Evolving Networking Technologies E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 460

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

EVOLVING NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES This book discusses in a practical manner some of the critical security challenges facing the ever-evolving networking technologies of today. In an age of explosive worldwide growth of electronic data storage and communications, effective protection of information has become a critical requirement, especially when used in coordination with other tools for information security and cryptography in all of its applications, including data confidentiality, data integrity, and user authentication. While the importance of cryptographic technique, i.e., encryption, in protecting sensitive and critical information and resources cannot be overemphasized, an examination of the technical evolution within several industries reveals an approaching precipice of scientific change. The glacially paced but inevitable convergence of quantum mechanics, nanotechnology, computer science, and applied mathematics will revolutionize modern technology. The implications of such changes will be far-reaching, with one of its greatest impacts affecting information security and, more specifically, modern cryptography. The book takes the reader through these issues. As the security systems design becomes more and more complex to meet these challenges, a mistake that is committed most often by security specialists is not making a comprehensive analysis of the system to be secured before choosing which security mechanism to deploy. Often, the security mechanism chosen turns out to be either incompatible with, or inadequate for, handling the complexities of the system. In addition, the book also discusses three main points: * Configuration management is a critical issue, and as networks are increasing in size, their configuration needs to be managed. Devices may conflict with each other in terms of configuration. Therefore, it becomes challenging for firewalls to be up-to-date according to network policies. * Scalability of the network is another big challenge, it would be easier to address if the network stays the same, but the network is ever expanding with a constant increase in the number of devices devoted to the network. * Vendor lock-in: Business decisions that are taken today are revolving around the assumptions and capabilities of the current vendor and environment scenario. Buying the best solutions from today's vendors involves how to interoperate, integrate, and support multiple solutions. It may involve tearing out all of the longstanding kits without tearing down the entire network at the same time. Audience This book specifically appeals to industry practitioners, IT researchers, and students regarding network technological management.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

List of Figures

List of Tables

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Acronyms

1 5G Technologies, Architecture and Protocols

1.1 Evolution of Wireless Technologies

1.2 5G Cellular Network Architecture

1.3 5G Energy Efficiency

1.4 Security in 5G

1.5 5G Applications

1.6 Conclusion

References

2 Scope and Challenges of IoT and Blockchain Integration

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Literature Review

2.3 Internet of Things and Its Centralized System

2.4 Blockchain Technology

2.5 Integration of Blockchain and IoT Technology

2.6 Conclusion

References

3 Data Communication and Information Exchange in Distributed IoT Environment

3.1 Introduction

3.2 IoT Technologies and Their Uses

3.3 Centralized vs. Distributed Approach

3.4 Distributed System Architecture

3.5 Data Communication Taking Place in Distributed IoT Environment

3.6 Conclusion

References

4 Contribution of Cloud-Based Services in Post-Pandemic Technology Sustainability and Challenges: A Future Direction

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Cloud-Based Solutions

4.3 Impact of Industry 4.0 in the Cloud Computing Industry

4.4 Significance and Impact of Cloud in the Pandemic Outbreak

4.5 Conclusion and Future Directions

References

5 Network Security in Evolving Networking Technologies: Developments and Future Directions

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Background on Attacks, Security Services and Challenges

5.3 Evolution of Network Security Strategies

5.4 Different Evolving Security Approaches

5.5 Discussion

5.6 Conclusion

References

6 The State of CDNs Today and What AI-Assisted CDN Means for the Future

6.1 Introduction

6.2 CDN and Its Challenges

6.3 Importance of AI in CDN

6.4 Pandemic and CDN

6.5 Security Threats in CDN

6.6 Conclusion

References

7 Challenges and Opportunities in Smart City Network Management Through Blockchain and Cloud Computing

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Literature Review

7.3 Blockchain and Smart City

7.4 Cloud Computing and Challenges

7.5 Research Methodology

7.6 Conclusion

References

8 Role of IoT in Smart Homes and Offices

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Smart Building Constituents

8.3 Concept of Smart Office Service Devices

8.4 IoT in Smart Homes and Offices

8.5 Future Research Directions and Limitations of Smart Home-Based Technology

8.6 Conclusion

References

9 Role of IoT in the Prevention of COVID-19

9.1 Introduction

9.2 A Modern Era Problem

9.3 Technology

9.4 IoT Sensors and Board

9.5 Use of IoT in COVID-19 Prevention

9.6 Conclusion

References

10 Role of Satellites in Agriculture

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Processing Satellite Images

10.3 Product Levels of Satellite Remote Sensing Data

10.4 Future Challenges

10.5 Conclusion

References

11 Search Engine Evaluation Methodology

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Performance Evaluation Forum

11.3 Search Engine Evaluation Parameters

11.4 Factors Affecting Search Engines

11.5 Conclusion

References

12 Synthesis and Analysis of Digital IIR Filters for Denoising ECG Signal on FPGA

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Literature Survey

12.3 Methods and Materials

12.4 Results and Discussion

12.5 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

13 Neural Networks and Their Applications

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Main Work of Neuron

13.3 Comparison Between Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Biological Neural Network (BNN)

13.4 How Artificial Neural Network Works

13.5 Neural Networks and Their Applications

13.6 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

Editors

Also of Interest

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1 Evolution of wireless technology.

Table 1.2 1G to 4G security mechanism.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 IoT-blockchain applications.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Information and communications technologies.

Table 4.2 Artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies.

Table 4.3 Data analytics and business intelligence technologies.

Table 4.4 Exceptional contributions of cloud computing in the agriculture and forestry arenas.

Table 4.5 Emerging technologies in the entertainment, media, and hospitality arenas.

Table 4.6 Emerging cloud-based technologies in product manufacturing and maintenance.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Security services and approaches.

Table 5.2 Additional evolving security requirements.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Replica placement algorithms along with their optimization factors.

Table 6.2 Partial-site replication approaches with their advantages and disadvantages.

Table 6.3 Comparison between adaptive and non-adaptive request routing algorithms.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Different IoT settings for smart homes, offices, etc.

Table 8.2 Different amenities of a smart building.

Table 8.3 Services and goals of different smart building environments.

Table 8.4 Principal services and systems for smart offices.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Crude statistics relating to demographic risk factors for COVID-19 infection at Eka Kotebe Treatment Center in Ethiopia, October, 2020

Table 9.2 Multivariate logistic regression analysis of the relative effect of demographic, IPC and types of exposure factors of COVID-19 infection at Eka Kotebe Treatment Center in Ethiopia, October 2020.

Table 9.3 Cases and mortality rate of countries most affected by COVID-19 as of February 23, 2022 (second wave).

Table 9.4 Demographics and clinical data for participants and COVID-19 status: isolated and quarantined.

Table 9.5 Comparison of non-IoT and IoT.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Comparison of satellite types.

Table 10.2 Comparison of machine learning algorithm types.

Table 10.3 Comparison of deep learning algorithm types.

Table 10.4 The tools website.

Table 10.5 Comparison of communication media between satellites.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Evaluation methods.

Table 11.2 Statistical approaches vs. automatic approaches.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Summary of IIR filters structure information in MATLAB [3].

Table 12.2 Summary of resources for Butterworth filter.

Table 12.3 Summary of resources for Chebyshev-I filter.

Table 12.4 Summary of resources for Chebyshev-II filter.

Table 12.5 Summary of resources for Elliptic filter.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 The similarities between ANN and BNN.

Table 13.2 The differences between ANN and BNN.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Evolution of wireless technologies.

Figure 1.2 Functional architecture for 5G mobile networks.

Figure 1.3 Architecture of end-to-end network in 5G.

Figure 1.4 Component of network slicing.

Figure 1.5 ETSI-NFV architecture.

Figure 1.6 5G architecture.

Figure 1.7 5G energy efficiency.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 IoT refrence model and architecture.

Figure 2.2 Characteristics of blockchain.

Figure 2.3 Example of blockchain technology.

Figure 2.4 Interactions between blockchain and IoT.

Figure 2.5 Advantages of integrating IoT with blockchain.

Figure 2.6 Challenges of blockchain and IoT integration.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Various technologies related to the IoT environment.

Figure 3.2 A centralized system in IoT environment (CN = Client Node).

Figure 3.3 Distributed architecture in IoT environment.

Figure 3.4 The MQTT protocol.

Figure 3.5 How a smart home works in IoT environment.

Figure 3.6 A global business data platform.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Security challenges.

Figure 5.2 Different emergent security approaches.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Content delivery network and its components.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 IoT for smart city.

Figure 7.2 Different sensing paradigms.

Figure 7.3 Smart city security framework proposed by Biswas and Muthukkumarasamy.

Figure 7.4 Types of distributed ledgers.

Figure 7.5 Architectural components of cloud service.

Figure 7.6 Six computing paradigms: From mainframe computing to internet computing, to grid computing and cloud computing.

Figure 7.7 Framework for cloud computing, blockchain, and network management in smart city.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Constituents of a smart building.

Figure 8.2 Shared service devices in smart office.

Figure 8.3 Smart office service device sharing.

Figure 8.4 IoT architecture for smart homes and offices.

Figure 8.5 Smart home in conjunction with cloud server and third-party services.

Figure 8.6 Outline of an IoT-enabled household.

Figure 8.7 IoT smart household components deployment with central server.

Figure 8.8 Data exchange amongst IoT smart home devices and server.

Figure 8.9 Custom home automation and control system.

Figure 8.10 Cloud architecture for smart home.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Growth in the number of COVID-19 patients in India.

Figure 9.2 Circuit diagram of IR sensor.

Figure 9.3 The infrared LED.

Figure 9.4 The IR receiver or photodiode.

Figure 9.5 The working principle of the IR sensor.

Figure 9.6 Sensors used in IoT.

Figure 9.7 Arduino UNO board.

Figure 9.8 Arduino USB cable.

Figure 9.9 Pulse rate sensor.

Figure 9.10 IR sensor.

Figure 9.11 Temperature sensor.

Figure 9.12 Proximity sensor.

Figure 9.13 Pressure sensor.

Figure 9.14 LCD display.

Figure 9.15 Relay.

Figure 9.16 Power supply.

Figure 9.17 Jumping wires.

Figure 9.18 Risk analysis.

Figure 9.19 The comparison of non-IoT and IoT.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Data processing.

Figure 10.2 Example of precision agriculture.

Figure 10.3 Remote sensing image processing, analysis and management flow.

Figure 10.4 Online farm management platform that exploits computer vision for crops.

Figure 10.5 ML models with their total rate (observed in total 40 papers).

Figure 10.6 Total number of ML models in each subcategory of four main categories.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Precision

Figure 11.2 Recall

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Workflow chart for synthesis of digital filters on FPGA.

Figure 12.2 Workflow chart of design steps for synthesis and simulation of digital filters.

Figure 12.3 Snapshot of design property window.

Figure 12.4 Device utilization summary for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.5 Summary of macro statistics for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.6 Register report for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.7 Timing summary for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.8 RTL schematic for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.9 RTL internal structure for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.10 ModelSim simulation result for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.11 Power estimation for Butterworth filter.

Figure 12.12 Device utilization summary for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.13 Summary of macro statistics for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.14 Register report for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.15 Timing summary for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.16 RTL schematic for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.17 RTL internal structure for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.18 ModelSim simulation result for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.19 Power estimation for Chebyshev-I filter.

Figure 12.20 Device utilization summary for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.21 Summary of macro statistics for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.22 Register report for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.23 Timing summary for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.24 RTL schematic for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.25 RTL internal structure for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.26 ModelSim simulation result for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.27 Power estimation for Chebyshev-II filter.

Figure 12.28 Device utilization summary for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.29 Summary of macro statistics for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.30 Register report for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.31 Timing summary for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.32 RTL schematic for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.33 RTL internal structure for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.34 ModelSim simulation result for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.35 Power estimation for Elliptic filter.

Figure 12.36 Number of multipliers in IIR digital filters (MATLAB and FPGA implementation).

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Structure of the neuron network.

Figure 13.2 Working model of artificial neural network.

Figure 13.3 Single layer feedforward network.

Figure 13.4 Multilayer feedforward network.

Figure 13.5 Fully recurrent network.

Figure 13.6 Jordan network.

Figure 13.7 Supervised learning.

Figure 13.8 Unsupervised learning.

Figure 13.9 Reinforcement learning.

Figure 13.10 Concept of competitive network.

Figure 13.11 Elastic band for the shortest path.

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

List of Figures

List of Tables

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Acronyms

Begin Reading

Editors

Also of Interest

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Evolving Networking Technologies

Developments and Future Directions

Edited by

Kanta Prasad Sharma

GLA University, Mathura, India

Shaurya Gupta

University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, India

Ashish Sharma

GLA University, Mathura, India

Dac-Nhuong Le

Haiphong University, Haiphong, Vietnam

This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-83620-9

Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson

Dedicated to our friendsand family for theirconstant support during thecourse of this book

List of Figures

1.1

Evolution of wireless technologies.

1.2

Functional architecture for 5G mobile networks.

1.3

Architecture of end-to-end network in 5G.

1.4

Component of network slicing.

1.5

ETSI-NFV architecture.

1.6

5G architecture.

1.7

5G energy efficiency.

2.1

IoT refrence model and architecture.

2.2

Characteristics of blockchain.

2.3

Example of blockchain technology.

2.4

Interactions between blockchain and IoT.

2.5

Advantages of integrating IoT with blockchain.

2.6

Challenges of blockchain and IoT integration.

3.1

Various technologies related to the IoT environment.

3.2

A centralized system in IoT environment (CN = Client Node).

3.3

Distributed architecture in IoT environment.

3.4

The MQTT protocol.

3.5

How a smart home works in IoT environment.

3.6

A global business data platform.

5.1

Security challenges.

5.2

Different emergent security approaches.

6.1

Content delivery network and its components.

7.1

IoT for smart city.

7.2

Different sensing paradigms.

7.3

Smart city security framework proposed by Biswas and Muthukkumarasamy.

7.4

Types of distributed ledgers.

7.5

Architectural components of cloud service.

7.6

Six computing paradigms: From mainframe computing to internet computing, to grid computing and cloud computing.

7.7

Framework for cloud computing, blockchain, and network management in smart city.

8.1

Constituents of a smart building.

8.2

Shared service devices in smart office.

8.3

Smart office service device sharing.

8.4

IoT architecture for smart homes and offices.

8.5

Smart home in conjunction with cloud server and third-party services.

8.6

Outline of an IoT-enabled household.

8.7

IoT smart household components deployment with central server.

8.8

Data exchange amongst IoT smart home devices and server.

8.9

Custom home automation and control system.

8.10

Cloud architecture for smart home.

9.1

Growth in the number of COVID-19 patients in India.

9.2

Circuit diagram of IR sensor.

9.3

The infrared LED.

9.4

The IR receiver or photodiode.

9.5

The working principle of the IR sensor.

9.6

Sensors used in IoT.

9.7

Arduino UNO board.

9.8

Arduino USB cable.

9.9

Pulse rate sensor.

9.10

IR sensor.

9.11

Temperature sensor.

9.12

Proximity sensor.

9.13

Pressure sensor.

9.14

LCD display.

9.15

Relay.

9.16

Power supply.

9.17

Jumping wires.

9.18

Risk analysis.

9.19

The comparison of non-IoT and IoT.

10.1

Data processing.

10.2

Example of precision agriculture.

10.3

Remote sensing image processing, analysis and management flow.

10.4

Online farm management platform that exploits computer vision for crops.

10.5

ML models with their total rate (observed in total 40 papers).

10.6

Total number of ML models in each subcategory of four main categories.

11.1

Precision

11.2

Recall

12.1

Workflow chart for synthesis of digital filters on FPGA.

12.2

Workflow chart of design steps for synthesis and simulation of digital filters.

12.3

Snapshot of design property window.

12.4

Device utilization summary for Butterworth filter.

12.5

Summary of macro statistics for Butterworth filter.

12.6

Register report for Butterworth filter.

12.7

Timing summary for Butterworth filter.

12.8

RTL schematic for Butterworth filter.

12.9

RTL internal structure for Butterworth filter.

12.10

ModelSim simulation result for Butterworth filter.

12.11

Power estimation for Butterworth filter.

12.12

Device utilization summary for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.13

Summary of macro statistics for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.14

Register report for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.15

Timing summary for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.16

RTL schematic for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.17

RTL internal structure for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.18

ModelSim simulation result for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.19

Power estimation for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.20

Device utilization summary for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.21

Summary of macro statistics for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.22

Register report for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.23

Timing summary for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.24

RTL schematic for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.25

RTL internal structure for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.26

ModelSim simulation result for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.27

Power estimation for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.28

Device utilization summary for Elliptic filter.

12.29

Summary of macro statistics for Elliptic filter.

12.30

Register report for Elliptic filter.

12.31

Timing summary for Elliptic filter.

12.32

RTL schematic for Elliptic filter.

12.33

RTL internal structure for Elliptic filter.

12.34

ModelSim simulation result for Elliptic filter.

12.35

Power estimation for Elliptic filter.

12.36

Number of multipliers in IIR digital filters (MATLAB and FPGA implementation).

13.1

Structure of the neuron network.

13.2

Working model of artificial neural network.

13.3

Single layer feedforward network.

13.4

Multilayer feedforward network.

13.5

Fully recurrent network.

13.6

Jordan network.

13.7

Supervised learning.

13.8

Unsupervised learning.

13.9

Reinforcement learning.

13.10

Concept of competitive network.

13.11

Elastic band for the shortest path.

List of Tables

1.1

Evolution of wireless technology.

1.2

1G to 4G security mechanism.

2.1

IoT-blockchain applications.

4.1

Information and communications technologies.

4.2

Artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies.

4.3

Data analytics and business intelligence technologies.

4.4

Exceptional contributions of cloud computing in the agriculture and forestry arenas.

4.5

Emerging technologies in the entertainment, media, and hospitality arenas.

4.6

Emerging cloud-based technologies in product manufacturing and maintenance.

5.1

Security services and approaches.

5.2

Additional evolving security requirements.

6.1

Replica placement algorithms along with their optimization factors.

6.2

Partial-site replication approaches with their advantages and disadvantages.

6.3

Comparison between adaptive and non-adaptive request routing algorithms.

8.1

Different IoT settings for smart homes, offices, etc.

8.2

Different amenities of a smart building.

8.3

Services and goals of different smart building environments.

8.4

Principal services and systems for smart offices.

9.1

Crude statistics relating to demographic risk factors for COVID-19 infection at Eka Kotebe Treatment Center in Ethiopia, October, 2020

9.2

Multivariate logistic regression analysis of the relative effect of demographic, IPC and types of exposure factors of COVID-19 infection at Eka Kotebe Treatment Center in Ethiopia, October 2020.

9.3

Cases and mortality rate of countries most affected by COVID-19 as of February 23, 2022 (second wave).

9.4

Demographics and clinical data for participants and COVID-19 status: isolated and quarantined.

9.5

Comparison of non-IoT and IoT.

10.1

Comparison of satellite types.

10.2

Comparison of machine learning algorithm types.

10.3

Comparison of deep learning algorithm types.

10.4

The tools website.

10.5

Comparison of communication media between satellites.

11.1

Evaluation methods.

11.2

Statistical approaches vs. automatic approaches.

12.1

Summary of IIR filters structure information in MATLAB [3].

12.2

Summary of resources for Butterworth filter.

12.3

Summary of resources for Chebyshev-I filter.

12.4

Summary of resources for Chebyshev-II filter.

12.5

Summary of resources for Elliptic filter.

13.1

The similarities between ANN and BNN.

13.2

The differences between ANN and BNN.

Foreword

This book discusses some of the critical security challenges facing the ever-evolving networking technologies of today. Chapter 1, 5G Technologies, Architecture and Protocols, presents the main elements in 5G core networks, security in 5G mobile networks, 5G radio access technology, frame structure, network virtualization, and slicing in 5G, which are the key areas of study in 5G technology. Chapter 2, Scope and Challenges of IoT and Blockchain Integration, focuses on the pros and cons of the integration of both the technology and existing platforms that are based on the alliance of IoT and blockchain platforms like Ethereum, Hyperledger, Lisk, and Slock.it, which are also explained along with their full functionality. Chapter 3, Data Communication and Information Exchange in Distributed IoT Environment based on IoT as a paradigm based totally on the internet that contains many interconnected technologies like radio frequency identity and Wi-Fi sensor and actor networks, to exchange data. Chapter 4, Contribution of Cloud-Based Services in Post-Pandemic Technology Sustainability and Challenges, focuses on the contribution of cloud technologies in agriculture, weather forecasting, medical image analysis, security, ICT, and entertainment, along with future application and utilities. This chapter also covers the various applications and tools used by different industrial areas supported by cloud computing. Chapter 5, Network Security in Evolving Networking Technologies: Developments and Future Directions, specifically relates to the network system’s security, privacy, integrity and availability of data information in the system. The challenge of network protection persists across all levels of the data network, and the purpose of network security is to protect the secrecy, transparency, integrity, stability, usability and auditability of the network. Chapter 6, The State of CDNs Today and What AI-Assisted CDN Means for the Future, points out the drawbacks of CDN, such as distributed denial of services attacks (DDoS), which are a serious concern for CDN. Chapter 7, Challenges and Opportunities on the problem of the concept of smart cities, which is the need for better technologies to improve the system’s data transfer, the research gap there is a problem of trust as massive amounts of the private data of users are at stake, with hackers trying to gain access to it. Chapter 8, Role of IoT in Smart Homes and Offices, discusses the concept of smart offices and homes, which are a part of the smart building environment structure. The role of IoT and cloud computing in establishing communication amongst smart devices is also discussed. It further discusses the components of each technology and the areas of application along with covering future aspects and limitations. Chapter 9, Role of IoT in the Prevention of COVID-19, discusses the challenge currently facing the world, which is how to stop the expansion of the COVID-19 virus as the world is now facing the third wave of the disease, against which the WHO is regularly updating all of us to take precautions against. To prevent the spread of the virus, individuals testing positive for the disease should be placed in isolation. Many countries are currently affected and the entire world is taking precautions against it by using the various methods as per the guidelines issued by the WHO. Chapter 10, Role of Satellites in Agriculture, provides critical reviews of the role of satellites in agriculture and how big data analysis can give amazing results; hence, contributing to the national economy. Further, the advantages and disadvantages along with the challenges that lie ahead are discussed and how the future of these technologies will help the agricultural sector. Chapter 11, Search Engine Evaluation Methodology, discusses how the evaluation concept is a key technology which is used to make continuous and smooth progress in the direction of constructing a better search engine. In the search engine evaluation process, the search engine’s performance is measured in respect to its efficiency and effectiveness. Chapter 12, Synthesis and Analysis of Digital IIR Filters for Denoising ECG Signal on FPGA, focuses on the conversion of MATLAB code of different designed IIR digital filters for demising ECG signal into Verilog code using HDL com- mand line interface. Spartan-6 FPGA (XC6SLX75T with 3FGG676 package) is used as a target device. Chapter 13, Neural Networks and Their Applications, discusses how our brain has ten billion cells, which are correspondingly called neurons, that process informa- tion as electric signals.

In closing, we wish to express our sincere thanks to all the authors for their valuable contributions to this volume. Without their cooperation and eagerness to contribute, this project would never have been successfully completed. All the authors have been extremely cooperative and punctual during the submission, editing, and publication process of the book. We express our heartfelt thanks to Martin Scrivener of Scrivener Publishing for his support, encouragement, patience, and cooperation during the entire process of publishing this volume. We would surely be failing in our duty if we do not acknowledge the encouragement, motivation, and assistance that we received from those in India. While it will be impossible for me and my team to mention the name of each of them, the contributions of our reviewers have been invaluable in making this volume as error-free as possible. Last but not the least, we would like to thank all members of our respective families for being the major sources of our motivation, inspiration and strength during the entire time it took to publish this volume.

Kanta Prasad

Sharma Shaurya

Gupta Ashish Sharma

Dac-Nhuong Le

January 2023

Preface

In an age of explosive worldwide growth of electronic data storage and communications, effective protection of information has become a critical requirement. Especially when used in coordination with other tools for information security, cryptography in all of its applications, including data confidentiality, data integrity, and user authentication, is the most powerful tool for protecting information. While the importance of cryptographic technique, i.e., encryption, in protecting sensitive and critical information and resources cannot be overemphasized, an examination of the technical evolution within several industries reveals an approaching precipice of scientific change. The glacially paced, but inevitable convergence of quantum mechanics, nanotechnology, computer science, and applied mathematics, will revolutionize modern technology. The implications of such changes will be far reaching, with one of its greatest impacts affecting information security. More specifically, modern cryptography. With the exponential growth of wireless communications, the internet of things, and cloud computing, and the increasingly dominant roles played by electronic commerce in every major industry, safeguarding the information in storage and while traveling over the communication networks is increasingly becoming the most critical and contentious challenge for technology innovators. The key prerequisite for the sustained development and successful exploitation of information technology and other related industries is the notion of information security and the assurance that operations and information systems are protected by ensuring their availability, integrity, authentication, non-repudiation, information confidentiality and privacy. While it is true that cryptography has failed to provide its users the real security it promised, the reasons for its failure has not much to do with cryptography as a mathematical science. Rather, poor implementation of protocols and algorithms has been the major source of the problem. Cryptography will continue to play a leading role in developing new security solutions that will be in great demand with the increasing bandwidth and data rate of next-generation communication systems and networks. New cryptographic algorithms, protocols and tools must follow up in order to adapt to the new communication and computing technologies. New security mechanisms should be designed to defend against the increasingly complex and sophisticated attacks launched on networks and web-based applications. In addition to classical cryptographic algorithms, approaches like chaos-based cryptography, DNA-based cryptography, and quantum cryptography will increasingly play important roles. However, one must not forget that today’s fundamental problems in security are not new. What has changed over the decades is the exponential growth in the number of connected devices, evolution of networks with data communication speed as high as terabits per second, at least in the near field, massive increase in the volume of data communication and availability of high-performance hardware and massively parallel architecture for computing and intelligent software. As the security systems design becomes more and more complex to meet these challenges, a mistake that is committed most often by security specialists is not making a comprehensive analysis of the system to be secured before making a choice about which security mechanism to deploy. On many occasions, the security mechanism chosen turns out to be either incompatible with or inadequate for handling the complexities of the system.

Kanta Prasad

Sharma Shaurya

Gupta Ashish Sharma

Dac-Nhuong Le

January 2023

Acknowledgments

First of all, we would like to thank all our colleagues and friends for sharing our happiness at the start of this project and following up with their encouragement when it seemed too difficult to complete. We are thankful to all the members of Scrivener Publishing, especially Martin Scrivener and Phillip Carmical, for giving us the opportunity to write this book.

We would like to acknowledge and thank the most important people in our lives, our parents and partners, for their support. This book has been a long-cherished dream which would not have become a reality without the support and love of these amazing people, who encouraged us with their time and attention. We are also grateful to our best friends for their blessings and unconditional love, patience, and encouragement.

Kanta Prasad

Sharma Shaurya

Gupta Ashish Sharma

Dac-Nhuong Le

Acronyms

3GPP

3rd Generation Partnership Project

4G

Fourth Generation

4GT

Fourth Generation Techniques

5G

Fifth Generation

6LoWPAN

IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks

ABE

Attribute-based Encryption

AES

Advanced Encryption Standard

AHP

Analytical Hierarchy Process

AI

Artificial intelligence

AMPS

Advanced-Mobile Phone System

AMQP

Advanced Message Queuing Protocol

ANN

Artificial Neural Network

API

Application Programming Interface

AR

Augmented Reality

AR/VR

Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality

BDA

Big Data Analytics

BDMA

Beam Division Multiple Access

BLE

Bluetooth Low Energy

BNN

Biological Neural Network

BNS

Bi-Normal Separation

BSS

Business Support System

CBDM

Component-Based Development Model

CCT

Cloud Computing Technology

CCSP

Cloud Computer Service Provider

CDMA

Code-Division Multiple Access

CDMS

Code Division Multiple Access

CDN

Content Delivery Network

CERT

Computer Emergency Response Teams

CIO

Chief Information Officer

CI

Consistency Index

CLEF

Cross Language Evaluation Forum

CMMI

Capability Maturity Model Integration

CN

Core Network

CoAP

Constrained Application Protocol

CPM

Concurrent Process Model

CR

Consistency Ratio

CSA

Cyber Security Agency

CSCM

Cybersecurity Challenges Model

CSS

Cascading Style Sheets

D2D

Device-to-Device

DaaS

Data as a Service

DB

Database

DC2M

DevOps’ Culture Challenges Model

DCG

Discounted Cumulative Gain

DCM

Divide and Conquer Model

DCPS

Data-Centric Pub-Sub

DDS

Data-Distribution Service

DDoS

Distributed Denial of Service

DES

Data Encryption Standard

DevOps

Development and Operations

DLRL

Data Local Reconstruction Layer

DMM

Distributed Mobility Management

DNS

Domain Name System

DoS

Denial of Service

DDoS

Distributed Denial of Service

DTLS

Datagram Transport Layer Security

DVB

Digital Video Broadcasting

DX

Digital Transformation

E2E

End-to-End

ECC

Elliptic Curve Cryptography

e-CF

e-Competence Framework

EDGE

Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution

EVM

Ethereum Virtual Machine

FBMC

Filter Bank Multicarrier

FCM

Fuzzy C-Means

FFN

Feedforward Network

FIRE

Forum for Information Retrieval Evaluation

FP

Function Point

FPGA

Field-Programmable Gate Array

FPR

False Positive Rate

FTC

Feature Transition Charts

GSM

Global System for Mobile Communication

GIS

Geographic Information System

GUI

Graphical User Interface

GPU

Graphics Processing Unit

GPS

Global Positioning System

HCI

Human–Computer Interaction

HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HR

Human Resource

IaaS

Infrastructure as a Service

IBE

1Identity-Based Encryption

IBFD

In-Band Full-Duplex

ICT

Information and Communications Technology

IDC

International Data Corporation

IDM

Intrusion Detection Manager

IDS

Intrusion Detection System

IMS

IP Multimedia Subsystem

IoE

Internet of Everything

IoT

Internet of Things

I/O

Input/Output

ISO/IEC

International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission

IT

Information Technology

ITU

International Telecommunication Union

KGS

Key Generation Server

KNN

k-Nearest Neighbor

KPI

Key Performance Indicators

KSI

Keyless Signature Infrastructure

LAN

Local Area Network

LED

Light Emitting Diode

LMS

Least Mean Square

LSE

Least Square Estimation

LTE

Long-Term Evolution

M&A

Measurement & Analysis

MD5

Message Digest 5

MES

Manufacturing Execution System

MHT

Merkle Hash Tree

MIH

Media Independent Handover

MIMO

Multi-Input Multi-Output

ML

Machine Learning

MOOC

Massive Open Online Course

MQTT

Message Queuing Telemetry Transport

MSE

Mean Square Error

MVF

Mean Value Function

MVC

Model View Controller

NCS

Non-Cognitive Skills

NCSF

Non-Cognitive Skills Framework

NFC

Near-Field Communication

NFV

Network Feature Virtualization

NFV-MANO

Network Feature Virtualization Management and Orchestration

NGMN

Next Generation Mobile Network

NMT

Nordic Mobile Telephone

NPS

Net Promoter Scores

NSSI

Network Slice Subnet Instance

OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing

OSI

Open Systems Interconnection

OSS

Open-Source Software

OS

Operating System

OTT

Over-the-Top

OWASP

Open Web Application Security Project

P2P

Peer-to-Peer

PaaS

Platform as a Service

PIC

Programmable Microcontroller

PIO

Population, Intervention, and Outcome

PPC

Pay-per-Click

PU

Perceived Usefulness

PUF

Physical Unclonable Function

PV

Planned Value

QA

Quality Assurance

QoS

Quality of Service

RAD

Rapid Application Development Model

RAT

Radio Access Technology

RAN

Radio Access Network

RC4

Rivest Cipher 4

RF

Radio Frequency

RFC

Request for Change

RFID

Radio Frequency Identification

RM

Risk Management

RPM

Rapid Prototyping Model

RNG

Random Number Generator

RSA

Rivest-Shamir-Adleman

RTT

Round-Trip Time

RT-PCR

Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction

SaaS

Software as a Service

SBA

Service-Based Architecture

SBR

Security Bug Reports

SDN

Software-Defined Networking

SEO

Search Engine Optimization

SHA

Secure Hash Algorithm

SOA

Service-Oriented Architecture

SPSS

Statistical Package for Social Sciences

SQL

Structured Query Language

SME

Small and Medium Enterprises

SMS

Short Message Service

SV

Schedule Variance

SVM

Support Vector Machine

SLR

Systematic Literature Review

SSE

Sum of Squares Error

SSL

Safe Socket Layer

SWIPT

Simultaneous Cellular Data and Power Transfer

TACS

Total Access Communication System

TCP/IP

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TCO

Total Cost of Ownership

TLS

Transport Layer Security

TSP

Traveling Salesman Problem

UDP

User Datagram Protocol

UMTS

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

URL

Uniform Resource Locator

VR

Virtual Reality

XML

Extensible Markup Language

XMPP

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol

XP

Extreme Programming

XSS

Cross-Site Scripting

ZKP

Zero Knowledge Proof

W3C

World Wide Web

WBS

Work Breakdown Structure

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

WSM

Win-Win Spiral Model

WAN

Wide Area Network

WSN

Wireless Sensor Network

WWW

World Wide Web

WWWW

World Wide Wireless Web

15G Technologies, Architecture and Protocols

Shweta Bondre1, Ashish Sharma1, Vipin Bondre2

1 GH Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur, India

2 Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur, India

Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

The term “5G” refers to the fifth generation of mobile technology. With each passing day, this field of telecommunications has seen a number of changes, from the first generation to 2.5G, and from 3G to 5G, with better efficiency. This growing mobile technology revolution is transforming our daily lives, including how we chat, work, learn and so on. The fifth generation network provides affordable mobile internet access at very high speed. The study aims to shed light on fifth generation technology network architecture and protocols. The development of the world wide wireless web (WWWWW), wireless networks, actual wireless and complex ad hoc world in the fifth century are all being studied. The 5G technology is based on voice-over IP technologies that provide users with a high level of call volume and data transmission. The ability to connect to and switch between various wireless networks at the same time is one of the main characteristics of the 5G mobile network. The main elements in 5G core networks, security in 5G mobile networks, 5G radio access technology, frame structure, network virtualization, and slicing in 5G are the key areas of study in 5G technology.

Keywords: 5G, wireless technology, network architecture and protocols

1.1 Evolution of Wireless Technologies

Wireless-based networks will continue to develop in a number of respects now and in the coming future to address new demands and threats. New technology elements, such as high-speed packet communication and long-term growth, will be launched as part of the development of existing cellular-based networks. Mobile wireless networking has progressed from analog voice calls to modern emerging technologies capable of providing high-quality mobile broadband networks with end-user data rates of several megabits per second over wide regions. The immense advances in the potentiality of mobile communication networks, along with the introduction of advanced models of mobile devices, such as smart phones and tablets, have resulted in a proliferation of emerging mobile networking technologies and an exponential increase in network traffic. Our vision for the future is a connected society with free access to information and data that is accessible to all at all times.

New technology elements must be investigated for the evolution of already available wireless-based systems in order to achieve this vision. Existing wireless systems, such as Wi-Fi, HSPA and 3GPP-3rd Generation Partnership Project, LTE technology will incorporate emerging technology elements to better meet future needs. In comparison to current 4G LTE networks, the ultimate aim of the upcoming 5G wireless networking is to have comparatively high download rates, very low latency, significant increases in base-station reliability and significant improvements in expected quality of service (QoS) for consumers. Broadband data consumption has grown at a rapid rate because of recent technology and networking in the context of internet of things (IoT) programs, smart mobiles, autonomous cars, smart home connectivity and augmented reality devices, etc.; therefore, in order to support the most recent applications, the system’s bandwidth must be significantly expanded. This advancement could be made possible by the use of a modern spectrum and higher data volumes.

The history of wireless network technology is given below [1] and is depicted in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Evolution of wireless technologies.

In terms of range, spectral quality, mobility, and data rate, it reflects the progression of wireless technology generations. It also shows that circuit switching is used in 1G and 2G technologies, and both circuit and packet switching is used in 2.5 Generation and 3 Generation, and packet switching is used in the subsequent generations from 3.5 Generation to now, i.e., 5 Generation. Following is an overview of the emerging wireless technologies:

1G

: In the early 1980s, the first generation was announced. It has a 2.4 kbps maximum data limit. Total Access Communication System (TACS), Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) and Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) were among the top subscribers. It has a number of drawbacks, including reckless handoff, insufficient capacity, lack of security and poor voice associations as voice calls are kept and played in radio towers, increasing the risk of uninvited eavesdropping by 3rd parties [

2

].

2G

: The second generation was launched in the late 1990s. In second-generation mobile phones, digital technology is used. The first second-generation system, Global Systems for Mobile Communications (GSM), was used for voice communication and had a data rate of up to 64 kbps. Because radio signals are low in power, 2G mobile handset batteries last longer. E-mail and Short Message Service (SMS) are among the services it offers. IS-95, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMS) and GSM were all important systems [

2

,

3

].

2.5G

: It usually utilizes a second-generation cellular infrastructure that provides General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) and other technologies not available in 2G or 1G networks. A 2.5G method, in contrast to a 2G method, uses packet switching in addition to circuit switching. It supports data rates of up to 144 kbps. The key 2.5G technologies were Enhanced Data-Rate for GSM Evolution (EDGE), GPRS, and Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 2000 [

2

,

3

].

3G

: In late 2000, the third generation was introduced. It transmits data at a speed of up to 2 Mbps. High-speed broadband connectivity is paired with internet protocol-based applications in 3G technology (IP). In addition to transmission rate, an additional upgrade was made to retain QoS. The 3G technology was distinguished by additional features such as worldwide roaming and improved speech quality. The only downside of to 3G mobile sets is that they use considerably more electricity than 2G units. Furthermore, 3G network services are more costly than 2G network plans [

2

,

3

]. Since 3G includes the introduction and use of Wideband Code-Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 2000 and Universal Mobile Telecommunications-Systems (UMTS) technologies, emerging technologies such as Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO) and High Speed Uplink/Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA/HSUPA) have produced a 3.5G wireless generation which is an intermediate between 3G and 4G.

3.75G

: Fixed Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax) and Long-Term Evolution (LTE) are the promise of mobile communication networks. Fixed WiMAX and LTE will supplement network bandwidth by allowing a large number of users to connect to high-speed networks like peer-to-peer data sharing, on-demand streaming, and composite Web services. An additional spectrum is now available, allowing operators to operate their networks more compliantly and with greater coverage and capacity at a lower cost [

2

,

4

].

4G

: The 4G standard is considered a descendant of the 2G and 3G standards. Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), in collaboration with Mobile WiMAX, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), is now standardizing Long-Term Evolution (LTE), advanced as a long-term 4th Generation standard. A 4G framework enhances existing connectivity networks by providing a comprehensive and reliable IP-based solution. Data, multimedia and voice can be delivered to customers at all times and in all places, and at even higher data speeds than previous generations. Multimedia messaging service (MMS), high-definition TV content, digital video broadcasting (DVB), video chat and mobile TV are some of the applications that are being improved to use a 4G network [

1

,

4

,

5

].

5G

: With the exponential growth in customer demand, 4G can be rapidly replaced by 5G by using advanced access technologies such as non- and quasi-orthogonal or filter bank multicarrier (FBMC) multiple access and beam division multiple access (BDMA). To understand the idea behind the BDMA technique, consider the situation of a base station interacting with mobile stations in which every cellular mobile station is given an orthogonal beam, and the BDMA method splits the antenna beam according to the positions of the mobile stations to provide various accesses to the mobile stations, thus increasing power [

6

]. Based on recent trends, it is widely believed that 5G cellular systems must overcome six issues that 4G cellular networks cannot successfully address: greater bandwidth, higher data rate, lower end-to-end latency, higher data rate, lower cost, large device connectivity and consistent quality of experience provisioning [

7

,

8

]. In mobile technology, a 5G network is thought to be the peak of cellular networking. Cell phones are useful for a variety of activities in addition to messaging. Both previous wireless devices have made it easier to communicate and share data, but 5G adds a different dimension to the experience, turning it into a true smartphone experience.

Table 1.1: Evolution of wireless technology.

1.2 5G Cellular Network Architecture

Figure 1.2 shows a schematic diagram of the broadband and mobile interoperability of the device architecture for 5G mobile systems. In the infrastructure, there is a user terminal (that plays a significant role in modern design) as well as a variety of independent, autonomous radio connectivity technologies. Inside each terminal, any of the radio access technologies is viewed as an IP link to the outside internet world. Each radio access technology (RAT) should, however, have its own radio interface in the mobile station. For example, if we wish to bind to four different RATs, the mobile terminal would require four different access-specific interfaces, all of which must be active at the same time for this architecture to function.

Figure 1.2: Functional architecture for 5G mobile networks.

The first two OSI layers (data link layer and physical layer) define the radio access technologies that enable users to connect to the internet by QoS support, which is based on the access technology. The network layer sits on top of the OSI-1 and OSI-2 layers in today’s networking environment, and it is IP (Internet Protocol), either IPv4 or IPv6, regardless of the equipment used for radio connectivity. IP’s goal is to ensure that sufficient control information in the IP header is available to ensure proper routing of IP packets belonging to specific device links/sessions between client applications and servers located anywhere on the internet. Packet routing should be done in compliance with the user’s defined policies. On the internet, sockets are used to provide connections between clients and servers. Internet sockets are the endpoints for data transfer flows. Each web socket is a one-of-a-kind combination of a local network communications port and IP address, a target communications port and IP address, and a transport protocol. End-to-end communication using the internet protocol is required between the client and server in order to lift the necessary internet socket, which is uniquely decided by the client and server’s application. This means that the destination IP address and local IP address should be set and unchanged in the case of interoperability between heterogeneous networks and vertical handover among radio technologies. When these two conditions are set, when a smartphone user is present on at least one end of the network, the internet connection should have end-to-end handover clarity. An IP interface is provided for each radio access technique that the user has access to in order to connect to the relevant radio access. Each IP interface in the terminal has its own IP address, netmask, and network parameters for IP packet routing. Changing the access technology means changing the local IP address in a regular inter-system handover. The socket is then changed by changing some of its parameters, resulting in the socket being closed and a new one being opened. This means that the connection will be terminated and a new one will be created. To address this shortcoming, a new layer will be responsible for the abstraction stages of network access technology to upper layers of the protocol stack. In this work, the authors implement a control mechanism in the functional design of the networks, which operates in full synchronization with the user terminal and offers network abstraction functionality and packet routing based on the most appropriate radio access technology, to allow the functions of implemented clarity and control or direct routing of packets via the most appropriate radio access technology [9].

1.2.1 5G E2E Network Architecture

The 5G end-to-end network architecture is depicted in Figure 1.3 below, which outlines the 5G E2E network. However, by switching from “4 Generation” to “5 Generation”, the E2E structural design of the “5G” network becomes even more essential since the base station is no longer the key bottleneck [10,11]. Scalable data exposure governance and access management systems are used to provide facilities for data analysis, collection, distribution and abstraction on a shared network where data can be accessed by device entities at all levels.

The architecture of Huawei’s end-to-end network built for 5G is represented in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Architecture of end-to-end network in 5G [11].

1.2.2 Network Slicing Architecture

Network slicing helps you run several dedicated networks on a single platform, which is a very powerful process. Network slicing is an example of the idea of easily and cost-effectively operating multiple logical networks as essentially autonomous business processes on a single physical infrastructure. It is a 5G cutting-edge technology that can build several types of virtual networks, tailored to meet different specifications for various use cases. Network slicing architecture provides a number of independent service-level arrangements to satisfy the requirements. A network slice is divided into two types: CN network slice subnet instance (CN NSSI) and RAN network slice subnet instance (NSSI). Network slice instance and Resource layers are shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Component of network slicing [12].

The end user or enterprise services provided by the network are represented by the Service instance layer. The network characteristics specified by the service instance are provided by the Network slice instance. Multiple service instances can share a single network slice instance. A set of network functions that operate on the computational, physical or virtual Resource layer is referred to as a sub-network instance [12].

Network slicing includes slicing in radio access network (RAN) and in core network (CN). Software-defined network (SDN) and network feature virtualization (NFV) are technical enablers for network slicing in CN because NFV and SDN virtualize and manage network components and functions, allowing for simple customization and reuse of certain elements and functions in each slice to satisfy service requirements. Slicing might be based on physical or logical radio resources abstracted from physical resources on the RAN side. Slices of the network would need to be of a variety of shapes and sizes. This necessarily requires a high degree of flexibility [13]. According to the commercial purpose of a given slice for a specific industry or the user/machine experience that they are designed to serve, network slicing can also be divided into vertical slicing and horizontal slicing.

1.2.3 NFV Management and Orchestration

Virtual network functions (VNFs) can be reassigned and deployed to share the infrastructure’s virtual and physical resources, ensuring scalability and performance requirements. Telecom Service Providers (TSPs) will easily launch new and elastic services as a part of this [14,15]. Services, NFVI, and NFV management and orchestration (NFV-MANO) are the three key components of the NFV architecture, as seen in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5:ETSI-NFV architecture [16].