre Émile Durkheim (UMR 5116), France. His research focuses on the socio-cognitive processes of public environmental action in the planning and construction of territories.
Julia Le Noë completed her PhD thesis at the University of Sorbonne, France on “Biogeochemical Functioning and Trajectories of French Territorial Agricultural Systems. Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fluxes (1852-2014)”. She is currently attached to the Institute of Social Ecology at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences in Vienna, Austria, where her work focuses on forest transitions and land use change.
Mario Lepage is a research engineer in aquatic ecology at INRAE Nouvelle-Aquitaine Bordeaux, France. He is a member of the Aquatic Ecosystems and Global Change research unit, and part of the team charged with studying the functioning of estuarine ecosystems.
Glenn Mainguy holds a PhD in sociology. He is a research associate at the Centre Émile Durkheim (UMR 5116), France. His research focuses on the analysis of major contemporary transformations – from socio-economic mutations to socio-ecological transitions in France and Russia – and on the unequal ways in which social groups experience these upheavals.
Thierry Oblet is a lecturer at the Faculty of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux and a researcher at the Centre Émile Durkheim (UMR 5116), France. His research work has focused on social and urban policies for the past 30 years.
Yohan Sahraoui is a lecturer in Geography at the University of Burgundy Franche-Comté and a researcher at the ThéMA Laboratory (UMR 6049), France. His research work focuses on socio-environmental changes related to territorial planning, using participatory modeling and popular education approaches.
Denis Salles is Director of Research at ETTIS-INRAE in Bordeaux, France. He directs research in the sociology of the environment and public policies on the anticipation of climate change on territories and on water governance.
Nabil Touili is a contractual teacher-researcher in land use planning at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Université Paris-Saclay, France. His research and teaching focuses on risk governance and interdisciplinary studies.
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden is a professor of ecological economics and environmental studies at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, the Université Paris-Saclay, France and the University of Bergen, Norway. His research and teaching focus on emerging socio-technical risks, adaptation to climate change and interdisciplinary practices.
Florian Vergneau is an economist and data science consultant for Veltys. A graduate of the Toulouse School of Economics (TSE), France, his work focuses on competitive bidding models and econometric tools as applied to financial transactions.
Aude Vincent is a contract researcher in hydrogeology at the University of Iceland (Reykjavik) and an alumnus of the École normale supérieure, France. Her work concerns the impact of human activities on groundwater, directly (irrigation) or indirectly (climate change), especially in coastal areas (risk of seawater intrusion) and near glaciers.
Acknowledgments
This book is the result of a collective research collaboration carried out between 2017 and 2020 as part of the interdisciplinary URBEST project: Shaping adaptive governance in estuarine cities: Bordeaux Métropole and Gironde estuary facing global change.
URBEST has brought together expertise in sociology, economics, political science, ecology and hydrogeology to study the challenges of adaptation to climate change and global change faced by cities located on estuaries, known as “estuarine cities”. Due to the specificity of their issues, estuarine cities are challenged to imagine adaptive and anticipatory governance for their socio-ecological transition.
URBEST was financially supported by LabEx COTE and the IdEx of Bordeaux1. The symposium on “Adaptive governance and global change in estuarine cities” (Gouvernance adaptative et changements globaux dans les métropoles estuariennes), organized on October 17, 2019 at the University of Bordeaux, aimed to present and compare the main results of URBEST with researchers who have studied other configurations of estuarine metropolises, and with socio-economic and political actors and civil society of the Bordeaux Métropole, the city concerned by the research. The book brings together all the contributions of the URBEST project. We would particularly like to thank the researchers who took part in the URBEST project: Pieter Leroy, member of the LabEx COTE scientific council, and Gilles Pinson from the Centre Émile Durkheim. URBEST was hosted and supported from 2015 to 2019 by the ETTIS research unit of the INRAE – Centre Nouvelle-Aquitaine Bordeaux (Environment and land use, transitions, infrastructures, societies).
Note
1
This study was funded by the ANR, the French National Research Agency, within the framework of the PIA, the future investing program, hosted by
Laboratoire d’excellence COTE
(ANR-10-LABX-45) and IdEx Bordeaux.
Introduction
The world’s largest cities (Tokyo, New York, Buenos Aires, New Orleans, Bangkok) and 10 major cities in Western Europe are located near coastlines and estuaries. The expansion of coastal cities is emerging as a major trend in the 21st century. It is expected that by 2060, 1.7 billion people will be located along coastal areas. These cities are now faced with the challenges of climate change and, more broadly, global change1. Historically, coastal and estuarine cities were highly attractive both demographically and economically, due to the opportunities offered by their strategic location for mobility, economic exchanges and quality of life. At the same time, they are subject to strong social, economic and ecological vulnerabilities, in terms of risks, such as: erosion of the coastline, marine submersion and flooding of dense urban areas; in terms of urban heat islands, water-stressed environments (severe low water levels) or the concentration and diffusion of urban contaminants.
For several estuarine cities of the North Atlantic (London, Bilbao, Bordeaux, etc.), the renewal of their city centers since the 2000s has involved the outsourcing – more often imposed than chosen – of traditional port activities outside the city boundaries. The requalification of former industrial areas, the development of a tertiary economy, urban planning based on real estate construction for commercial, tertiary and residential purposes, and the display of an environmental dimension and a quality living environment have formed the political basis for the transformation of these cities. These processes of metropolization have resulted in an intra-metropolitan concentration regarding the mobilization of natural, economic, demographic, technical and land resources.
The dynamics of metropolization has been accompanied by a concomitant structural process of metapolization, which refers to “the set of spaces in which all or some of the inhabitants, economic activities or territories are integrated into the daily (ordinary) functioning of a city” (Ascher 1995, pp. 35–36, author’s translation). The peripheral territories of estuarine cities, already marked by the decline of traditional rural and estuarine activities (port industries, agriculture, shellfish farming, fishing, hunting, etc.), have been confronted with issues of pressure from peri-urban or tourist urbanization, exposure to flood risks, or spaces designated as flood expansion zones to protect the dense city (Sautour and Baron 2021). Estuarine communities must also face the supervision of their future development through urban planning regulations (Flooding prevention plan, European Water Directive Framework). Due to their ecological interest, these estuarine areas are concerned by policy tools for biodiversity conservation via ecological corridors (the “green-blue” framework of Grenelle de l’environnement). Their potential for the development of tourist or recreational activities (such as the growth of river cruises) is highly sought after by territorial projects.
Finally, from an institutional point of view, the French estuarine territories (metropolitan areas and their estuarine hinterlands) were subject to new inter-municipal responsibilities in terms of risk management and the environment, in particular the management of aquatic environments and protection against flooding.
These socio-spatial configurations, which combine metropolization/metapolization, exposure to global changes and climate risks, as well as territorial reforms, are coupled with social and political tensions that revise new forms of territorial conflict/cooperation (Laurent 2021; Pinson 2021). This social resistance has been embodied in recent years by an increase in territorial conflicts (Subra 2018) against the implementation of facilities (Mele 2013), or by a rise in explicit criticism within professional sectors (especially agricultural) or social movements – such as that of the yellow vest movement since 2018, protesting in particular against social and environmental territorial inequalities (access to resources and public services, mobility infrastructures, environmental norms) (Mermet and Salles 2015; Deldrève et al. 2021).
If the image of “peripheral France” (Guilluy 2014) reflects on the interests and logics specific to urban or rural territories in separate and antagonistic ways, global changes participate in a new, more integrative territorial reading of the issues, abolishing the boundaries between different typologies of spaces (Löw 2015). Understanding global changes in estuarine cities requires shifting the urban question to a broader territory: the city and its hinterlands. Looking beyond the boundaries of the city puts the interplay between the urban and its environment back at the center of the analysis. It is becoming necessary to take into account the continuities that make up the territory and the political–ecological imprint of urban spaces in the peripheral territories. The interdependent relationships between Bordeaux Métropole and the Gironde estuary, much like those of the cities of the Loire and Seine estuaries, are emblematic of the way socio-ecological configurations are torn between urban attractiveness and ecological vulnerabilities in the face of climatic challenges and global changes.
The thesis developed in this book is that the urgency of global change challenges estuarine cities to imagine anticipatory governance. This governance must take into account the socio-ecological interdependencies woven into the fabric of the city and the protection of the environment. It must also support a territorial solidarity extended to all estuarine areas.
Based on this explicit consideration of socio-ecological interdependencies, what adaptation trajectories are being outlined for estuarine cities in the face of global change? What anticipatory scenarios are emerging to build the urbanities of tomorrow? Through the collective production of worldviews, the integrative, contributive and critical research proposed in this book aims to contribute to this socio-ecological transition.
This book, composed of nine contributions from different disciplines (territorial biogeochemistry, ecology, economics, hydrogeology, geography, political science, sociology), proposes an integrated reflection centered on the case study of the estuarine city of Bordeaux and in addition on the results observed on the estuaries of the Loire and the Seine.
The first part of this book interconnects hydrogeology with sociology to interpret the stakes of global changes from the controversy study aimed at substituting drinking water resources by rerouting freshwater from rural catchment areas to the city.
In Chapter 1, “The Governance of Socio-Ecological Interdependencies: The Landes du Médoc Water Catchment Area Controversy”, Charles de Godoy Leski explores the socio-ecological interdependencies between cities and their estuarine hinterlands in terms of drinking water supply. This chapter proposes a socio-historical analysis of the socio-technical, ecological and political controversy that has surrounded the Landes du Médoc water catchment project since its emergence about 20 years ago. It successively explores the historic construction of the ecological vulnerability of the drinking water supply of Bordeaux Métropole, the uncertainties of the scientific advances in the hydrogeological modeling of water resources and requirements, and the controversies on the potential ecological impacts of such withdrawals on forestry.
In Chapter 2, “Ecological Engineering in a Controversial Drinking Water Production Project”, Alain Dupuy and Aude Vincent ask the following question: When groundwater extraction is inevitable to supply the city, what types of actions could avoid both societal concerns and possible environmental impacts? The authors explore technical avenues to circumvent a classic for-and-against situation, exploring ways to mitigate the potential impacts of the Landes du Médoc groundwater project in Gironde. They present a solution inspired by artificial aquifer recharge (AAR) techniques that requires no additional infrastructure.
The second part of this book addresses the challenges of global change for estuarine cities through the analysis of flood risk management. Three particular interpretations are developed through:
– land transactions;
– ecological engineering solutions;
– multiple social meanings attached to these risks.
In Chapter 3, “Living in a City Exposed to Flood Risk: At What Cost(s)?”, Jeanne Dachary-Bernard and Florian Vergneau examine the impact of flood risk on the residential logic at work in estuarine territories. What are the socio-economic mechanisms that govern the spatial organization of land and, among them, does vulnerability to flood risk play a structuring role? The authors apply the hedonic pricing method over the period 2011–2016 to the territory of the city, extended to its neighboring estuarine municipalities. They show that the risk management mechanisms studied have a double effect on real estate prices.
In Chapter 4, “The Ecological Restoration of Estuaries: Protection of People and Combating the Erosion of Biodiversity”, Mario Lepage, Michael Elliott, Cécile Capderrey and Henrique Cabral analyze various experiences of ecological restoration in estuaries (the Gironde estuary in France, the Mondego estuary in Portugal, the Scheldt estuary in Belgium). Based on the observation that estuarine environments have been confronted for several decades with a growing tension between the attractiveness of such territories and a specific vulnerability linked to their position as an interface between land and sea, and in view of the many functions they offer, they show how restoration of the ecological quality of these environments has become a real challenge in terms of protecting people and combating the erosion of biodiversity.
In Chapter 5, “Sensemaking in the Face of Estuarine Flood Risk Mitigation”, Jean-Paul Vanderlinden and Nabil Touili explore the types of interpretations and sensemaking attached to climate change, and in particular to flood risk. The authors explore the nature of the frames of reference that make sense to actors faced with flood risk mitigation options. They demonstrate that the meaning-making process iteratively invokes frames of reference associated with causality, salience and moral norms.
The third part of this book explains the historical relationship between cities and estuaries, and their consequences.
In Chapter 6, “The Estuarine City as an Allegory for Changes in Solidarity”, Thierry Oblet presents the estuarine city as an allegory for observable contemporary transformations in the ways of thinking on the notions of interdependence and solidarity. His account is based on the history of Bordeaux and its estuary, as a privileged field of observation for challenges associated with the transition from a solidarity – in the 20th century, within the framework of state governance – based on the recognition of the interdependence of individuals within a nation, to a solidarity linked – in the 21st century, within the framework of globalization and metropolitan governance – to the recognition of the interdependence of territories. The author explains that the estuarine city is more than just a model for organizing the cooperation between the territories of Gironde; it reveals all its complexity and rough edges.
In Chapter 7, “Nantes and the Loire: Construction of an Estuarine City Faced with Port and Environment Challenges”, Glenn Mainguy analyzes the way in which institutional actors participate in making visible the socio-ecological interdependencies between an estuary (that of the Loire) and an urban center (Nantes) in the context of global change. The author studies how the estuarine dimension of the city and the territory of Nantes is embodied in discourses and practices.
The fourth part of this book is devoted to the modes and methods of anticipation developed to imagine the future of estuarine cities in the context of global change.
In Chapter 8, “Past and Future Socio-Ecological Pathways of the Seine Estuary”, Gilles Billen, Julia Le Noë, Camille Noûs and Josette Garnier retrace, from the middle of the 19th century, the major stages in the evolution of the estuary and its trajectory of artificialization, based on the analysis of material flows linked to the commercial traffic of the ports of Rouen and Le Havre. They show how the history of the development of the estuary is entirely conditioned by that of its watershed. In the case of the Seine, the trajectory is induced by increasing centralization and urban polarization: Paris must be connected to the rest of the world in order to maintain its position as a World City. The use of a long-term perspective allows the authors to describe two future scenarios (up to 2050) of the socio-ecological system of the Seine.
In Chapter 9, “Metropolitan Trajectories for Anticipatory Governance of Urban Biodiversity”, Charles de Godoy Leski and Yohan Sahraoui explore the ways in which biodiversity is linked to urban policies in order to think about the future of Bordeaux Métropole. They mobilize the results of a collaborative foresight exercise, including various stakeholders of the city (researchers, local authorities, government services, NGOs, etc.), which aimed to develop scenarios on biodiversity in the city by 2035. The authors describe five divergent metropolitan trajectories to anticipate a future that could potentially integrate urban development with concerns on biodiversity preservation.
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Sautour, B. and Baron, J. (eds) (2021).
L’estuaire de la Gironde : un écosystème altéré ? Entre dynamique naturelle et pressions anthropiques
. Presses universitaires de Bordeaux, Bordeaux.
Subra, P. (2018).
Géopolitique de l’aménagement du territoire
. Armand Colin, Paris.
Notes
Introduction written by Denis SALLES, Glenn MAINGUY and Charles DE GODOY LESKI.
1
The term “global change” refers to biophysical and societal processes that, from the global to the local, affect the living conditions and the habitability on Earth. They are made up of the combined effects of anthropogenic environmental crises linked to climate change (warming, extreme events, etc.), the erosion of biodiversity (pollution, degradation of biotopes, depletion of resources, etc.), the globalization of socio-economic exchanges, demographic dynamics and migratory mobility, food requirements, and the sustainability of access to natural resources (deforestation, depletion of fossil fuels, problems of freshwater access, pressure on fishery resources) (Blondel 2008; Salles 2013).
Part 1The Water of the Cities and the Water of the Fields
1The Governance of Socio-Ecological Interdependencies: The Landes du Médoc Water Catchment Area Controversy
1.1. Introduction
The supply of drinking water to metropolitan areas has long been considered a local issue inserted in a network based on territorial interdependencies. After guaranteeing universal supply lines in the 1980s, water utilities are now faced with the challenge of securing the quantity and quality of water resources and their long-term sustainability (Barbier and Roussary 2016).
The combined effect of the demographic and economic attractiveness of cities, and the exposure of rural areas to climate change (Salles and Le Treut 2017) frames drinking water supply in a new light. Bordeaux Métropole, which obtains its drinking water from deep aquifers that are subject to strong anthropic and climatic pressures, has been engaged for the past 20 years in a decentralization process and inter-territorial interactions to diversify its supply sources.
The city needs water to anticipate its demographic growth. Access to new resources, located outside its institutional perimeter, requires negotiations, agreements and compensation, which are sources of territorial tensions within a metapolitan space whose democratic authorities have difficulty governing the extensive spatial, social and economic interdependencies (Ascher 1995).
The issue of water supply for human consumption (drinking water) highlights the interdependence between Bordeaux Métropole and its functional rural areas of the Landes du Médoc (LdM) catchment area. This issue has gradually become controversial since, on the one hand, Bordeaux Métropole has considered access to these underground resources as a substitute for the overexploitation of the Eocene water table for its drinking water supply and, on the other hand, local communities – particularly forestry representatives – have contested a detour or even a monopolization of water for urban purposes at the expense of the forestry and ecological functions of the local territory.
Figure 1.1Map showing territorial interdependencies through the substitution mechanism of the Landes du Médoc water catchment area to the Bordeaux metropolitan area.
This chapter proposes a socio-historical analysis of the socio-technical controversy surrounding this infrastructure project since its emergence some 20 years ago. It successively explores:
– the historical vulnerability of the water supply of the Bordeaux Métropole;
– the uncertainties of scientific advances in the hydrogeological modeling of water resources and requirements;
– local controversies on the potential ecological impacts of water withdrawals on silviculture.
In fine, this study reveals the new configuration that socio-ecological interdependencies are creating in the relations between metropolises and their hinterlands.
How are environmental effects anticipated by scientific knowledge and then grasped by the actors of water resource governance? How does the visibility of socio-ecological interdependencies between Bordeaux Métropole and the Landes du Médoc reconfigure governance for the drinking water issue? What are the political narratives that accompany this infrastructure project and its critiques?
In Gironde, the history of the socio-technical regimes (Geels and Schot 2007) of water is intertwined with the history of the city and the history of interdependence with the resource territories near and far from the urban centers that consume water. The socio-technical regime is a relational system between institutions and social and political norms, which generate rules and procedures that regulate its stability. The dynamics of change are most often exercised through incremental innovations, linked to territorial components (Guyot Phung and Charue-Duboc 2020), such as local scientific specialization in the study and exploitation of deep aquifers. The modalities of transfer or circulation of knowledge between actors are decisive for initiating transitions (Geels 2002). These are required not only by existing metropolization dynamics but also, in a more fundamental way, by the ecological and climatic interdependencies that link territories in metropolitan areas (de Godoy Leski 2021).
1.2. Drinking water supply in Gironde, the history of a transfer from surface water to deep groundwater
While the development of hydrogeological techniques has allowed access to groundwater, the recurring issue of water scarcity remains an issue that is actualized throughout local political and technical history (Lorrain and Poupeau 2014). The Gironde still has diverse and abundant water resources (rivers, estuaries, streams, lakes, man-made water bodies, groundwater and deep aquifers). The history of the exploitation of the volumes that can be extracted and the contamination of surface resources has punctuated the more or less distant (re)locations of metropolitan catchment points in order to supply the city with drinking water.
1.2.1. Under the Roman Empire: the administration of a city’s water sources in its estuary
Bordeaux owes its location in part to the springs of drinking water initially located near the gravel terrace of Mont Judaïque, which prompted the first settlers to choose this site as it was favorable to trade due to its navigability by river and estuary. Burdigala is a city “open” to other territories near and far including Tolosa, following the conquest of the Narbonne at the end of the second century BCE. Enlarged territorial interdependencies were gradually established through trade routes, which followed the maritime and river routes. In around the 2nd century, for a population estimated at 20,000 inhabitants spread over 125 hectares, water needs were met by local springs and wells. The precise location of the sacred spring Divona1 is not known, upon which the construction of Burdigala, then an emerging city and the result of Gallo-Roman urbanism, was based. Divona, a goddess venerated by the Gauls, gave her name to many springs regarded as miraculous, and to which the 4th-century Latin poet Ausonius2 proclaims the eternal splendors:
Salve, fons ignote ortu, sacer, alme, perennis,
Vitree, glauce, profonde, sonore, inlimis, opace!
Salve, urbis genius, medico potabilis haustu,
Divona, Celtarum lingua, fons addite divis!3
Among the hypotheses put forward by historians of Bordeaux (Auguste Bordes, Camille Jullian), the Devèze would take its name from it. Other sources are cited: Audège, La Daurade, Mirail. Gallo-Roman urbanism bears the mark of the sophistication of the socio-technical regime of the period, through the construction of hydraulic works that transported water to public fountains, thermal baths and private homes. The awareness of the sanitary risk and water contamination was solved through a system of sewers responsible for evacuating contaminated water away from residential areas. The Gallo-Roman gravity-fed distribution system collected water from a higher elevation in the city to guarantee the supply circuit. This technical constraint led the Romans to seek water from further and further away in order to meet the demographic growth of an appealing city. The historical socio-ecological interdependencies between Burdigala and the resource territories outside the original boundaries of the city underline the structuring character of the socio-technical regime of water for the urban ecology of Gironde.
1.2.2. The Middle Ages: the era of hydraulic and defensive withdrawal of the city
Despite its location far from the mouth of the Gironde estuary, what the inhabitants of Burdigala feared most was an onslaught by the Germanic tribes on Roman Gaul, which led to fortifications being built. The widespread looting and destruction of cities accelerated the urban transition from an open city into the fortified city of Castrum. By the year 900, the demographic growth could no longer be contained by the fortifications and urban expansion forced the city to spread past its ramparts. The port infrastructures were subject to this change, particularly in terms of new builds to secure the city. An inner harbor was built on the Devèze, secured and controlled by a water gate. The urban planning of water supply lines was weakened through conflicts and the destroyed aqueducts were never rebuilt.
Until 1520, the inhabitants obtained their water supply from local springs and through an urban network of wells, tapping into the water table for consumption. At the end of the 15th century, the city of Bordeaux was already an important city for which drinking water supply was once again a problem directly linked to its demography, the original quality of the resource and the impact of human activities that were highly concentrated within the city walls.
