ESV Expository Commentary (Volume 8) E-Book

• Herausgeber: Crossway
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Serie: ESV Expository Commentary
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 3082

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

A Passage-by-Passage Commentary of Matthew, Mark, and Luke Designed to strengthen the global church with a widely accessible, theologically sound, and pastorally wise resource for understanding and applying the overarching storyline of the Bible, this commentary series features the full text of the ESV Bible passage by passage, with crisp and theologically rich exposition and application. Editors Iain M. Duguid, James M. Hamilton Jr., and Jay Sklar have gathered a team of experienced pastor-theologians to provide a new generation of pastors and other teachers of the Bible around the world with a globally minded commentary series rich in biblical theology and broadly Reformed doctrine, making the message of redemption found in all of Scripture clear and available to all. Contributors to this volume include: Dan Doriani (Matthew) Hans F. Bayer (Mark) Thomas R. Schreiner (Luke)

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ESV Expository Commentary

Vol. VIII

Matthew–Luke

Editors

Iain M. DuguidJames M. Hamilton Jr.Jay Sklar

ESV Expository Commentary

Vol. VIII

Matthew–Luke

Matthew

Daniel M. Doriani

Mark

Hans F. Bayer

Luke

Thomas R. Schreiner

ESV Expository Commentary, Volume 8: Matthew–Luke

Copyright © 2021 by Crossway

Published by Crossway 1300 Crescent Street Wheaton, Illinois 60187

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, except as provided for by USA copyright law. Crossway® is a registered trademark in the United States of America.

Cover design: Jordan Singer

First printing 2021

Printed in Italy

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Unless otherwise indicated, apocrypha quotations are from the ESV Bible with Apocrypha, published in cooperation with Anglican Liturgy Press, an imprint of Anglican House Media Ministry, Inc., Newport Beach, California. The ESV Apocrypha, copyright © 2009, 2017 by Crossway. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked CSB are from The Christian Standard Bible®. Copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked KJV are from the King James Version of the Bible.

Scripture quotations marked NASB are from The New American Standard Bible®. Copyright © The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked NIV are from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Scripture quotations marked NIV 1984 are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Scripture quotations marked NJB are taken from The New Jerusalem Bible. Copyright © 1985 by Darton, Longman & Todd, Ltd. Used by permission.

Scripture quotations marked NLT are from The Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996, 2004. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL, 60189. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NRSV are from The New Revised Standard Version. Copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. Published by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A.

There are also brief citations of the American Standard Version (ASV), the Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB), the New English Translation (NET), and the Revised Standard Version (RSV).

Scripture quotations marked AT are the author’s translation.

All emphases in Scripture quotations have been added by the authors.

Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4335-4656-3

Crossway is a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.

2022-01-27 11:06:21 AM

Contents

Tables

Figures

Preface to the ESV Expository Commentary

Contributors

Abbreviations

Matthew

Daniel M. Doriani

Mark

Hans F. Bayer

Luke

Thomas R. Schreiner

Scripture Index

Tables

Matthew

1.1  Outline of Matthew 6:19–21

1.2  Outline of Matthew 6:24

1.3  Outline of Matthew 6:25–34

1.4  Commands in Matthew 10:26–31

1.5  Four Controversy Dialogues in Matthew 22:15–46

Figures

Matthew

1.1  Structure of the Beatitudes

Preface

to the ESV Expository Commentary

The Bible pulsates with life, and the Spirit conveys the electrifying power of Scripture to those who lay hold of it by faith, ingest it, and live by it. God has revealed himself in the Bible, which makes the words of Scripture sweeter than honey, more precious than gold, and more valuable than all riches. These are the words of life, and the Lord has entrusted them to his church, for the sake of the world.

He has also provided the church with teachers to explain and make clear what the Word of God means and how it applies to each generation. We pray that all serious students of God’s Word, both those who seek to teach others and those who pursue study for their own personal growth in godliness, will be served by the ESV Expository Commentary. Our goal has been to provide a clear, crisp, and Christ-centered explanation of the biblical text. All Scripture speaks of Christ (Luke 24:27), and we have sought to show how each biblical book helps us to see the “light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ” (2 Cor. 4:6).

To that end, each contributor has been asked to provide commentary that is:

exegetically sound—self-consciously submissive to the flow of thought and lines of reasoning discernible in the biblical text;biblically theological—reading the Bible as diverse yet bearing an overarching unity, narrating a single storyline of redemption culminating in Christ;globally aware—aimed as much as possible at a global audience, in line with Crossway’s mission to provide the Bible and theologically responsible resources to as many people around the world as possible;broadly reformed—standing in the historical stream of the Reformation, affirming that salvation is by grace alone, through faith alone, in Christ alone, taught in Scripture alone, for God’s glory alone; holding high a big God with big grace for big sinners;doctrinally conversant—fluent in theological discourse; drawing appropriate brief connections to matters of historical or current theological importance;pastorally useful—transparently and reverently “sitting under the text”; avoiding lengthy grammatical/syntactical discussions;application-minded—building brief but consistent bridges into contemporary living in both Western and non-Western contexts (being aware of the globally diverse contexts toward which these volumes are aimed);efficient in expression—economical in its use of words; not a word-by-word analysis but a crisply moving exposition.

In terms of Bible translation, the ESV is the base translation used by the authors in their notes, but the authors were expected to consult the text in the original languages when doing their exposition and were not required to agree with every decision made by the ESV translators.

As civilizations crumble, God’s Word stands. And we stand on it. The great truths of Scripture speak across space and time, and we aim to herald them in a way that will be globally applicable.

May God bless the study of his Word, and may he smile on this attempt to expound it.

—The Publisher and Editors

Contributors

Editors

Iain M. Duguid

PhD, University of Cambridge

Professor of Old Testament, Westminster Theological Seminary

James M. Hamilton Jr.

PhD, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

Professor of Biblical Theology, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary;

Preaching Pastor, Kenwood Baptist Church, Louisville

Jay Sklar

PhD, University of Gloucestershire

Professor of Old Testament, Covenant Theological Seminary

Authors

Daniel M. Doriani

PhD, Westminster Theological Seminary

Professor of Biblical Theology, Vice President, Covenant Theological Seminary

(Matthew)

Hans F. Bayer

PhD, University of Aberdeen

Professor Emeritus of New Testament, Covenant Theological Seminary

(Mark)

Thomas R. Schreiner

PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary

James Buchanan Harrison Professor of New Testament Interpretation and Professor of Biblical Theology, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

(Luke)

Abbreviations

General

AT

Author’s Translation

b.

born

c.

circa, about, approximately

cf.

confer, compare, see

ch., chs.

chapter(s)

d.

died

ed(s).

editor(s), edited by, edition

e.g.

for example

esp.

especially

et al.

and others

etc.

and so on

ff.

and following

Gk.

Greek

Hb.

Hebrew

ibid.

ibidem, in the same place

i.e.

that is

Lat.

Latin

lit.

literal, literally

LXX

septuagint

mg.

marginal reading

MT

Masoretic Text

NT

New Testament

OT

Old Testament

r.

reigned

repr.

reprinted

rev.

revised (by)

s.v.

sub verbo (under the word)

trans.

translator, translated by

v., vv.

verse(s)

vol(s).

volume(s)

Bibliographic

11QMelch

Melchizedek

1QM

War Scroll

1QpHab

Pesher Habakkuk

1QS

Rule of the Community

1QSa

Rule of the Congregation (appendix a to 1QS)

4QFlor

Florilegium, or Midrash on Eschatology

4QTest

Testimonia

AB

Anchor Bible

ANF

Ante-Nicene Fathers

AsJT

Asia Journal of Theology

BBR

Bulletin for Biblical Research

BDAG

Bauer, W., F. W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.

BECNT

Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BSC

Bible Student’s Commentary

BTL

Biblical Theology for Life

BZNW

Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CD

Cairo Genizah copy of the Damascus Document

COQG

Christian Origins and the Question of God

CTJ

Calvin Theological Journal

DBW

Dietrich Bonhoeffer Works

DJG

Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Edited by Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin. Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1942; 2nd ed., 2013. 

EDNT

Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Horst Balz and Gerhard Schneider. ET. 3 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990–1993.

GBS

Guides to Biblical Scholarship

HThKNT

Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament

HTR

Harvard Theological Review

HTS

Harvard Theological Studies

ICC

International Critical Commentary

ISBE

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 4 vols. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1938–1963.

IVPNTC

IVP New Testament Commentary Series

JBL

Journal of Biblical Literature

JETS

Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JGRChJ

Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism

JL

The Jesus Library

JSNT

Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSNTSup

Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series

JTS

Journal of Theological Studies

K&D

Keil, Carl Friedrich, and Franz Delitzsch. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Translated by James Martin et al. 25 vols. Edinburgh, 1857–1878. Repr., 10 vols., Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1996. 

LCC

Library of Christian Classics

LCL

Loeb Classical Library

LEC

Library of Early Christianity

NAC

New American Commentary

NCBC

New Century Bible Commentary

NICNT

New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTT

New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Edited by Colin Brown. 4 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1975–1978.

NIDOTTE

New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1997.

NIGTC

New International Greek Testament Commentary

NovT

Novum Testamentum

NSBT

New Studies in Biblical Theology

NTS

New Testament Studies

OGIS

Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae. Edited by Wilhelm Dittenberger. 2 vols. Leipzig: Hirzel, 1903–1905.

P.Oxy.

Grenfell, Bernard P., et al., eds. The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. London: Egypt Exploration Fund, 1898–.

PBM

Paternoster Biblical Monographs

PNTC

Pillar New Testament Commentary

PTR

Princeton Theological Review

REBC

Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Revised Edition

REC

Reformed Expository Commentary

SBJT

Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

SHBC

Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary

SNTSMS

Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series

TDNT

Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans: 1964–1976.

TJ

Trinity Journal

TNTC

Tyndale New Testament Commentaries

TTT

Teach the Text Commentary Series

TynBul

Tyndale Bulletin

WBC

Word Biblical Commentary

WUNT

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZECNT

Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

Books of the Bible

Gen.

Genesis

Ex.

Exodus

Lev.

Leviticus

Num.

Numbers

Deut.

Deuteronomy

Josh.

Joshua

Judg.

Judges

Ruth

Ruth

1 Sam.

1 Samuel

2 Sam.

2 Samuel

1 Kings

1 Kings

2 Kings

2 Kings

1 Chron.

1 Chronicles

2 Chron.

2 Chronicles

Ezra

Ezra

Neh.

Nehemiah

Est.

Esther

Job

Job

Ps., Pss.

Psalms

Prov.

Proverbs

Eccles.

Ecclesiastes

Song

Song of Solomon

Isa.

Isaiah

Jer.

Jeremiah

Lam.

Lamentations

Ezek.

Ezekiel

Dan.

Daniel

Hos.

Hosea

Joel

Joel

Amos

Amos

Obad.

Obadiah

Jonah

Jonah

Mic.

Micah

Nah.

Nahum

Hab.

Habakkuk

Zeph.

Zephaniah

Hag.

Haggai

Zech.

Zechariah

Mal.

Malachi

Matt.

Matthew

Mark

Mark

Luke

Luke

John

John

Acts

Acts

Rom.

Romans

1 Cor.

1 Corinthians

2 Cor.

2 Corinthians

Gal.

Galatians

Eph.

Ephesians

Phil.

Philippians

Col.

Colossians

1 Thess.

1 Thessalonians

2 Thess.

2 Thessalonians

1 Tim.

1 Timothy

2 Tim.

2 Timothy

Titus

Titus

Philem.

Philemon

Heb.

Hebrews

James

James

1 Pet.

1 Peter

2 Pet.

2 Peter

1 John

1 John

2 John

2 John

3 John

3 John

Jude

Jude

Rev.

Revelation

Apocrypha and Other Noncanonical Sources Cited

1 Clem.

1 Clement

1 En.

1 Enoch

1 Esd.

1 Esdras

1 Macc.

1 Maccabees

2 Bar.

2 Baruch

2 En.

2 Enoch

2 Esd.

2 Esdras

2 Macc.

2 Maccabees

4 Macc.

4 Maccabees

Acts Paul

Acts of Paul

Ascen. Isa.

Ascension of Isaiah

Bar.

Baruch

Did.

Didache

Jdt.

Judith

Jub.

Jubilees

Pss. Sol.

Psalms of Solomon

Sir.

Sirach/Ecclesiasticus

T. Ab.

Testament of Abraham

T. Ash.

Testament of Asher

T. Benj.

Testament of Benjamin

T. Iss.

Testament of Issachar

T. Levi

Testament of Levi

Tob.

Tobit

Wis.

Wisdom of Solomon

Matthew

Daniel M. Doriani

Introduction to Matthew

Matthew 1:1–17

Matthew 1:18–25

Matthew 2:1–12

Matthew 2:13–23

Matthew 3:1–17

Matthew 4:1–11

Matthew 4:12–25

Matthew 5:1–16

Matthew 5:17–26

Matthew 5:27–32

Matthew 5:33–37

Matthew 5:38–48

Matthew 6:1–18

Matthew 6:19–34

Matthew 7:1–12

Matthew 7:13–29

Matthew 8:1–4

Matthew 8:5–13

Matthew 8:14–22

Matthew 8:23–27

Matthew 8:28–34

Matthew 9:1–8

Matthew 9:9–17

Matthew 9:18–38

Matthew 10:1–4

Matthew 10:5–15

Matthew 10:16–25

Matthew 10:26–33

Matthew 10:34–11:1

Matthew 11:2–6

Matthew 11:7–19

Matthew 11:20–24

Matthew 11:25–30

Matthew 12:1–14

Matthew 12:15–21

Matthew 12:22–37

Matthew 12:38–45

Matthew 12:46–50

Matthew 13:1–23

Matthew 13:24–58

Matthew 14:1–12

Matthew 14:13–21

Matthew 14:22–36

Matthew 15:1–20

Matthew 15:21–28

Matthew 15:29–39

Matthew 16:1–12

Matthew 16:13–20

Matthew 16:21–28

Matthew 17:1–13

Matthew 17:14–20

Matthew 17:22–27

Matthew 18:1–14

Matthew 18:15–20

Matthew 18:21–35

Matthew 19:1–15

Matthew 19:16–30

Matthew 20:1–16

Matthew 20:17–28

Matthew 20:29–34

Matthew 21:1–11

Matthew 21:12–27

Matthew 21:28–46

Matthew 22:1–14

Matthew 22:15–46

Matthew 23:1–12

Matthew 23:13–39

Matthew 24:1–14

Matthew 24:15–35

Matthew 24:36–51

Matthew 25:1–13

Matthew 25:14–30

Matthew 25:31–46

Matthew 26:1–16

Matthew 26:17–30

Matthew 26:31–46

Matthew 26:47–75

Matthew 27:1–14

Matthew 27:15–31

Matthew 27:32–44

Matthew 27:45–53

Matthew 27:54–66

Matthew 28:1–15

Matthew 28:16–20

The Story of Jesus

Commentaries on Matthew

Selective Bibliography

Introduction to

Matthew

Author

The Gospel of Matthew is technically anonymous, since it lacks the kind of self-identification evident in the epistles of Paul or Peter. Yet every Greek manuscript of Matthew bears the heading KATA MATTHAION—“according to Matthew.” So the book is effectively entitled “The Gospel according to Matthew” in all extant copies. Further, the church fathers living closest to the apostolic age unanimously ascribe it to Matthew the apostle. There is no compelling reason to doubt this consensus.

Date

The dates offered for Matthew’s composition vary widely, from roughly AD 45 to 90.1 Skeptics generally place Matthew after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 because they doubt the possibility of predictive prophecy, although some critics grant that Jesus may have had sufficient insight to foresee Israel’s future apart from revelation. Conservatives normally assert that Matthew predates 70, a claim that would support the argument that Matthew the tax collector wrote the first Gospel. Being written prior to 70 would also give the manuscript time to work through the empire and reach early Christian writers who cite it. Scholars also notice that the language used to describe the fall of Jerusalem appears to derive not from eyewitness but from common OT language for God’s acts of judgment and from Greco-Roman language for calamities. Finally, the language of certain passages seems to imply that the temple still stood when Matthew wrote (5:23–24; 12:6; 23:16–22; 26:61) But the dating of Matthew matters less than its authorship by a man who was an ear- and eyewitness to Jesus’ ministry.2

Matthew and the Other Synoptic Gospels

Skeptics will counter that it is strange that an apostle would borrow so heavily from another Gospel, that of Mark. But the priority of Mark has not been and probably cannot be established. Only a few things are certain. First, the Gospel writers appear to share a few main sources. Second, the order of events in Matthew and Mark are very similar, and the content of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are close when all three are recounting the same episode or instruction. Third, the wording of teachings unique to Matthew and Luke is often very similar. This suggests either that they shared a source or that one had access to the other’s work.

Occasion and Audience

Scholars commonly propose that Matthew was written at Syrian Antioch for Christians living there. The earliest convincing citation of Matthew is by Ignatius of Antioch (d. AD 108). More importantly, Matthew is written for readers who have both Jewish sensibilities and interest in the Gentile mission. Syrian Antioch fits this perfectly, since the city had a sizable Jewish population and commissioned the first missionaries to Gentiles (Acts 13:1–3). But certainty is impossible, since cities such as Maritime Caesarea and Alexandria probably fit the same criteria.

Canonicity

Like the other Gospels, Matthew was received at once and everywhere as an authoritative account of Jesus’ life. The church already knew the outline and content of Jesus’ life and had immense respect for Jesus’ words. They recognized Matthew as an accurate, God-given record of Jesus’ life.

Reliability

The chief concern of this commentary is exposition of Matthew’s text, yet Matthew, like the entire NT, always assumes and sometimes asserts that the events described did indeed take place. Further, the accounts seem to describe events and their meaning accurately. The body of the commentary takes up historicity occasionally, but a few global remarks may help.3 Above all, if the apostle Matthew was indeed the author of the first Gospel, there are grounds to believe it is a trustworthy account.

First, there are good reasons to trust his record of Jesus’ words. Memorization was essential to ancient education, and people sought to develop that skill (students took notes, too). In rabbinic schools, teachers repeated their principal teachings until students had memorized and mastered them. Jesus’ teaching also lent itself to memorization. Its poetic elements include parallelism and rhythm. It also includes pithy proverbs, graphic word pictures and stories (parables), wordplay, and overstatement. These graphic and poetic elements make Jesus’ words easy to recall. When Jesus states, “If the blind lead the blind, both will fall into a pit” (Matt. 15:14), it passes readily into memory’s hoard. Further, as the disciples itinerated with Jesus, they heard his teaching repeatedly. Finally, early Christians desired to preserve the words of Jesus. We see this from the way in which the words of Jesus in the Synoptics are nearly identical.

Second, the culture of Matthew’s day had recognized standards for historiography. This included the right to select highlights or to epitomize a speech, but not the right to alter its substance. The early church knew that people fabricated stories of Jesus and the apostles, and the church dealt with this strictly when it occurred, even if the intent was to edify. For example, Tertullian wrote a treatise titled “On Baptism” that addressed the question of whether a woman could baptize a child in an emergency, such as impending death. Tertullian knew that some believers would cite for the affirmative the Acts of Paul, an orthodox and edifying story. In it a fictitious “woman of pertness” named Thecla begins to teach and lead. Tertullian’s comment shows he had no tolerance for fiction presented as fact, even if it advanced orthodoxy:

If the writings which wrongly go under Paul’s name, claim Thecla’s example as a license for women’s teaching and baptizing, let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing, as if he were augmenting Paul’s fame from his own store, after being convicted, and confessing that he had done it from love of Paul, was removed from his office.4

Additional factors make it likely that the apostles would accurately remember events from Jesus’ life. Consider how memorable events emblazon themselves on the minds of witnesses for life. I was (erroneously) taken into police custody as a college freshman for murdering a police officer. My brother was with me (although not as a suspect), and we effortlessly remember scores of details from the event: the massive arresting officer, his unholstered gun, his first words, and more. We could not forget the story if we tried, even though it had no enduring significance.

Think then, of the disciples, who saw Jesus reach out, touch, and heal a leper; who saw him calm a storm by a word of command and multiply bits of fish and bread until thousands gorged themselves and bushels of food remained. These events inscribed themselves on the memory. Further, if any faltered in the details, the disciples would have often recounted Jesus’ history in each other’s presence, especially in Jerusalem, and could have easily corrected each other. Beyond that, living witnesses would have prevented the spread of error. Imagine a spurious story recounted in Matthew reaching a town where it allegedly occurred. Matthew’s Gospel would have been immediately discredited if the story of the centurion (8:5–13) or of the Gadarene demoniacs (8:28–34) reached Capernaum or Gadara and everyone said, “We remember no centurion, no demoniacs.” Every time a Gospel cites a name or place, it invites verification or falsification. If a story were fabricated, the whole Gospel would be discredited. But there are no records of towns or regions rejecting Matthew or another Gospel. Again, the leadership in Jerusalem could adjudicate any dispute about what Jesus said or did. In ancient Middle Eastern culture, leaders controlled the telling of stories that bore foundational significance for society.5

Finally, the apostles sealed their testimony with their lives. People will die for a lie, if duped. Some even die for what they know to be a lie (think of communism) if it promises them wealth or power. But people do not die for a lie they invented if that lie brings them no benefit but instead brings suffering and loss. The apostles died for the testimony to Jesus, and this shows that they believed their report to be true.

With some assurance of the accuracy of Matthew, we now turn to its content, beginning with an overview of the whole.

A Narrative Outline of Matthew6

Chapter 1 recounts the origin, birth, and identity of Jesus, the Christ, moving from his genealogy (1:1–17) to his birth (1:18–25). The magi, a Gentile group, come to adore Jesus (2:1–12), while Israel’s king, Herod, tries to kill him (2:13–23).

John the Baptist heralds the arrival of the kingdom and calls Israel to repent in preparation for God’s new work (3:1–12). Surprisingly, Jesus participates in this baptism (3:13–17). Empowered and led by the Spirit, Jesus resists the temptations of the Evil One (4:1–11), then launches his public ministry in Galilee. His miracles attract crowds, from which Jesus selects disciples (4:12–25).

Matthew contains five great discourses, found in chapters 5–7; 10; 13; 18; and 24–25. Like songs in the best musicals, these discourses propel the narrative forward by arriving at the perfect moment. The first discourse, the Sermon on the Mount, trains the early disciples, although the crowds listen in (5:1–2; 7:28–29). The sermon opens by describing the blessed character of a disciple (5:1–12), then names the world’s reaction to disciples, ranging from persecution to praising God for their light (5:13–16). Jesus instructs his disciples in the right use of God’s law, which he affirms and deepens in a series of lessons covering anger, adultery, divorce, truth telling, nonretaliation, love of enemies, and, ultimately, God-like perfection (5:17–48).

Jesus warns that religious practices—alms, prayer, fasting—are dangerous if performed to impress men (6:1–18). True religion serves God rather than money, demonstrating trust in him through freedom from worry or materialistic pursuits (6:19–34). Further, genuine disciples do not use Jesus’ teaching to judge others. Instead, seeing the depths of Jesus’ commands, they ask for aid (7:1–12). Jesus closes by summoning his disciples to choose the right path, to become fruitful trees, and to build on the right foundation (7:13–29).

As the first ministry of the word ends, the ministry of deeds begins, with works often performed by a word (8:3, 8, 16). Jesus begins with two surprising miracles, benefiting a leper and a Roman occupier (8:1–13). Miracles attract potential followers, who cannot fathom the cost of full discipleship (8:18–22). The next miracles show Jesus’ power over nature: the sea (8:23–27), demons (8:28–34), and disease somehow connected to sin (9:1–8). This leads Jesus to call sinners to himself (9:9–13). Additional miracles demonstrate Jesus’ authority over all disease, even death (9:18–34).

Once the disciples have seen Jesus’ pattern for ministry, he calls twelve as apostles and commissions them to meet Israel’s needs (9:35–10:4). This opens the second block of teaching, regarding mission. Jesus charges his disciples to follow the pattern they have just witnessed (10:5–15), to be fearless yet wise in the face of inevitable opposition (10:16–39), and to anticipate rewards for their role in the Master’s work (10:40–11:1).

The opposition foretold in chapter 10 flowers in chapters 11–12. Ominously, even John the Baptist doubts Jesus, but Jesus tenderly assures and commends him (11:1–19). Next, Jesus warns the impenitent of Israel while assuring those who seek to rest in him (11:20–30). Conflicts over the Sabbath soon heighten tensions with Israel’s leaders (12:1–14). Jesus is the servant of God (12:15–21), but Israel’s leaders are blind. By now, even his healings rouse hatred (12:22–37). Nothing counts as evidence for his foes, and so Jesus will offer them nothing more (12:38–45).

This opposition leads Jesus to his third discourse. In a series of eight parables, Jesus declares that his kingdom is present, opposition notwithstanding. Even if it be small and harried, its surpassing value and final size signal its supreme worth (13:1–52).

Events validate Jesus’ comments on opposition and slow growth when John is slain (14:1–12) and crowds witness a miracle but think nothing of it (14:13–21). At least the disciples are impressed by Jesus’ power when he calms a second storm (14:22–33). Still, when Jesus enters into controversy with Jewish leaders about rituals, the disciples hardly understand him. If anyone appreciates him, it is a Canaanite from Tyre (15:1–28).

After a string of miracles, the Pharisees and Sadducees, almost incredibly, ask Jesus for a sign (16:1–4). This leads to a series of events in which the disciples vacillate (16:5–12), then confess Christ (16:13–20), then falter, demonstrating that they do not understand Jesus after all (16:21–28). Still, additional revelation, especially in the transfiguration, may foster growth (17:1–27).

A fourth block of teaching constitutes chapter 18. As before, the teaching answers a pressing need, for the disciples must learn how to live in community. This includes caring for little ones, seeking the lost, addressing problems when brother sins against brother, and forgiving freely all who repent (18:1–35). Questions of greatness, moral standards, and achievement continue into chapters 19–20. Over several conversations, Jesus tells disciples neither to aim low for minimal decency (19:1–12) nor to aim high in overweening pride (19:16–26). He also warns that “doing great things for God” can lead them to think more of God’s rewards than of his grace (19:27–20:16). Above all, Jesus models the greatness that comes from loving sacrifice. It is the path to glory both for Jesus and for them (20:17–28).

Next, Jesus enters Jerusalem and symbolically judges it, especially in the temple (20:29–21:22). This launches additional conflict with leaders who question Jesus and attempt to trap him. In response, he tells stories that castigate them (20:23–22:46). The verbal sparring ends when Jesus warns his disciples to beware of scribes and Pharisees. His denunciation of their hypocrisy is sharp yet poignant, for he still longs to gather Israel to himself (23:1–36).

Jesus’ lament over Jerusalem (23:37–39) leads logically to his fifth discourse, addressing eschatology. Although the disciples want to know when judgment will come, Jesus instructs them to stay ready for Jesuswhenever he comes (24:1–51). They must watch, for they will long wait for Jesus. Meanwhile, they must use their talents to good effect until Jesus does indeed come (25:1–30). Then all flesh will stand before him and hear his final word, either “Come” to me or “Depart from me” (25:31–46).

Next, Jesus warns the disciples of his impending crucifixion once more (26:1–2). Soon the chief priests plot Jesus’ death, which Judas facilitates, even as a juxtaposed scene shows how Jesus’ followers love him (26:3–16). After arranging his final Passover meal, the first Lord’s Supper, with his disciples, Jesus withdraws to pray (26:17–46). There Judas betrays him, soldiers arrest him, and his disciples abandon him (26:47–56). Within hours, the authorities try, condemn, abuse, and crucify Jesus. He continues his ministry from the cross until he chooses to relinquish his spirit (26:57–27:50). Almost cinematically, Matthew intercuts scenes of human failure with scenes of Jesus’ heroic endurance. He is faithful to the end, even as Peter denies Jesus, Judas betrays him (and then kills himself), and a crowd prefers Barabbas to Jesus (26:69–75; 27:3–10, 15–23).

After Jesus perishes, a series of events hint at the significance of his death (27:51–56). Then Jesus’ disciples tend and bury his body, and the Romans set a guard on his tomb in order to prevent false rumors of his resurrection (27:57–66). These feeble attempts to control rumors of resurrection cannot thwart God’s power or the resurrection itself (28:1–10). After appearing to his disciples on Easter morning, Jesus meets them again in Galilee and commissions them to make disciples of the nations (28:18–20).

Theology of Matthew

Is There a Theology of Matthew?

A quest for the distinctive theme of Matthew has limitations, because the four Gospels have more that is common than is distinctive. Each establishes Jesus’ identity and presents the same basic outline of his life, with especially similar records of Jesus’ last week. Therefore, an attempt to delineate distinct traits of Matthew may suppress the parallels between Matthew and the other Gospels. Still, the Gospels are selective documents that tell less than they know (John 20:30–31; 21:25), so one may ask why Matthew included what he did and why he arranged his account as he did. Thus we may investigate the possibly distinct goals of Matthew.

Matthew sensibly addresses essential topics and goals first and last. His topic is the person and work of Jesus Christ, Son of David, Son of Abraham, Immanuel, and Savior (Matt. 1:1–23). His goal is to lead his readers to faith and to equip them to make disciples of the nations (28:18–20). Among the canonical Gospels, Matthew contains the largest portion of Jesus’ teaching, all of it suitable for discipleship. Matthew seems to be for teachers and for disciples. As he finishes a discourse on the kingdom, he concludes with an exhortation to share the treasures just received (13:52).

Did Matthew Write for the Jews?

It is common to say that Matthew is the Gospel for the Jews, but it is more accurate to say that Matthew wrote for Jewish readers who would embrace the mission of making disciples of the nations. Matthew is not simply “the Gospel for the Jews,” although it is the Gospel most readily understood by Jewish readers. When Matthew mentions Jewish customs, he feels no need to explain them. So he refers to fasting (6:16) ritual handwashing (15:2, 10–11; 23:25–26), the temple tax (17:24–27), phylacteries (23:5), and whitewashed tombs (23:27), to name a few, and he explains none of them. He uses Hebrew or Aramaic and does not translate them into Greek in 5:22 and 27:6.7 By contrast, John translates even common terms, such as rabbi and messiah (John 1:38, 41). Further, Matthew frames theological discussions in terms of rabbinic debate. For example, Mark records the general question “Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife?” But Matthew couches the issue in terms of rabbinic debates: “Is it lawful to divorce one’s wife for any cause?” (Matt. 19:3; cf. Mark 10:2).

Matthew also quotes the OT more than the other Gospel writers do. He quotes the OT eight times in his first four chapters, either introducing the quotation by stating “it is written” or including a note declaring that an event fulfills the quoted OT prophecy. The “it is written” formula highlights the quotations and teaches readers to understand Jesus’ life through the OT (1:22–23; 2:5–6, 17–18; 3:3; 4:4, 7, 10, 14–16). Then, early in the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus quotes OT law and interprets it six more times (5:21–48). Later, when Pharisees criticize Jesus for dining with tax collectors and sinners, Matthew alone records that Jesus justifies himself by citing OT prophecy: “I desire mercy, and not sacrifice” (9:13; cf. Mark 2:13–17; Luke 5:27–32). All of this reflects Matthew’s interest in Israel’s Scriptures.

Matthew’s frequent references to law and righteousness (5:6, 10, 21–48; 6:1, 33) show Jesus’ reverence for both. Jesus’ interpretation of the law simplifies it, which should appeal to pious Jews who do not live like scribes or Pharisees but still pursue holiness. On the other hand, Jesus is eager to interpret the law correctly. He explores its true meaning, sometimes in unexpected ways, yet promises to uphold it (5:17–20).

Matthew also mentions OT characters such as David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Jonah more often than the other Gospel writers do. He alone mentions cities and regions such as Sodom, Zebulun, and Naphtali. Finally, Matthew’s phrasing of Jesus’ language seems to be adapted for Jewish readers. With few exceptions (12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43), Matthew has “kingdom of heaven” instead of “kingdom of God,” which Mark and Luke use. Gentiles might not understand “kingdom of heaven,” but Jews would prefer “kingdom of heaven” because it avoids the use of God’s name. These points all suggest that Matthew is most easily understood by Jews.

Matthew also addresses distinctively Jewish concerns. He appeals to Jews who want to know if Jesus is the Messiah. So his genealogy starts with Abraham, father of the Jews. Matthew often calls Jesus “son of David” (9:27; 20:30; 21:9) and “king of the Jews” (2:2; 27:37). And when Jesus is born, magi come to worship Jesus, fulfilling expectations that the nations would come to Israel to worship. So yes, Matthew wrote for Jews. But he included Gentiles, too.

Matthew for the Gentiles

Even if all this is correct, it is barely half true to say Matthew wrote for Jews, since his larger purpose is to summon Jews who believe in Jesus to take the message of Christ to Gentiles. Matthew’s interest in Gentiles appears quickly, in the genealogy that traces Jesus’ lineage through several Gentiles: Rahab, Ruth, and Bathsheba (the wife of a Hittite). Because there are only four women in the genealogy, and all three Gentile women had prominent or notorious roles, the careful reader can hardly miss them (1:1–17).

Next, the birth narrative reveals that Gentiles were the first to bow to Jesus, while Herod, the scribes, and the people of Jerusalem were hostile or indifferent (2:1–15). In addition, Jesus’ ministry begins in “Galilee of the Gentiles” (4:15). Before long, Jesus also heals Gentiles. When he heals the servant of a centurion, a Gentile, he declares that he has never seen such faith in Israel (8:5–13). A little later, his presence in the “country of the Gadarenes” puts him in the Decapolis, a Hellenized region east of the Jordan (8:28–34).

Matthew also drops hints that believing Jews had partially broken with Judaism. For example, Matthew’s pronouns commonly put distance between his readers and Judaism. So Matthew speaks of “their scribes” (7:29) and “their synagogues” (9:35; 10:17). In Matthew the sharpest controversies occur between Jesus and Jewish leaders, who also receive Jesus’ sharpest critique (23:1–36). Jesus also warns that “the sons of the kingdom [Israel] will be thrown into the outer darkness” (8:12). Because they failed to bear fruit, even though he made every provision, he tells them that “the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people producing its fruits” (21:43). The people of Jerusalem even appear to curse themselves when they call for Jesus’ crucifixion: “His blood be on us and on our children” (27:25).

Further, passages that apparently limit Jesus’ ministry to Israel actually do the opposite. In his mission discourse, Jesus sends the Twelve to the lost sheep of the house of Israel, forbidding them to go first to Gentiles or Samaritans (10:5–6). But when the disciples are more mature, they will indeed go to the Gentiles: “You will be dragged before governors and kings for my sake, to bear witness before them and the Gentiles” (10:17–20). Jesus’ encounter with a Syrophoenician woman deserves special attention, for it reproves the disciples when they seek to keep Jesus for themselves. Although the commentary will explain the passage in its place, we may highlight it now.

In 15:21–28, Jesus and his disciples leave Israel, enter Syrophoenician territory, and meet an approaching woman who is pleading for help for her demon-possessed daughter. Jesus chooses not to answer, but the woman persists until the disciples, wearied by her petitions, ask him to send her away. He obliges, saying, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel” (15:24). But she perseveres, begging for help at Jesus’ feet. Jesus responds, “It is not right to take the children’s bread and throw it to the dogs” (15:26). One supposes that the disciples are pleased that Jesus silences her by calling her a dog. Although the language is strong, at this time Jesus does in fact feed God’s children, Israel, first. Surprisingly, the woman acknowledges Jesus’ rejoinder, then presses on, “Yes, Lord, yet even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their masters’ table” (15:27). Perhaps the disciples expect another rejoinder from Jesus. After all, no one has beaten him in a verbal test of wits. Instead, Jesus commends her, “O woman, great is your faith!” and grants her request (15:28).

So a Canaanite prevails. If the encounter stuns the Twelve, it is a jolt they need. The episode functions as an unexplained parable, since no one states the point. The disciples and then the readers must decipher it. What isJesus’ disposition toward Gentile women? What should theirs be? The passage at least suggests that the kingdom has room for Gentiles. When Gentiles approach him in faith, pleading for mercy, he listens. Later, Jesus says not only that Gentiles are permitted to enter the kingdom but also that his disciples must go and instruct them, baptize them, and make them disciples.

Disciples throughout the World

By closing with the commission to make disciples, Matthew creates feedback loops. First, the charge to teach all that Jesus has commanded leads teachers to consider where they might find Jesus’ commands. Skilled readers will realize that the Gospel they have just read contains them. Indeed, Matthew contains teaching that addresses most of the questions a young disciple might ask. Further, in the ideal reader’s second journey through Matthew, he may notice that the Twelve take a path resembling his own. Matthew presents the disciples rather sympathetically, but they are, in a distinctly Matthean term, oligopistoi, people or men of little faith.8 Overall, in Matthew the disciples are men of weak but growing faith. They learn fitfully and erratically, moving from great confessions to pitiful errors with remarkable ease. But they listen, recover, and grow until they become apostles who are ready to implement the Great Commission.

If literary theorists are right, readers (or listeners) typically work through an engaging text or presentation looking for someone with whom to identify. But with whom can an interested reader of Matthew identify? The Jewish leaders are too hostile and legalistic. Jesus is too noble. The crowds are too shallow, marveling at his works yet finally comprehending nothing. The disciples are the remaining option, and they hold a certain attraction. They follow Jesus, listen, and ask questions. Their errors may even invite the reader who groans at their flaws to imagine, “I would understand. I would be the loyal disciple Jesus deserves.” Along that line, Matthew lets everyone read Jesus’ words as direct addresses or direct commands to “you.” In the long blocks of teaching, readers hear Jesus’ voice uninterrupted. As paragraphs roll by, he seems to address you and me, today.

A neophyte might eventually realize that Matthew is the ideal reader of his own Gospel. He follows Jesus, watches, listens, falters, repents, and receives the commission to disciple the nations. To be ready for that noble charge, he had to grow, appropriating what Jesus said, grasping the meaning of events. Matthew began as a man of little faith, but he persevered, he pondered, until he was ready to write a book that invited the world to become Jesus’ disciples. The aspirational reader might think, “Matthew experienced the very transformation I seek. He traveled from little faith to a faith great enough to write this book.” So Matthew desired his Gospel to do to his readers what the gospel did for him. His encounter with Jesus equipped him to write the Gospel that would become the source for all who train disciples.

If this seems hypothetical, remember that Matthew twice says that he intends to equip teachers and disciple makers, in chapter 28 and chapter 13. There he compares disciples to householders who share, from their treasure, truths new and old (13:51–52).

Relationship to the Rest of the Bible and to Christ

Relationship to the Rest of the Bible

Matthew shows how Jesus fulfills the hopes of Israel. He is the Son of Abraham and the Son of David. Through him, God fulfills his promises to Israel. In him all the families of the earth are blessed (Gen. 12:3).

Jesus fulfills every OT theme. He fulfills the law by plumbing its depths, explaining it masterfully, and keeping it perfectly. He completes the prophets by declaring the Word fearlessly, gently, and powerfully. He fulfills the prophets by completing every prophetic word about the coming salvation and restoration of God’s people. Above all, he is the Word. He completes the work of the priests by offering himself on the cross as the final sacrifice for sin. Like a faithful priest, he also prays and cares for his people. He is the true Judge, knowing and assessing the hearts of all flesh. He completes the temple, for it represented the presence of God, and Jesusis God’s presence. He is the wisdom of God, the friend of his people, the second Adam, the true Israel, the servant of Yahweh, and more. Instead of dipping into each of these themes, it may be wise to go deeper with one representative example, Jesus as King of Israel.

In biblical history, this theme begins in the disastrous era of the judges. At that time Israel had no king, and “everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg. 17:6; 21:25). So they asked for a king “like all the nations” (1 Sam. 8:5). They got precisely that in Saul. Like the kings of the nations, Saul was proud and self-serving. After the glory days of Saul’s successors David and Solomon, half of the southern kings and every northern king led Israel astray. Some actively promoted the worship of pagan deities. Failed monarchs were antikings who showed how the Messiah would not rule. Israel enjoyed a few noble kings, but grave flaws marred even the best. The righteous kings performed royal tasks: they protected Israel from her enemies, provided prosperity, upheld the law, and established justice, but Jesus executes every kingly task without flaw or sin. He crushes the enemies of his people, protects them by his Spirit, and guides them by his laws.

If the Gospels complete the OT, they also inaugurate the rest of the NT by providing the narrative to which Acts adds and the narrative on which the Epistles comment. Matthew, like the other Gospels, narrates the central moment of redemptive history—indeed, the climax of all human history.

Testimony to Christ

To grasp the role of Matthew in the canon, one must know his characters, especially Jesus. Matthew’s portrait of Jesus emerges by direct and indirect means. He declares Jesus’ identity directly through titles—“titular Christology”—and indirectly through descriptions of his work—“functional Christology.” Titular Christology examines the labels ascribed to Jesus in Matthew. Functional Christology examines the way Jesus’ actions reveal his self-understanding. The two overlap when, for example, Jesus both functions as a prophet and is called a prophet.

This commentary considers the titles of Jesus as they arise in the text. Many appear near the beginning, including Christ (Messiah), Son of David, Immanuel, and Lord. The direct claims of deity, reasonably common in John, are rare in Matthew. In John, Jesus declares, “Before Abraham was, I am” and “I am the resurrection and the life” (John 8:58; 11:25). Perhaps the closest parallel to this in Matthew occurs when Peter tells Jesus, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God,” and Jesus replies, “Flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 16:16–17).

Matthew’s functional Christology is richer. In Matthew, Jesus’ words and deeds reveal his self-conception. In short, Jesus implies that he is God “by exercising the functions, assuming the prerogatives, or accepting honors that properly belong to God alone.”9 That is, Jesus acts in ways that show he knows he is both God and Messiah throughout his ministry, as an array of passages in Matthew show. Jesus implicitly claims deity in many ways in Matthew; we will mention ten.

First, Jesus claims the right to judge mankind because he knows the hearts and thoughts of men (9:4; 12:25; 22:18). Therefore, he is able to reward “each person according to what he has done” (16:27) and so grant or prohibit entry into his kingdom (7:22–23; 13:41; 25:34, 41).

Second, he forgives sins on his own authority, far from the temple and without the prescribed sacrifices (9:2).

Third, he asserts that his presence is God’s presence (12:5–6). Like God, he is omnipresent; he is always with his disciples (18:20; 28:20).

Fourth, the attitude people take toward him will determine their eternal destiny. He grants life to all who know and confess him truly (7:21–27; 10:32–33). He demands that his disciples love him more than family or life itself (10:37–39; 16:24–26).

Fifth, Jesus says, “Whoever receives you receives me, and whoever receives me receives him who sent me” (10:40). Thus whatever anyone does to or for him, they do to or for God.

Sixth, Jesus teaches the truth on his own authority. He knows his words have supreme importance; they must be taught to the nations (28:18–20). They also possess supreme authority; they never fail (24:35). Moreover, while the prophets habitually spoke on God’s authority (“Thus says the Lord”), Jesus speaks on his own authority, saying, “Truly, I say to you.” He does this thirty times in Matthew to underscore the importance of a new revelation (10:15; 17:20; 18:18) or to explain the full meaning of the law (5:22, 28; 6:5).

Seventh, similarly, Jesus performs miracles on his own authority. In OT miracles, whenever God’s servants explain how a mighty deed occurs, they ascribe it to God’s will and power. But Jesus acts and heals on his own initiative, by his own power (8:1–4; 20:29–34).

Eighth, Jesus lets people bow before him in settings that signify worship, or at least great reverence (8:2; 9:18; 15:25). This is most striking after the resurrection (28:9, 17) and after Jesus calms a storm at sea. There we read, “Those in the boat worshiped him, saying, ‘Truly you are the Son of God’” (14:33).

Ninth, Jesus assumes that his life is a pattern for others, that it is a “divinely authoritative form of life.”10 If Jesus denies his family (12:46–50), his disciples must do so as well (10:37). If Jesus goes to the cross, his disciples must be willing, in principle, to join him: “If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me” (16:21–26).

Tenth, Jesus applies to himself OT texts that describe God. When the chief priests and scribes criticize the children who shout “Hosanna” as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he replies, “Out of the mouth of infants and nursing babies you have prepared praise” (Matt. 21:16). This comes from Psalm 8:2, which is addressed to God. It begins “O Lord, our Lord, how majestic is your name” (8:1). So Jesus takes the praise of God from the OT and applies it to himself.11

Preaching from Matthew

This commentary intends to assist preachers and teachers as they interpret and proclaim the Word. Such assistance regularly appears in the Response sections of the exposition, but it is sensible to comment here on the challenges in preaching from the moral instruction, the parables, and the miracles of Matthew.

Interpreting Jesus’ Moral Instruction

The interpretation of Jesus’ teaching seems straightforward, but it is worthwhile to remember that for Jesus and Israel, the law is more than a moral, behavioral, legal, or penal code. It does more than describe what acts are evil and what can be prosecuted. Jesus’ abiding interest in the motivation for behavior demonstrates this fact (5:21–48; 22:34–40). His accent on the heart as the source of every word and deed makes the same point (5:8, 28; 6:21; 9:4; 12:33–35; 13:15–19; 15:17–20; 18:35; 19:8). Jesus’ teaching is Torah: instruction in the good life for individuals and for society.

The majority of Jesus’ commands are second-person plural: they speak to disciples and groups and aim for a righteous or paradigmatic society.12 This is obvious in the OT, where God’s law shapes a nation with borders and a legal system. But it is in both the OT and the NT that instruction shapes life in the covenantal community. Laws shape more than personal behavior; they create a well-ordered society in which it is easier to resolve conflicts, restrict abuses, protect the innocent, and restrain evildoers, whomever they target, whether weak or powerful.

Theologians classically say that the law has three uses: to restrain sin in civil society, to reveal sin and so lead sinners to see their need of Christ, and to instruct disciples in the way of godliness. This certainly holds true for the teachings of Jesus, although the second and third uses seem more prominent in Matthew. When we focus on the Sermon on the Mount, the teaching seems both daunting and appealing. Jesus proclaims his will, his standards, with startling clarity, but if he is simply issuing commands, his clarity is a burden and his commands condemn, since no one can keep them.

The Sermon on the Mount has pervasive imperatival thrust. In it, Christ prohibits anger, lust, careless speech, love of praise, and worry. He commands generosity, love of enemies, and nonretaliation, even commanding disciples to be perfect. Eventually, readers realize that this defies their capacity, and Jesus’ moral vision becomes demoralizing.13 This should lead to self-examination, repentance, and faith in the Lord who first commands and then gives himself, on the cross, for those who cannot obey these commands.

Some analysts consider many of Jesus’ commands, such as “turn the other cheek,” to be completely impractical in a fallen world. If a nation turned the other cheek, invaders would soon overrun them. If disciples gave to everyone who asked, they would soon be impoverished. These issues have led scholars to propose various interpretive structures for Jesus’ teaching. Perhaps, Thomas Aquinas proposed, the most daunting commands are counsels of perfection that none but elite Christians should attempt to follow. Lutheran theologians stress that the law is a tutor that leads sinners to Christ. Some Christians have stressed the need for literal obedience, whatever the cost. It is better to note that most of Jesus’ commands are primarily for disciples, although outsiders are always welcome to listen. For believers, Jesus’ commands are the narrow but good path; for outsiders, they call for repentance and faith. So the commands, challenging as they are, entice people to keep reading till the end, when Jesus gives his life as a ransom for sinners (cf. 20:28).

Interpreting Parables

Depending on the way in which one categorizes short parables or figures of speech, there are fifteen to twenty-seven parables in Matthew, covering up to 185 verses. Parables become more prominent when opposition to Jesus grows in chapter 13. Definitions of parable vary. Matthew first uses the Greek term parabolē in 13:3. He regularly uses it for the long stories we typically call parables (13:1–9; 18:21–35), but he also calls proverbs and word pictures “parables” in 13:31–33; 24:32 (Gk.). If they are parables, then other word pictures are too (7:9–14; 9:15–17). At any rate, the Greek term has a broad range of meaning.

Among the many fine works on parables, there are interesting definitions of parable. Robert Stein defines a parable minimally as a “figure of speech in which there is a brief or extended comparison.” He also cites a definition that calls a parable an “earthly story” that conveys a “moral or spiritual principle.”14 Klyne Snodgrass defined a parable as a story with two levels of meaning: “The story level provides a mirror by which reality is perceived and understood.” So, he continued, “parables are imaginary gardens with real toads in them.”15 C. H. Dodd called a parable a “metaphor or simile drawn from nature or life arresting the hearer by its vividness or strangeness, leaving the mind in enough doubt about its significance to tease it into active thought.” Clearly, Dodd’s definition also arrests hearers and teases minds.16

Craig Blomberg argued that parables are low-level allegories. Longer parables (and some short ones) typically have a God-like figure—a king, master, or father—and one or two subordinates. If there are two subordinates, one is likely to be faithful, the other unfaithful. These three characters will ordinarily reveal something about God and his reign and something about the way disciples and unbelievers respond to him. The leading figure may also resemble Christ or foreshadow aspects of his work (18:21–35; 21:33–46). A parable with three characters will probably have three points, not five or ten, making them low-level allegories.

Allegory, Blomberg says, is a rhetorical device that gives symbolic dimension to a text but need not lead to unbridled embellishment. A parable may signal an additional layer of meaning when a realistic story takes an extravagant or unrealistic detail. When an interpreter sees a potentially allegorical element, he may state it with this form: “A is to B as a is to b with respect to x.” In the parable of the banquet in Luke 14, it would run like this: “The giver of the banquet is to the invitees as Jesus is to the Jews, in that the expected guests did not come to the party, so the party giver invited outcasts to take their place.” The formulation proves nothing in and of itself, but it does help interpreters to ask good questions.

The commentary on Matthew 13 explores the cluster of eight parables that build on the foundational story of a sower. Matthew’s parables tend to focus on grace, discipleship, kingdom life, and controversy.

Interpreting Miracles

The Role of Miracles in Jesus’ Ministry

The Gospels teach faithful readers to expect layers of meaning in miracle accounts.17 Miracles, like parables, instruct disciples in the ways of God and his kingdom. The difference is that parables are instructive fiction while miracles are instructive facts. But there are misconceptions about miracles and Jesus’ ministry. Some say Jesus’ miracles manifest his deity. But if Jesus’ miracles prove his deity, what do the miracles of Moses, Elisha, and Paul prove? Others say miracles instill or reward faith. Perhaps, but Jesus healed crowds of the sick, including unbelievers.

Matthew connects miracles to the coming of the kingdom when he says that Jesus came “teaching . . . proclaiming the gospel of the kingdom and healing every disease” (4:23; 9:35). Later, when he commissioned the apostles, Jesus instructed them, “Proclaim as you go, saying, ‘The kingdom of heaven is at hand.’ Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out demons” (10:7–8). Teaching and healing are two forms of kingdom activity; the kingdom embraces mind and body, spirit and flesh. Miracles demonstrate that the kingdom has arrived. Not all disease is the consequence of personal sin, but miracles do break Satan’s power (Luke 13:16). Matthew 7–8 links Jesus’ words and works. At the end of the Sermon on the Mount, bystanders marvel at Jesus’ authoritative teaching. Next, Jesus’ authoritative word changes the external world, as he cleanses a leper (8:3), heals a centurion’s servant (8:8, 13), casts out demons (8:16), stills seas (8:26), expels demons (8:32), and forgives sin (9:6), all by a word. In Matthew, Jesus may choose to heal with a touch, but he does not heal by a touch.

Matthew sees connections between miracles and three OT themes. First, in 8:14–17, he links miracles to Isaiah’s prophecy of God’s suffering servant (Isa. 53:4). Second, miracles provide evidence that Jesus is the Promised One (Matt. 11:2–5; Isa. 29:18–19; 35:3–10). Third, the healings point to God’s salvation (Matt. 1:21; 8:25; 9:1–8, 21–22).

The Nature of Miracles

In ordinary language, a miracle is an amazing event, rousing wonder. Unfortunately, this language allows one to speak of miracle drugs, the miracle of birth, and miraculous feats in sports or engineering. In the philosophy of science, a miracle is a nonrepeatable counterinstance to a law of nature. In religion, it is an extraordinary event wrought by a god, with spiritual significance. One theologian said that physically, miracles are unusual enough to draw the attention of observers, while theologically, they are acts of God, and morally, they disclose God’s character and promote faith.18

There is no technical term for miracle in the OT; a variety of terms labeled events as signs or wonders. The NT has three semiformal terms: sign (Gk. sēmeion), wonder (teras), and mighty deed (dynamis). Matthew rarely uses these to narrate miracles. If anything, Matthew’s narratives speak of healing (therapeuō) or salvation (sōzō). “Sign” most often appears in controversies between the Pharisees, who demand signs, and Jesus, who chastises them for making such demands (12:38–39; 16:1–4).

In Scripture, miracles are never empty marvels. In John, Jesus multiplies loaves then says, “I am the bread of life” (John 6:1–14, 35, 51), or says, “I am the light of the world” then heals a blind man (John 8:12; 9:1–7). In Scripture, miracles are the Creator’s acts, not violations of natural law.