Fat Mimetics for Food Applications E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

FAT MIMETICS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS Detailed resource providing insight into the understanding of fat mimetics and their use for the development of food products Fat Mimetics for Food Applications explores strategies for the development of fat mimetics for food applications, including meat, dairy, spreads and baked products, covering all the physical strategies and presenting the main characterization techniques for the study of fat mimetics behaviour. The text further provides insight into the understanding of fat mimetics in food structure and how it affects food products. Fat Mimetics for Food Applications is organized into five sections. The first section provides a historical overview and thermodynamic perspective of the structure-properties relationship in fat mimetics. Section II is devoted to the main materials used for the development of fat mimetics, and the structures that result from different methodologies and approaches. Section III overviews the methodologies used for the characterization of the developed replacers. Section IV contains examples of what has been done in the use of fat mimetics in food. Section V focuses on a future perspective, along with real cases of projects within the industry and a commercial perspective of some examples. Topics covered in Fat Mimetics for Food Applications include: * Role of lipids in foods and human nutrition; the current status of fats in the food industry; and food trends as they pertain to fat mimetics * Materials for the production of fat mimetics such as natural waxes, sterols, lecithin, mono and di-glycerides, fatty alcohols and fatty acids, polysaccharides and proteins * Rheological and texture properties; sensorial aspects of fat mimetics and advanced characterization strategies such as small-angle X-ray scattering and small-angle neutron scattering * Fat mimetics' nutritional and functional properties, along with examples of using in vitro gastrointestinal digestion system to unravel the lipids fat during digestion * Examples of the application of fat mimetics in different food products such as meat, dairy, margarine and fat spreads and baked products Fat Mimetics for Food Applications targets researchers, academics, and food industry professionals to boost their capability to integrate different science and technology as well as engineering and materials aspects of fat mimetics for food development.

Leseprobe

Fat Mimetics for Food Applications

Edited by

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira

International Iberian Nanotechnology LaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro

International Iberian Nanotechnology LaboratoryBraga, Portugal

This edition first published 2023

© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements

Editors

Section I Introduction to Fat Mimetics

1.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics?

1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition

1.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry

1.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics

1.2 Overview of the Structure-Property Relationship in Fat Mimetics

1.2.1 Introduction

1.2.2 Rheological Properties

1.2.3 Large Deformation Testing

1.2.4 Microstructure

1.2.5 Oil Binding Capacity

1.2.6 Conclusions and Next Steps

Section II Materials and Methods Used for the Production of Fat Mimetics

2.1 Natural Wax-Based Oleogels for Food Application

2.1.1 Introduction

2.1.2 Mechanism of Oleogelation

2.1.3 Bibliography Meta-Analysis

2.1.4 Natural Waxes

2.1.4.1 Candelilla Wax

2.1.4.1.1 Chemical Composition of CW

2.1.4.1.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of CW

2.1.4.2 Rice Bran Wax

2.1.4.2.1 Chemical Composition of RBW

2.1.4.2.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of RBW

2.1.4.3 Beeswax

2.1.4.3.1 Chemical Composition of BW

2.1.4.3.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of BW

2.1.5 Applications of the Natural Wax-Based Oleogels

2.1.5.1 Candelilla Wax

2.1.5.2 Rice Bran Wax

2.1.5.3 Beeswax

2.1.6 Conclusion

2.2 Phytosterols and Other Sterols

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2

γ

-Oryzanol-Sterols System

2.2.2.1 Crystallites and Oil Gelation

2.2.2.2

γ

-Oryzanol-Sterols Mechanism

2.2.2.3 Hydrates

2.2.3 Other Combinations Including Sterols

2.2.4 Perspective on the Industrial Applicability

2.2.5 Conclusion

2.3 Lecithin

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 Lecithin Chemistry

2.3.2.1 Types and Composition

2.3.2.2 Technological Manufacture of Lecithin

2.3.2.3 Strategies of Lecithin Modification

2.3.2.3.1 Physical Modification

2.3.2.3.2 Enzymatic Modification

2.3.2.3.3 Chemical Modification

2.3.2.4 Lecithin Self-Assembly: Dependence of Solvent Medium

2.3.3 Exploring Techno-Functionalities of Lecithin

2.3.3.1 Conventional Fat: The Role of Lecithin as Crystallization Modifier in Lipid Systems

2.3.4 Application of Lecithin in Alternative Oil-Structuring Routes

2.3.4.1 Oleogels

2.3.4.2 Emulsion Strategies

2.3.5 Beyond Oil-Structuring Purposes: Role of Lecithin as an Emulsifier and in the Vehiculation of Bioactive Components

2.3.6 Food Applications

2.3.6.1 Margarines

2.3.6.2 Bakery Products

2.3.6.3 Chocolate

2.3.6.4 Dairy Products

2.3.7 Final Remarks and Perspectives

2.4 Mono‐ and Diglycerides

2.4.1 Introduction

2.4.2 Monoglycerides and Diglycerides

2.4.3 Fat Mimetics Based on Mono- and Diglycerides

2.4.3.1 Hydrogels

2.4.3.1.1 Effect of Compositional Factors

2.4.3.1.2 Effect of Processing Factors

2.4.3.2 Oleogels

2.4.3.2.1 Effect of Compositional Factors

2.4.3.2.2 Effect of Processing Factors

2.4.3.3 From Oleogels to Oleofoams

2.4.3.3.1 Effect of Compositional Factors

2.4.3.3.2 Effect of Processing Factors

2.4.3.4 Gelled Emulsions

2.4.3.4.1 Oil-in-Water Gelled Emulsions

2.4.3.4.2 Effect of Compositional Factors

2.4.3.4.3 Effect of Processing Factors

2.4.3.5 From O/W Gelled Emulsions to High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPE)

2.4.3.6 Water-in-oil Gelled Emulsions

2.4.3.7 From W/O Gelled Emulsions to High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPE)

2.4.4 Food Applications

2.4.5 Novel Functionalities of MG and DG Fat Mimetics

2.4.6 Conclusions

2.5 Oleogels Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols: Toward Oil Foams

2.5.1 Introduction

2.5.2 Structure and Properties of Oleogel Based on Fatty Acids or Fatty Alcohols

2.5.2.1 Definition and Properties of Fatty Alcohol

2.5.2.2 Definition and Properties of Fatty Acids

2.5.2.3 Fatty Alcohols as Oleogelators

2.5.2.4 Fatty Acids as Oleogelators

2.5.3 Mixture of Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohol to Improve Oleogel Properties

2.5.3.1 Effect of R on the Crystal Structure

2.5.3.2 Effect of R on the Microstructure of the Oleogels

2.5.3.3 Effect of R on the Thermal Behavior and Solid Fat Content of Oleogels

2.5.3.4 Effect of R on Oleogel Properties: Mechanical Strength and Stability

2.5.4 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols

2.5.4.1 Definition of Oil Foams Stabilized by Crystalline Particles

2.5.4.2 Oil Foams Based on Fatty Acids and Fatty Alcohols

2.5.4.3 Controlling Oil Foam Properties by Tuning the Ratio between Fatty Alcohol and Fatty Acids

2.5.4.4 Application of Oil Foams to Develop Food Products

2.5.5 Conclusion and Perspectives

2.6 Proteins as Fat Replacers in the Food Industry

2.6.1 Introduction

2.6.2 Fat Mimetics

2.6.3 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

2.6.3.1 Animal Protein-Based Fat Replacers

2.6.3.1.1 Casein

2.6.3.1.2 Whey Protein

2.6.3.1.3 Microparticulated Whey Protein

2.6.3.1.4 Simplesse & Dairy-Lo

2.6.3.1.5 Egg White Protein

2.6.3.1.6 Plasma Protein

2.6.3.1.7 Collagen Protein

2.6.3.1.8 Gelatin Protein

2.6.3.2 Plant Protein-Based Fat Replacers

2.6.3.2.1 Soy Protein

2.6.3.2.2 Corn Zein Protein

2.6.3.2.3 Wheat Gluten Protein

2.6.3.2.4 Pea Protein

2.6.3.2.5 Lupin Protein

2.6.4 Properties of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

2.6.5 Factors Affecting the Acceptability of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

2.6.5.1 Sensory Attributes

2.6.5.2 Nutritional Properties

2.6.5.3 Hygienic Aspects

2.6.5.4 Cost

2.6.5.5 Health Aspects

2.6.5.6 Marketing

2.6.5.7 Convenience

2.6.5.8 Heat Stability

2.6.6 Applications of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

2.6.6.1 Bakery Products

2.6.6.2 Chocolate and Confectionery Products

2.6.6.3 Dairy Products

2.6.6.4 Meat Products

2.6.6.5 Other Applications

2.6.7 Future of Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

2.7 Polysaccharide-Based Oleogels

2.7.1 Introduction

2.7.2 Direct Polymeric Structuring

2.7.2.1 Ethylcellulose

2.7.2.2 EC-Based Hybrid Oleogelation Systems

2.7.2.2.1 Monoacylglycerol

2.7.2.2.2 Stearyl Alcohol and Stearic Acid

2.7.2.2.3 Lauric Acid

2.7.2.2.4 Behenic Acid

2.7.2.2.5 Lecithin

2.7.2.2.6 EC/MAG Binary and Ternary Blends (Edible Shortenings)

2.7.2.3 EC-Based Oleogels in Food Applications and Nutrient Delivery

2.7.2.4 Chitin

2.7.3 Indirect Structuring

2.7.3.1 Emulsion-Templating

2.7.3.2 Aerogel-Templating

2.7.3.2.1 Foam-Templating

2.7.3.2.2 Supercritical CO

2

-Derived Templates

2.7.4 Conclusion

Section III Methodologies for the Characterisation of Fat Mimetics

3.1 Rheology and Texture Analysis

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.2 Rheology Principles

3.1.2.1 Large Deformation Tests

3.1.2.1.1 Rheological Behavior/Viscosity Measurements

3.1.2.1.2 Time-Dependence

3.1.2.2 Small Deformation Tests

3.1.2.2.1 Transient Tests

3.1.2.2.2 Oscillatory Tests

3.1.3 Texture Principles

3.1.3.1 Fundamental Tests

3.1.3.1.1 Uniaxial Compression

3.1.3.2 Empiric Tests

3.1.3.2.1 Puncture

3.1.3.2.2 Spreadability

3.2 Application of Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering and Small-Angle Neutron Scattering to Fat Mimetics

3.2.1 Introduction

3.2.2 Fundamentals of Small-Angle Scattering

3.2.2.1 SAS Instrumentation

3.2.2.2 SAS Experiment and Data Collection

3.2.2.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation

3.2.3 Recent Experimental SAS and USAS Examples to Oleogels

3.2.3.1 Oleic Acid–Sodium Oleate

3.2.3.2 Natural Waxes

3.2.3.3 β-sitosterol (and Other Phytosterols) with γ-oryzanol

3.2.3.4 Lecithin

3.2.3.5 Mono‐, Di- and Triglycerides

3.2.3.6 Carbohydrate and Proteins

3.2.4 Conclusions and Outlook

3.3 Sensory Evaluation of Fat Reduction in Foods

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 Generalities on Fat Replacement and Sensory Evaluation

3.3.3 Effect of Fat Replacement in Food Products

3.3.3.1 Cereal and Baking Products

3.3.3.2 Meat Products

3.3.3.3 Dairy Products

3.3.4 Conclusion and Final Considerations

3.4 Gastrointestinal Fate of Lipid-Based Formulations as Fat Mimetics

3.4.1 Introduction

3.4.2 Lipid Digestion

3.4.2.1 In Vitro Models

3.4.2.2 Factors Affecting Lipid Digestion

3.4.3 Conclusion

3.5 Nutritional and Functional Properties of Fat Mimetics

3.5.1 Introduction

3.5.2 Emerging Fat Mimetics

3.5.2.1 Oleogels

3.5.2.2 Templated Oleogels

3.5.2.3 Emulsion Gels

3.5.2.4 Structured Emulsions

3.5.3 Multifunctionality of Fat Mimetics in Food Applications

3.5.3.1 Replacement of Saturated Fats

3.5.3.2 Reducing Energy Intake in Diets

3.5.3.3 In Vitro and In Vivo Digestion

3.5.3.4 Controlled Delivery Carriers and Release of Bioactive Molecules

3.4.3.5 Texture Design and Modification

3.5.3.5 Reduction in Lipid Oxidation

3.5.4 Conclusion and Outlook

Section IV Food Applications

4.1 Processed Meat Products

4.1.1 Introduction

4.1.2 Definition and Classification

4.1.3 Type of Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1.1 Starch and Starch Derivatives-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1.2 Cellulose-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1.3 Dietary Fiber-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1.4 Gelling and Bulking Agent-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.1.5 Gum-based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.2 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.3.3 Fat-Based Fat Mimetics

4.1.4 Conclusion

4.2 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 The Characteristics of Milk Fat

4.2.3 The Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products

4.2.3.1 Milk Fat and Dairy Product’s Sensory Characteristics

4.2.3.2 Milk Fat and Dairy Products Texture

4.2.3.3 Milk Fat and Dairy Products Melting Properties

4.2.4 Issues with Low-Fat Dairy Products

4.2.5 Fat Mimetics in Dairy Products

4.2.5.1 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Mimetics

4.2.5.2 Protein-Based Fat Mimetics

4.2.5.3 Lipid-Based Fat Mimetics

4.2.5.3.1 Oleogels as a Possible Fat Mimetics

4.2.6 Applications of Fat Mimetics in Different Dairy Products

4.2.6.1 Cheese

4.2.6.2 Ice Cream

4.2.6.3 Yogurt

4.2.6.4 Dairy Dessert and Beverages

4.2.7 Conclusion

4.3 Margarine and Fat Spreads

4.3.1 Introduction

4.3.1.1 Definitions and Legislation

4.3.1.2 Microstructure

4.3.1.3 Formulation

4.3.1.4 Processing

4.3.1.5 Properties

4.3.2 Alternative Structuring Approaches for Margarines and Fat Spreads

4.3.2.1 Stabilization Mechanisms

4.3.2.2 Network Stabilization – Continuous Phase

4.3.2.2.1 Waxes

4.3.2.2.2 Mono- and Diglycerides

4.3.2.2.3 Ethylcellulose

4.3.2.2.4 Phytosterols

4.3.2.2.5 Lecithin

4.3.2.3 Network Stabilization–Dispersed Phase

4.3.2.4 Bigels

4.3.3 Conclusion

4.4 Baked Products

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Fat Mimetics in Bakery Products

4.4.2.1 Fat Mimetics in Bread Formulation

4.4.2.2 Fat Mimetics in Cookie/Biscuit Formulation

4.4.2.3 Fat Mimetics in Cake/Muffin Formulation

4.4.3 Conclusion

Section V Industrial Perspective

5. 1 Molecular Gels–Barriers, Advances, and Opportunities

5.1.1 Introduction

5.1.2 Reliance Serendipitous Discovery

5.1.3 Solvent Confluence on Gelation Outcome

5.1.3.1 Dissecting Gelator and Solvent Molecular Features that Drive Self-Assembly–A Step Toward Rational Design

5.1.3.2 Solvent Complexity of Edible Oils–An Opportunity for Advancement

5.1.4 Emerging Low Molecular Mass Organogelating Technologies

5.1.4.1 Peptide Gelators

5.1.4.2 Sugar Gelators

5.1.4.3 Lipids Gelators

5.1.4.4 Mixed System Gelators

5.1.5 Polymeric Gelation

5.1.5.1 Emerging Polymeric Organogelating Technologies

5.1.6 Conclusion

5.2 Research and Development Toward the Commercialization of Fat Mimetics

5.2.1 Introduction

5.2.2 Research & Development in Fat Mimetics

5.2.3 Patents and Commercial Products

5.2.4 Conclusion

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

CHAPTER 03

Table 2.1.2 Physical properties...

Table 2.1.1 Chemical composition...

Table 2.1.4 Rice bran wax...

Table 2.1.5 Beeswax – based...

CHAPTER 04

Table 2.2.1 Gelator combinations...

CHAPTER 05

Table 2.3.1 Phospholipids and...

Table 2.3.2 Strategies using...

Table 2.3.3 Lecithins applied...

CHAPTER 06

Table 2.4.1 Compositional and...

Table 2.4.2 Factors affecting...

Table 2.4.3 Applications of...

CHAPTER 07

Table 2.5.1 Example of saturated...

Table 2.5.2 Fatty alcohols...

CHAPTER 08

Table 2.6.2 xamples of fat...

Table 2.6.1 Attributes associated...

Table 2.6.3 Commercial plant...

CHAPTER 09

Table 2.7.1 Summary of studies...

Table 2.7.2 Impact of various...

CHAPTER 11

Table 3.2.1 Chemical formulae...

CHAPTER 12

Table 3.3.1 Main sensory...

CHAPTER 13

Table 3.4.1 Summary of studies...

CHAPTER 14

Table 3.5.1 Examples of applications...

CHAPTER 15

Table 4.1.1 Application of...

CHAPTER 16

Table 4.2.1 Summary of studies...

Table 4.2.2 Summary of studies...

Table 4.2.3 Summary of studies...

Table 4.2.4 Summary of studies...

CHAPTER 17

Table 4.3.1 Water-in-oil...

Table 4.3.2 Overview of...

CHAPTER 18

Table 4.4.1 Overview of...

Table 4.4.2 An overview of...

CHAPTER 19

Table 5.1.1 Outcomes from...

Table 5.1.2 HSP (δd, δp,...

Table 5.1.3 HSPs (δd, δp,...

CHAPTER 20

Table 5.2.1 Funded projects...

Table 5.2.2 Patents on fat...

List of Illustrations

CHAPTER 02

Figure 1.2.1 Schematic diagram...

Figure 1.2.2 Polarized light...

Figure 1.2.3 Illustration of...

CHAPTER 03

Figure 2.1.1 Schematics of oleogel...

Figure 2.1.2 Network Visualization...

CHAPTER 04

Figure 2.2.1 Steroid skeleton...

Figure 2.2.2 Polarized light...

Figure 2.2.3 A) SAXS and WAXS...

Figure 2.2.4 Effect of sterol...

Figure 2.2.5 Summary of the...

Figure 2.2.6 A) AFM of 20% w/w...

Figure 2.2.7 Raman modes that...

Figure 2.2.8 A) Top: Stacking...

CHAPTER 05

Figure 2.3.1 Chemical structure...

Figure 2.3.2 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.3.3 Schematic illustration...

Figure 2.3.4 Possible effects...

CHAPTER 06

Figure 2.4.1 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.4.2 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.4.3 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.4.4 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.4.5 Schematic representation...

CHAPTER 07

Figure 2.5.1 Differential...

Figure 2.5.2 SAXS (a) and...

Figure 2.5.3 Schematic phase...

Figure 2.5.4 Illustration of...

Figure 2.5.5 Illustration of...

CHAPTER 08

Figure 2.6.1 Classification...

Figure 2.6.2 Major sources...

CHAPTER 09

Figure 2.7.1 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.7.2 Normalized gel strength...

Figure 2.7.3 Microstructure (A,B) and...

Figure 2.7.4 Schematic representation...

Figure 2.7.5 Structural and rheological...

Figure 2.7.6 SEM micrographs and...

CHAPTER 10

Figure 3.1.1 Flow curves of the...

Figure 3.1.2 Thixotropic behavior...

Figure 3.1.3 (A) Stress relaxation...

Figure 3.1.4 Oscillatory rheology...

Figure 3.1.5 Stress vs strain curves...

Figure 3.1.6 Force–time plots...

Figure 3.1.7 Characteristic curve...

CHAPTER 11

Figure 3.2.1 Small-angle scattering...

Figure 3.2.2 (a) Scattering geometry...

Figure 3.2.3 SAS from spherical particles...

Figure 3.2.4 SAS from a Guinier-Porod model...

Figure 3.2.5 SAS from a 30% volume...

Figure 3.2.6 SANS from 1:1 and 0:1...

Figure 3.2.7 SANS intensity in the...

Figure 3.2.8 (a) Combined USANS...

Figure 3.2.9 SAXS from typical...

CHAPTER 12

Figure 3.3.1 Sensory analysis...

Figure 3.3.2 Example of TCATA...

Figure 3.3.3 Example of CATA...

CHAPTER 13

Figure 3.4.1 General schematic...

Figure 3.4.2 Free fatty acids...

Figure 3.4.3 The effect of different...

CHAPTER 14

Figure 3.5.1 The hierarchy of fat...

Figure 3.5.2 An overview diagram...

Figure 3.5.3 (A) Appearance of the...

Figure 3.5.4 (A) Visual aspect of...

Figure 3.5.5 Structuring of liquid...

Figure 3.5.6 (A) Schematic for the...

Figure 3.5.7 (A) Structure and schematic...

Figure 3.5.8 Schematic representation...

Figure 3.5.9 (A) Schematic representation...

Figure 3.5.10 (A) Schematic illustration...

Figure 3.5.11 (A and B) The preparation...

Figure 3.5.12 Nutritional and functional...

CHAPTER 15

Figure 4.1.1 Application of fat...

Figure 4.1.2 An ideal fat mimetic/replacer...

Figure 4.1.3 Schematic presentation...

CHAPTER 16

Figure 4.2.1 The composition...

Figure 4.2.2 Prepared carnauba...

CHAPTER 17

Figure 4.3.1 Cryo-SEM images...

Figure 4.3.2 Microstructure...

Figure 4.3.3 Microstructure...

Figure 4.3.4 Schematic drawing...

Figure 4.3.5 Schematic overview...

Figure 4.3.6 Solid fat content...

Figure 4.3.7 Schematic overview...

Figure 4.3.8 Polarized light...

Figure 4.3.9 Examples of dispersed...

CHAPTER 18

Figure 4.4.1 SEM images of cookies...

Figure 4.4.2 Micro-CT tomographical...

CHAPTER 19

Figure 5.1.1 Hansen Solubility...

Figure 5.1.2 (A) Gelation spheres...

Figure 5.1.3 HSP’s frequency...

Figure 5.1.4 Ternary phase diagram...

Figure 5.1.5 Polarized light microscopy...

Guide

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Table of Contents

Foreword

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements

Editors

Begin Reading

Index

Plates

End User License Agreement

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Foreword

We underestimated the global demand for (solid) fats with both food and non-food applications, which resulted in the current supply shortage. Food demands remain unsatisfied because the volume of (solid) fats is insufficient to meet the demands of sustainability, health, and cost.

In the 1950s, we thought that butter could be a long-term fat solution, but its global consumption has slightly decreased given consumers’ concerns about saturated fats and cholesterol in their diet. To address these concerns, food processors replaced butter with margarine in the 1960s. Margarines were initially processed with partially hydrogenation vegetable oils. Unfortunately, the partial hydrogenation process produces unhealthy artificial trans fats. After the 1990s, partial hydrogenation was replaced by an interesterification of a solid fat (mainly from palm oil) with a liquid vegetable oil (rapeseed, soybean or sunflower) to produce trans-free margarines.

Palm oil emerged as the leading global source of (solid) fat. Palm kernel oil or palm stearin, has low production costs and is used by leading palm oil producers. Palm oils are driven by the high oil yields per hectare for oil palm relative to other vegetable oil crops. Well-managed oil palm estates should achieve four to six tons of crude palm oil per hectare; this is nearly five times the amount of oil obtained from a hectare planted with sunflowers.

Sustainability is one potential check on the use of palm oil is sustainability, which has recently come to the forefront. Earlier this century, palm oil earned a negative environmental reputation. As a result, a sustainable palm supply chain was founded in 2004, and many Western EU countries have pledged to source only 100% sustainable palm oil by 2020. France, Italy, and Belgium, and more recently, Spain, Germany and the UK have begun to see palm oil as unhealthy. Health concern is pushing sustainable palm into the background. The debate centers on saturated fat intake, and recently, on 3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane diol) risks associated with palm oil. The food demand for palm oil in Europe has dropped from 3.1 million tonnes in 2013 to 2.2 million tonnes in 2019. So, “exotic fats” are becoming credible alternatives to palm fats.

“Exotic fats” are typically fats such as shea, sal, illipé, kokum, and mango kernel. One of the major drawbacks of “exotic fats” is the high price and poor availability of raw materials. As an illustration, shea is rarely grown on plantations; the nuts are mainly collected in the savannah by local people and are sold in small volumes to processing plants. This makes the supply potentially susceptible to political unrest or to other unexpected events. Moreover, the cost of shea butter was over $3,500 per tonne, while palm (kernel) fat was below $1,000 per tonne during the same period (2019–2021).

Can fat mimetics be the solution? This book answers that question. In any case, to serve as a solution, fat mimetics would need to be efficient, scalable, and cost effective. These are fundamental concerns that scientists should always keep in mind.

Fabrice TURON,PhD

Head of Research

FAT & Associés, France

List of Contributors

Ainaz AlizadehDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyTabriz BranchIslamic Azad UniversityTabriz, Iran

Maria A. AzevedoCentre of Biological EngineeringUniversity of MinhoCampus de GualtarBraga, Portugal

Akhoon Asrar BashirICAR-Central Institute of Post-HarvestEngineering and Technology (CIPHET)Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Deepti BhartiDepartment of Biotechnology and MedicalEngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkela, Odisha, India

Filip Van BockstaeleDepartment of Food TechnologySafety and HealthFood Structure and Function (FS&F) ResearchGroupGhent UniversityCoupure Links, Ghent, Belgium

Mariel Calderón-OliverTecnológico de MonterreyEscuela de Ingeniería y CienciasMexico

Sonia CalligarisDepartment of Agricultural, Food,Environmental, and Animal SciencesUniversity of UdineUdine, Italy

Miguel Ângelo CerqueiraINL – International Iberian NanotechnologyLaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Xiao-Wei ChenLipid Technology and EngineeringCollege of Food Science and EngineeringHenan University of TechnologyZhengzhou, People’s Republic of China

Poonam ChoudharyICAR-Central Institute of Post-HarvestEngineering and Technology (CIPHET)Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Gabrielli Nunes ClímacoDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas – UNICAMPCampinas, SP, Brazil

Rosiane Lopes da CunhaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, SP, Brazil

Ilkem DemirkesenDepartment of Animal Health, Food and FeedResearch, General Directorate of AgriculturalResearch and PoliciesMinistry of Agriculture and ForestryAnkara, Turkey

Koen DewettinckDepartment of Food TechnologySafety and HealthFood Structure and Function (FS&F) ResearchGroupGhent UniversityCoupure Links, Ghent, Belgium

Hector Escalona-BuendíaDepartamento de BiotecnologíaUAM-IztapalapaMexico

Anne-Laure FameauUnité Matériaux et Transformations (UMET) –UMR 8207, INRAETeam PIHMVilleneuve d’Ascq, France

Luiz Henrique FasolinDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas – UNICAMPCampinas, SP, Brazil

Elliot Paul GilbertAustralian Centre for Neutron ScatteringAustralian Nuclear Science and TechnologyOrganisationLucas Heights, NSW, Australia

Australian Institute for Bioengineering andNanotechnology and Centre for Nutrition andFood SciencesThe University of QueenslandSt. Lucia, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Catarina GonçalvesInternational Iberian NanotechnologyLaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Dharani GopiNational Institute of Food TechnologyEntrepreneurship and ManagementThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Andrew J. GravelleDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyUniversity of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA

Buse N. GürbüzINL – International Iberian NanotechnologyLaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Doman KimGraduate School of International AgriculturalTechnologySeoul National UniversityPyeongchang-gunGangwon-do, South Korea

Institute of Food IndustrializationInstitutes of Green Bioscience and TechnologySeoul National UniversityPyeongchang-gunGangwon-do, South Korea

Yogesh KumarICAR-Central Institute of Post-HarvestEngineering and Technology (CIPHET)Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Suyong LeeDepartment of Food Science & Biotechnologyand Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research CenterSejong UniversitySeoul, Republic of Korea

Felipe de Andrade MaiaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food Engineering University ofCampinas – UNICAMP CampinasSP, Brazil

Lara ManzoccoDepartment of Agricultural, Food,Environmental, and Animal SciencesUniversity of UdineUdine, Italy

Alejandro G. MarangoniUniversity of GuelphGuelph, ON, Canada

Artur J. MartinsInternational Iberian NanotechnologyLaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Sofia MelchiorDepartment of Agricultural, Food,Environmental, and Animal SciencesUniversity of UdineUdine, Italy

Behiç MertDepartment of Food EngineeringMiddle East Technical UniversityAnkara, Turkey

Karunairaj MichaelNational Institute of Food TechnologyEntrepreneurship and ManagementThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Reed A. NicholsonMotif FoodWorks, Inc.Boston, MA, USA

Paula Kiyomi OkuroDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, SP, Brazil

Kunal PalDepartment of Biotechnology and MedicalEngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkela, Odisha, India

Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana CastroINL – International Iberian NanotechnologyLaboratoryBraga, Portugal

Ivana A. PenagosDepartment of Food TechnologySafety and HealthFood Structure and Function (FS&F) ResearchGroupGhent UniversityCoupure Links, Ghent, Belgium

Carolina Siqueira Franco PiconeDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas – UNICAMPCampinas, SP, Brazil

Aurora Pintor-JardinesDepartamento de BiotecnologíaUAM-IztapalapaMexico

Stella PlazzottaDepartment of Agricultural, Food,Environmental, and Animal SciencesUniversity of UdineUdine, Italy

Bikash K. PradhanDepartment of Biotechnology and MedicalEngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkela, Odisha, India

Ashish RawsonNational Institute of Food TechnologyEntrepreneurship and ManagementThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Ana Paula Badan RibeiroDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, SP, Brazil

Michael A. RogersAssociate Professor and Tier II CanadaResearch Chair in Food NanotechnologyUniversity of GuelphGuelph, Ontario, Canada

Kato RondouDepartment of Food TechnologySafety and HealthFood Structure and Function (FS&F) ResearchGroupGhent UniversityCoupure Links, Ghent, Belgium

Satish SaigiriAgro-Nanotechnology and Advanced MaterialsResearch CenterInstitute of Postharvest and Food SciencesAgricultural Research OrganizationThe Volcani CenterRishon LeZion, Israel

Patricia Severiano-PérezDepartamento de Alimentos y BiotecnologíaFacultad de Química, UNAMMexico

Thaís Jordânia SilvaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, SP, Brazil

Mayanny Gomes da SilvaDepartment of Food Engineering andTechnologySchool of Food EngineeringUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP)Campinas, SP, Brazil

Mitra SoofiDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyTabriz branchIslamic Azad UniversityTabriz, Iran

Davanam SrikanthNational Institute of Food TechnologyEntrepreneurship and ManagementThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Sunil C. K.National Institute of Food TechnologyEntrepreneurship and ManagementThanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Xiao-Quan YangLaboratory of Food Proteins and ColloidsDepartment of Food Science and EngineeringSouth China University of TechnologyGuangzhou, People’s Republic of China

Preface

The scientific community and the food industry are constantly challenged to meet consumer demands for new food products nutritionally balanced and healthy while maintaining the product’s safety, good organoleptic properties, and convenience. One pivotal way to meet those challenges is in replacing fats in processed foods. Fats are known for their health implications and influence on foods’ shelf-life and nutritional properties. Replacing fats by reducing the amount of fats or by replacing unhealthy fats with healthy fats has been a challenge in the last 20 years. These challenges are mainly related to the physicochemical properties of fats and their influence on food structure and with organoleptic properties.

This book provides an overview of the strategies used for developing fat mimetics for food applications. It will cover all the physical strategies and present the main characterization techniques for studying fat mimetics behaviour. It will grant insight into how fat mimetics in food structure are understood and how fat mimetics affect the all characteristics of food products.

The book is organized into five sections. The first section is the foundation for subsequent sections and covers the demanding for fat mimetics for food applications and the relationship of the structural properties in fat mimetics. Section II is devoted to the primarily materials used in fat mimetics development and to the structures that result from different methodologies and approaches. Section III will cover the methodologies used to characterize the developed replacers not only from a physical and sensorial perspective, but also in terms of how fat replacers behave in the gastrointestinal tract. The examples of the food products will be discussed in section IV, where what has been done in terms of using fat mimetics in food products will be presented; this section aims to cover all possible use of these materials. Section V focuses on the industrial perspective. and will present a future perspective using some real cases for projects within the food industry and some commercial examples.

The information in this book is expected to increase the scientific understanding of fat mimetics. The authors are scientists with different areas of expertise covering principal aspects of food science and technology; some authors also bring expertise from the fields of engineering, chemistry and materials. The diverse range of input will give to the readers a broad overview of the field, boosting their capability to integrate different aspects of fat mimetics for food development.

We expect this book will become a unique source of information for scientists and researchers who are doing research and development with fat mimetics on processed foods.

Acknowledgements

We want to thank all the authors for their contributions and by lending their excellent perspectives into the best information available. A big thank you to Kerry Powell and Rebecca Ralf, editorial project managers, for their help during the editorial processes and always giving the best advice. We also want to specially thank Fabrice Turon for his contribution in the forward of this book.

The authors acknowledge the financial support of the projects: hOLIVEcream – Healthy olive oil based creams enriched with berries for application in bakery and pastry, with the reference n.º NORTE-01–0247-FEDER-046947, co-funded by Norte 2020 – North-Regional Operational Programme under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF); IceCare: Cardio-Healthy Functional Ice creams (NORTE-01–0247-FEDER-039927), cofinanced by Norte 2020 and the European Union, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), and BetterFat4Meat: Development of structured fats for to replace animal fats in meat products (POCI-01–0247- FEDER-039718), cofinanced by Compete 2020, Portugal 2020 and the European Union, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).

Editors

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira is Staff Researcher in the Food Processing and Nutrition Group at the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, and his research is focused on developing micro and nanosized bio-based structures for food applications. He works on edible and biodegradable materials for packaging, encapsulation of functional compounds using emergent encapsulation technologies, and structuring gels, such as oleogels.

Miguel holds both a Bachelor and PhD (in Biological Engineering from the University of Minho. He received three scholar merit awards during his Bachelor program, and his PhD thesis was awarded for the best PhD Thesis by the School of Engineering of the University of Minho. During his PhD studies, Miguel attended special projects at the Federal University of Ceará, University of Aveiro, and University College Cork. In 2011, he started as his Postdoctoral Researcher studies at UM and undertook special studies at the University of Vigo, University of Campinas) and Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology – CSIC. He authored over 130 scientific articles, published 20 book chapters, received two patents, and has edited three books. Miguel supervised more than 15 students (PhD and MSc). He is co-founder of two start-ups (Improveat, Lda in 2013 and 2BNanoFood, Lda in 2020). In 2014, Miguel won the Young Scientist Award and, in 2016, he was selected as Inaugural Member of the International Academy of Food Science and Technology Early Career Scientist Section both organized by the International Union of Food Science and Technology. In 2018, he joined the list of Highly Cited Researchers from Clarivate Analytics.

Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro

Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro is Chair of the Research Office and Group Leader of the Food Processing and Nutrition Group at the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory (INL). He is also a full professor of Food Science at the University of Vigo and is a visiting professor at the Universidade Federal Rural de Pernanbuco (Brasil) and Universita Catolica del Sacro Cuore (Italy).

In 2015, Lorenzo joined the INL as Head of the Department of Life Sciences, a division that included three research units, namely food, environment and health. At INL, his research is oriented with a multidisciplinary approach integrating methods and concepts of biotechnology, nanotechnology, and mathematical modeling. Lorenzo is currently working in three main research areas: Food structure with an emphasis on 3D printing materials, encapsulation technologies for improving functional foods and food personalization, and active and intelligent food packaging. He is author of more than 200 scientific contributions and has four licenced patents relating the development of new food products and process. He was the PI of over 30 national and European research projects and was the contractor and promoter of two food start-ups.

Lorenzo was also heavily active in promoting the connexion between academia and industry as the director of the Knowledge Transfer Office (2009–2010) at the University of Vigo, the founder of the Galician Agri-Food Technology Platform (2006) and as a current member of the scientific board of the Portugal Foods innovation cluster.

Section I Introduction to Fat Mimetics

1.1 Why Does the Food Industry Need Fat Mimetics?

Miguel Ângelo Parente Ribeiro Cerqueira* and Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana Castro

INL—International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal* Corresponding author

1.1.1 The Role of Lipids in Foods and Human Nutrition

The human brain has a high energy demand and thus the brain uses more energy than any other organ. It is also evident when comparing other mammals, or even primates, that humans’ distinctive nutritional needs are a consequence of the evolution of humans brain size. Thus, humans require fat-dense diets to supply energy needs. Fatty acids provide more than twice the calories per gram of proteins or carbohydrates; on the other hand, higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential to brain development (Leonard, Snodgrass, and Robertson 2010; Lehner et al. 2021). Since this evolution happened in a fat scarcity environment, humans developed the remarkable ability to detect and metabolize high-fat foods as well as the capacity toward a strong preference for the smell, texture, and taste of lipid-rich foods (Leonard, Snodgrass, and Robertson 2010).

Nowadays, in the diets of people dwelling in developed countries, there is no scarcity of fat anymore, and lipids (fats and oils) are present in the composition of many processed foods where they play important technological, nutritional, and sensorial roles. Their nutritional value is related to essential fatty acid composition and to their role in the absorption of liposoluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E, and K. On the other hand, the intake of these molecules increased in recent decades. Consumption of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated lipids is related to health benefits. However, in some western populations, large intakes of saturated and trans fatty acids are responsible for serious health issues linked to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (Te Morenga and Montez 2017; Astrup et al. 2019). These findings lead to a demand for new solutions that can guarantee the presence of healthy lipids in foods while the foods’ functional properties are maintained.

The functionalities of solid fats and liquid oils in foods are very diverse; this diversity comes from the fats’ and oils’ physical and chemical properties. Their capacity to form emulsions is essential for producing salad dressings, mayonnaise, gravies, and cheese sauces. Emulsions also modify the flavor and texture of many foods; for example, ice cream’s creamy texture is the result of an emulsion. The melting point of solid saturated fats or liquid oils determines the temperature behaviour of products such as chocolate or ice creams, respectively. Fats and oils in the shortening process are also responsible for tenderizing baked products. Some optical properties of foods, such as the opaque or glossy appearance of milk, are also due to fat. Fats and oils dissolve and preserve flavors while playing an important role in making foods satisfying or making us feel full. Finally, fats and oils are used to transfer heat and to facilitate crust formation during frying. Those functionalities are difficult to mimic; thus, the replacement of fats in foods has been a challenge among researchers and the industry. In the last 20 years, there has been an increase in new solutions within the marketplace, and there have been new developments within the scientific community.

1.1.2 Current Status of Fats in the Food Industry

The use of lipids in food formulation is widespread. Lipids are present in ingredients added to foods (normally in minor amounts), or they are added directly to foods in the form of vegetable oils or animal fat. Foods such as margarine, bakery products, chocolates, and spreads are some foods where lipids are used. One of the most commonly used strategies to change lipids’ properties is hydrogenation, where the liquid fats are converted into solid and semi-solid fats with the aim of achieving different functionalities. In the past, partially hydrogenated vegetable fats were used to improve the physical properties of food products, however, several studies have shown trans fatty acids (TFAs) that result from the hydrogenation process have harmful effects on human health, showing that partially hydrogenated vegetable fats are one of the primary sources of industrially-produced TFAs in foods. As a result, in 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that partially hydrogenated oils, the main source of artificial trans fats in processed foods, are not generally recognized as safe (GRAS). They gave the companies until 1 January 2020 to stop distributing food containing partially hydrogenated oils (FDA 2018). Also, the European Commission (EU) limited the use of trans fats, limiting the presence of 2 grams per 100 grams of total fat; in this case, the trans fats naturally occurring in the fat of animal origin are not included (European Commission 2019).

As an alternative, the industry started using saturated fatty acids (SFA), which can be obtained by fractionating oils, such as palm oil. Palm oil is one of the most used sources of fats for foods due to its low price, texture and rheological properties, high stability against oxidation. and good storage time. However, due to the high amount of saturated fats in palm oil, high consumption of palm oil can lead to some health problems. Studies showed that the consumption of saturated fats (except for stearic acid) influences cholesterol levels in the blood and leads to cardiovascular diseases (Zhu, Bo, and Liu 2019). The World Health Organization’s current guidelines for a healthy diet mentions that reducing the amount of total fat intake to less than 30% of total energy intake helps prevent unhealthy weight gain in adults; further, the risk of developing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is lowered by a) reducing saturated fats to less than 10% of total energy intake; b) reducing trans fats to less than 1% of total energy intake; and c) replacing both saturated fats and trans fats with unsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (WHO 2020). The European Union has also promoted healthier foods by allowing food producers to have a nutrition claim on their products’ labels. This nutrition claim is related to a food product’s particular beneficial nutritional property that can be related to energy or to a specific compound present in the food product. There are eight nutrition claims directly related to fats, namely: 1) low fat, 2) fat-free, 3) low saturated fat, 4) saturated fat-free, 5) source of omega-3 fatty acids, 6) high omega-3 fatty acids, 7) high monounsaturated fat, and 8) high polyunsaturated fat (European Commission 2022).

In addition to the health issues related to the consumption of some fats, there is a huge concern, among the entire food industry, related to the environmental impact of oil production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), global livestock production makes up 14.5% of all anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions, i.e. 7.1 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent per year (Gerber 2013). In the case of lipids, one of the great examples is palm oil, where some studies revealed the considerable impact of lipid production on deforestation and the release of CO2 (Meijaard et al., 2020). In this regard, the use of fat mimetics (that can be based on other vegetable oils) can bring some new insights and possibilities to the industry.

Therefore, the removal of hydrogenated fats and the suggested limitation on the consumption of saturated fats has been changing how the food industry looks at lipids. There is a real need for healthier, trans fatty acid-free, stable, and solid-like fats, which maintain their structure at ambient temperatures, assuring a longer shelf-life. One of the solutions are the fat replacers that can be divided into fat substitutes, fat mimetics, or fat extenders, depending on their chemical composition and physical behaviour. Fat mimetics are one of the most studied alternatives, where the use of physically structured oils (oleogels) seems to be one of the most promising routes. This is related to the way they are produced, mostly using only food ingredients and without chemically modifying the lipids, thus presenting some benefits towards the sustainability and clean label trend. But also, other fat mimetics based on proteins and carbohydrates have shown their applicability and are already used in several commercial products.

1.1.3 Food Trends and Fat Mimetics

In 2017, FAO pointed out several food trends (FAO 2018). Some of those are related to the increasing population, the dietary transition in low- and middle-income countries, diet-related diseases and sustainability. Also, consumer engagement has been seen by several stakeholders as a food trend, where a consumer’s behaviour and perception have a massive impact on the future direction of the agri-food system and companies’ decisions. Consumers are looking for healthy and more natural products, alternative proteins, and products that can be considered clean label and sustainable. Therefore, the industry needs new technologies and strategies to answer those demands. One of the strategies can be fat mimetics; for example, the use of fat mimetics can guarantee the reduction of unhealthy fats or/and their replacement by mono- and polyunsaturated fats and, simultaneously, offer technical functionalities similar to fats.

Plant-based foods and meat alternatives are also food trends that fat mimetics strategies can greatly impact. While proteins and hydrocolloids are already used to develop those products, incorporating oils to develop plant-based foods with a balanced lipid profile is still a challenge. Therefore, using fat mimetics could be a way to tailor the lipid profile of these kinds of products.

Lipid-based fat mimetics mainly use vegetable oils, but it is also possible to use oils obtained from microalgae, insects and even fermentation. The options play a big role in developing more sustainable fat alternatives. Fat mimetics strategies could help overcome technological challenges.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support of the projects: hOLIVEcream – Healthy olive oil based creams enriched with berries for application in bakery and pastry, with the reference n.º NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-046947, co-funded by Norte 2020 – North-Regional Operational Programme under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF); IceCare: Cardio-Healthy Functional Ice creams (NORTE-01-0247-FEDER-039927), co-financed by Norte 2020 and the European Union, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), and BetterFat4Meat: Development of structured fat for use in meat products by replacement of animal fat (POCI-01-0247- FEDER-039718). Co-financed by Compete 2020, Portugal 2020 and the European Union, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).

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