Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive overview of feline medicine in a clinical setting for the veterinary technician
Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians is a complete, specialty reference guide, written by veterinary technician specialists, for the veterinary technician to use in a feline medicine clinical setting. Covering everything from the pathophysiology of common feline diseases, current therapies and nursing care, diagnostic techniques, unique history taking methods, and nursing care in every major body system. It is a critical tool for anyone preparing for a specialty exam or the Veterinary Technician National Exam (VTNE).
Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians readers will also find:
- Coverage of cutting-edge diagnostics, treatment options, and more
- Detailed discussion of topics including feline friendly interactions, life stage considerations, client communication, pharmacology, and many more
- A team of contributors with decades of combined veterinary technician experience
- A comprehensive review of diseases in all major body systems including endocrinology, cardiology, renal and urinary systems
- Feline specific considerations for behavior, anesthesia, analgesia, transfusion medicine and nutrition
- The companion website includes study questions for all chapters, as well as client education materials, dental positioning guidelines and educational handouts
Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians is ideal for students as well as anyone preparing for a specialty exam or as a veterinary technician in feline clinical practice.
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Seitenzahl: 1479
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Companion Website
Section 1: The Cat and Special Considerations
Chapter 1: Feline Behavior
1.1 Sensation and Perception
1.2 Feline Body Language
1.3 Community Behavior in Cats
1.4 Sexual Behavior in Cats
1.5 Elimination Behaviors
1.6 How Cats Learn and Modifying Behaviors
1.7 Functional and Applied Behavior Analysis
1.8 Common Unwanted Behaviors
1.9 Behavior Emergencies
1.10 Incorporating Behavior into Everyday Veterinary Practice
References
Chapter 2: Feline-Friendly Interactions
2.1 Understanding Cat Emotions and Their Motivations
2.2 Be Respectful, Remain Professional; Words Matter
2.3 Feline Emotions: Engaging and Protective − Both Are Normal!
2.4 Sensory Communication Cats: How Cats Gather and Interpret Information
2.5 Interpreting Feline Behaviors at the Clinic and Modifying Our Techniques to Prevent Escalation
2.6 Setting Yourself Up for Success
2.7 Stressor Stacking: Understanding Stressors that Contribute to Difficult Visits
2.8 Making Changes at the Clinic
2.9 Know Your Cats: They Are Communicating!
2.10 Handling Techniques
2.11 Sedation
2.12 Tips for Safe and Feline-friendly Life Stage Handling: A New Way to Approach Cats
References
Chapter 3: Preparing the Veterinary Hospital for the Feline Patient
3.1 General Clinic Preparation for a Feline Visit
3.2 The Reception Area
3.3 The Exam Room
3.4 The Treatment Room
3.5 The Surgical Suite
3.6 The Hospitalization Ward
3.7 Training the Team
3.8 How to Become a Cat Friendly Practice
®
3.9 Resources for Veterinary Professionals
3.10 Resources for Clients
References
Chapter 4: Life Stage Considerations
4.1 Kitten
4.2 Junior
4.3 Prime
4.4 Mature
4.5 Senior
4.6 Geriatric
4.7 Body Condition Scoring
4.8 Body Condition Score Uses
4.9 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 5: Client Education and Communication Topics for the Feline Owner
5.1 Types of Communication
5.2 Obtaining a Medical History
5.3 Home Environmental Factors
5.4 Preparing for the Veterinary Visit
5.5 Nutrition
5.6 Nursing Care for the Feline Pet Owner
5.7 Client Communication and Feline Disease Management
References
Chapter 6: Anesthetic Considerations for the Feline Patient
6.1 Preanesthetic Phase
6.2 Anesthetic Phase
6.3 Recovery Phase
References
Chapter 7: Analgesic Considerations for the Feline Patient
7.1 The Pain Pathway
7.2 Types of Pain
7.3 Negative Effects of Pain
7.4 Assessment of Pain
7.5 Pain Scoring Instruments
7.6 Treatment of Pain
References
Chapter 8: Introduction to Feline Pharmacology
8.1 Unique Pharmacokinetics for the Feline Patient
8.2 Metabolism
8.3 Acetylation
8.4 Methylation
8.5 Renal Excretion
8.6 Medications with Unique Pharmacokinetics in the Feline Patient
8.7 Introduction and Current Guidelines of Antimicrobial Stewardship
References
Chapter 9: Feline Immunology and Current Vaccination Guidelines
9.1 Vaccine History
9.2 How Vaccines Work
9.3 Natural Immunity: Maternal Derived Antibodies
9.4 Feline Injection Site Sarcoma
9.5 Vaccination Administration Sites
9.6 Vaccine Site Monitoring
9.7 Vaccine Hypersensitivity
9.8 Vaccination Types
9.9 Routes of Administration
9.10 Feline Core Vaccines
9.11 Feline Noncore Vaccinations
9.12 Vaccines No Longer Recommended
9.13 Feline Patient Populations That Need Protection: What and When to Provide Vaccination
9.14 Vaccination and Age
9.15 Lifestyle Vaccinations: When Vaccination Plans Have the Possibility of Changing
9.16 Postvaccination Serological Screening: The Debate on Over-vaccination
9.17 Staff Compliance: Who Is Responsible for What?
References
Section 2: Feline Patient Care
Chapter 10: Critical Thinking and Kirby’s Rule of 20
10.1 Veterinary Medical Error Background
10.2 Patient Care Checklist Background
10.3 Kirby’s Rule of 20
10.4 Critical Thinking
References
Chapter 11: Interpretation of Common Diagnostics Test Results
11.1 Use of a Microscope
11.2 Care and Maintenance of a Microscope
11.3 Interpretation of Common Diagnostic Tests
11.4 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 12: General Feline Nutrition
12.1 Feeding Behaviors
12.2 Anatomic Adaptations
12.3 Physiologic Adaptations
12.4 Metabolic Adaptations
12.5 Fixed Taste Preferences and Food Aversions
12.6 The Association of American Feed Control Officials Life Stages
12.7 Reproduction and Neonatal Nutrition
12.8 Orphaned Kitten Nutrition
12.9 Kitten Nutrition
12.10 Young Adult Nutrition
12.11 Mature Adult Nutrition
12.12 Geriatric Nutrition
12.13 Feeding Tubes: Uses, Indications, and Placement
12.14 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 13: Feline Wound Care and Bandaging
13.1 Etiology of Feline Wounds
13.2 Wound Physiology
13.3 Wound Classification
13.4 Wound Healing
13.5 Approach to the Feline Trauma Patient
13.6 Wound Care and Management
13.7 Bandage Techniques
13.8 Wound Drains
13.9 Emerging Wound Management Techniques
13.10 Burn Care
References
Section 3: Feline Systems, Diseases, and Conditions
Chapter 14: Cardiology/Cardiovascular Diseases
14.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
14.2 Clinical Signs
14.3 Physical Examination Findings
14.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
14.5 Cardiovascular Diseases
14.6 Cardiomyopathy Prognosis
14.7 Comorbidities to Consider
14.8 Cardiovascular Emergencies
14.9 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 15: Dentistry
15.1 Feline Dental Anatomy
15.2 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
15.3 Dental Equipment
15.4 Ergonomics
15.5 Dental Radiography
15.6 The Feline Oral Exam
15.7 The Professional Dental Cleaning
15.8 Dental Charts
15.9 Tooth Numbering Systems
15.10 Nomenclature and Abbreviations
15.11 Oral Pathology
References
Chapter 16: Dermatology and Auricular Conditions
16.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
16.2 Clinical Signs
16.3 Physical Examination Findings
16.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
16.5 Basic Feline Dermatology
16.6 Allergic Reaction Patterns
16.7 Hypersensitivity Reactions
16.8 Facial Dermatosis
16.9 Feline Auricular Anatomy and Conditions
16.10 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 17: Emergency and Critical Care
17.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
17.2 Feline Interactions in the ER
17.3 Clinical Signs
17.4 Physical Examination Findings
17.5 Triage
17.6 The Feline Inpatient
17.7 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
17.8 Common Emergencies by Body System
17.9 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 18: Endocrinology
18.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
18.2 Clinical Signs
18.3 Physical Examination Findings
18.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
18.5 Endocrine Disorders
18.6 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 19: Gastroenterology
19.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
19.2 Clinical Signs
19.3 Physical Examination Findings
19.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
19.5 Gastrointestinal Disease in the Feline Patient
19.6 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 20: Gestation, Lactation, and Pediatrics
20.1 Breeding in Cats: So Many Kittens in Such Little Time
20.2 Pregnancy and Birth
20.3 Dystocia
20.4 Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity, and Respiration Scoring in Neonates: Know Their Vitality Early on!
20.5 Nursing and Lactation
20.6 Kitten Mortality
20.7 Postpartum Complications in the Queen
20.8 Kitten Care
20.9 Bottles and Tube Feeding; What Can Be Used for Orphaned Kitten Feeding and How to Perform Tube Feeding When Necessary
20.10 Milestones
20.11 Kitten Nutrition
20.12 Weaning the Kitten
20.13 The Critical Neonate
References
Chapter 21: Hematology
21.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
21.2 Clinical Signs
21.3 Physical Examination Findings
21.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
21.5 Red Blood Cell Conditions
21.6 White Blood Cell Conditions
21.7 Coagulopathies
21.8 Diagnostic Techniques
21.9 Feline Blood Donors
21.10 Blood Component Processing
References
Chapter 22: Hepatobiliary
22.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
22.2 Clinical Signs
22.3 Physical Examination Findings
22.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
22.5 Diseases of the Liver
22.6 Diseases of the Gallbladder and Bile Duct
22.7 Diseases of the Exocrine Pancreas
22.8 Triaditis
22.9 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 23: Feline Infectious Diseases
23.1 History-gathering Questions
23.2 Clinical Signs
23.3 Physical Examination Findings
23.4 Nursing Care Considerations
23.5 Bacterial Infectious Diseases
23.6 Systemic Fungal Infectious Diseases
23.7 Protozoal Infectious Diseases
23.8 Viral Infectious Diseases
23.9 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 24: Oncology
24.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
24.2 Clinical Signs
24.3 Physical Examination Findings
24.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
24.5 Treatment Modalities
24.6 Common Feline Neoplasms
24.7 Diagnostic Techniques
24.8 Chemotherapy Administration
References
Chapter 25: Respiratory
25.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
25.2 Clinical Signs
25.3 Physical Examination Findings
25.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
25.5 Oxygen Supplementation
25.6 Respiratory Diseases
25.7 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Chapter 26: Urinary and Renal
26.1 Patient History and “History Gathering Questions”
26.2 Clinical Signs
26.3 Physical Examination Findings
26.4 Specific Nursing Care Considerations
26.5 Renal and Urinary Diseases
26.6 Diagnostic Techniques
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Facial gland locations in cats. Many cats prefer petting and touchin...
Figure 1.2 (a and b) A commercially available litter box that is too small cont...
Figure 1.3 An example exposure hierarchy or exposure ladder for subcutaneous in...
Figure 1.4 The quadrants of operant conditioning, are used to describe changes ...
Figure 1.5 The hierarchy for selecting procedures to induce behavioral change.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Scared cat – Notice the body language. This cat’s whiskers are flare...
Figure 2.2 Greeting a cat – always offer a curled back of the hand vs. pointing...
Figure 2.3 Cats use pheromones to “mark” areas that they value, as well as area...
Figure 2.4 Hissing cat – hissing is a warning that should not go unnoticed, and...
Figure 2.5 Hide box – hide boxes do not need to be expensive. Simply offering a...
Figure 2.6 Avoidance – notice how the cat is stressed to the point they are att...
Figure 2.7 Stressor stacking – cats have limitations to what they are willing t...
Figure 2.8 Pheromone towels – Using feline pheromone-infused towels during a vi...
Figure 2.9 Cuddle hold – notice how the cat is allowed to be in a relaxed later...
Figure 2.10 No scruff zone – all clinics should strive to be a no-scruffing clin...
Figure 2.11 Kitty magic.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Five pillars of a healthy feline environment.
Figure 3.2 Feline-friendly reception area design. 1. Provide a device with feli...
Figure 3.3 Feline-friendly examination room design includes providing an area t...
Figure 3.4 Example of providing a safe space for the patient to hide such as a drawer.
Figure 3.5 Example of performing an exam where the patient feels comfortable, i...
Figure 3.6 The real length of the visit. The visit starts and ends at home.
Figure 3.7 Feline-friendly hospital design including single-facing enclosure ba...
Figure 3.8 Example of a feline-friendly enclosure. 1. Provide an elevated area ...
Figure 3.9 Example of providing comfortable bedding for the patient to hide.
Figure 3.10 Example of using the patient’s carrier in the enclosure to provide a...
Figure 3.11 Nursing care recommendations at each location in the veterinary hospital.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Kevin, a 7-week-old foster kitten, who we had already had for 3 weeks.
Figure 4.2 Jack, a foster failed at 4 months old. While Jack has the ticked coa...
Figure 4.3 A converted storage tote used in the author’s foster kitten room. Ty...
Figure 4.4 A carpet-covered climbing structure was placed to allow easy access ...
Figure 4.5 The walking platform ends at another resting area, with a 6-foot-tal...
Figure 4.6 Poppy, 11 years old, using the stairs located in the author’s office...
Figure 4.7 Gimli was adopted at 7 years old and weighed over 20#. We were able ...
Figure 4.8 Lily in her prime at 7 years old.
Figure 4.9 Lily, at 18 years old, had been treated for hyperthyroidism with I13...
Figure 4.10 WSAVA body condition score for cats [14]/World Small Animal Veterina...
Figure 4.11 Daisy, in stage 3 cachexia secondary to cancer. Despite nutritional ...
Figure 4.12 Bootsie, after years of obesity, developed diabetes. Her BCS is 5/5+.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 A positive interaction can be conveyed through the use of body langu...
Figure 5.2 Acclimating a cat to a carrier.
Figure 5.3 Utilizing a towel placed around the neck can prevent front leg movem...
Figure 5.4 The subcutaneous space is created around the interscapular region by...
Figure 5.5 Evaluating a bandage can be done by assessing the toes for the prese...
Figure 5.6 Enteral feedings should occur in a comfortable location in the home ...
Figure 5.7 Using positive reinforcement with food placed around or through the ...
Figure 5.8 A 25-gauge needle can be used to puncture the marginal ear vein to o...
Figure 5.9 Senior cats suffering from arthritis may need a low entry litter box...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Premedication in the caudal thigh. A patient receiving premedication...
Figure 6.2 Intravenous catheterization. A patient receiving an IV catheter in t...
Figure 6.3 Parts of an endotracheal tube. A high-volume low-pressure cuffed Mur...
Figure 6.4 Premeasuring the endotracheal tube. Patient getting its endotracheal...
Figure 6.5 Inside a cat’s mouth. The view in a patient’s mouth with the laryngo...
Figure 6.6 Blood pressure cuff placement. Patient with a blood pressure cuff on...
Figure 6.7 Capnographs. The top is the mainstream capnograph, and the bottom is...
Figure 6.8 Low dead space adaptor. The circled portion of the image is a low de...
Figure 6.9 Transmittance pulse oximetry probe. A patient with a transmittance p...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Illustration of the pain pathway, including transduction, transmissi...
Figure 7.2 FGS. (a) The patient was admitted to the hospital for wounds from a ...
Figure 7.3 Refined Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale – feline. (a) Base...
Figure 7.4 Examples of local blocks. (a) Patient receiving a great auricular bl...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Oral medication. The higher pH found in a cat’s mouth can increase t...
Figure 8.2 Heinz body and Howell–Jolly body. This image of a blood smear shows ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Injection-site diagram of the cat, utilizing a specific area for inj...
Figure 9.2 FPV1-positive test, a canine POC antigen test can be utilized to det...
Figure 9.3 Painful, oral plaques may develop with kittens that have the more cl...
Figure 9.4 With FCV, it is common to have ocular erythema and nasal discharge.
Figure 9.5 FCV-VSD facial/head swelling lateral view. In systemic calicivirus c...
Figure 9.6 FCV-VSD frontal view.
Figure 9.7 FCV-VSD neck.
Figure 9.8 FCV-VSD lateral radiograph. Notice the soft tissue edema present on ...
Figure 9.9 Risks vs. benefits diagram.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Benefits of using patient care checklists in veterinary medicine.
Figure 10.2 Distribution of total body water in feline patients.
Figure 10.3 Head trauma patient with a stuporous LOC.
Figure 10.4 Graphic depiction of the components’ cardiac output. Cardiac output ...
Figure 10.5 Patient with anemia from severe flea infestation who required a bloo...
Figure 10.6 Patient receiving enteral nutrition via a nasoesophageal feeding tube.
Figure 10.7 Patient receiving TLC by having soft and plush bedding and rolled ov...
Figure 10.8 Patient receiving TLC by having a towel rolly bed.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Binocular microscope.
Figure 11.2 Feline platelet clumping on a differential smear.
Figure 11.3 Feline eosinophil with characteristic pink/red granules.
Figure 11.4 Feline erythrocytes showing typical rouleaux. This can be differenti...
Figure 11.5 An owner collecting blood for a glucose check from an ear prick. It ...
Figure 11.6 Vinny demonstrates a continuous glucose monitor placement.
Figure 11.7 A giardia trophozoite on a stained fecal smear.
Figure 11.8
Isospora
coccidia on a fecal floatation.
Figure 11.9
Toxocara cati
on a fecal floatation.
Figure 11.10 Taenia tapeworm on fecal flotation.
Figure 11.11
Otodectes cynotis
mites and eggs on oil cytology.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Seven-week-old foster kitten. The kitten is well muscled, and the fu...
Figure 12.2 Example of indoor enrichment for cats, providing multiple levels and...
Figure 12.3 Poppy and Dusty enjoying their climbing structures. Note that Dusty ...
Figure 12.4 Lily at 18 years old, with International Renal Interest Society (IRI...
Figure 12.5 Twelve-year-old DSH with an esophagostomy tube placed secondary to a...
Figure 12.6 Lateral radiograph of an esophagostomy tube showing correct placement.
Figure 12.7 The cat from 12.5 at home beginning her diet transition from e-tube...
Figure 12.8 This cat presented with a BCS of 2/5 and is undergoing treatment for...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 A feline patient attacked by a dog. Note the extensive bruising that...
Figure 13.2 A feline patient with a large contaminated soft tissue wound. Note t...
Figure 13.3 A community cat that was presented to the ER with an old, open fract...
Figure 13.4 Right lateral radiograph with contrast introduced into the urethra w...
Figure 13.5 This kitten has been eviscerated due to a dog bite. As soon as vascu...
Figure 13.6 Surgical closure at the site of an excised vaccine-associated sarcom...
Figure 13.7 A cafeteria tray makes a good litter pan for feline patients with bu...
Figure 13.8 A tie-over bandage in the groin of a cat. Note the surgical drape ma...
Figure 13.9 This Jackson-Pratt drain has been removed from the patient to show t...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Wiggers diagram. This image shows the coordination of the heart valv...
Figure 14.2 Heart anatomy with the chamber pressures.
Figure 14.3 This is an image of a calm auscultation. The stethoscope is left par...
Figure 14.4 This is a cat with CHF demonstrating a dyspneic body position.
Figure 14.5 This is an echocardiogram image with color flow. The color flow high...
Figure 14.6 This is an echocardiogram image of a stenotic pulmonic valve.
Figure 14.7 A side-by-side echo image of a PDA. The left side is the echo image...
Figure 14.8 Echo image of a PDA closed with a coil via catheter technique.
Figure 14.9 Echo image of a PDA closed with a coil. The color flow shows the new...
Figure 14.10 Echocardiogram image showing the heart base anatomy and a VSD as part of TOF.
Figure 14.11 Echocardiogram image showing the overriding aorta and thick right ve...
Figure 14.12 Echo image of the heart. The left atrium is enlarged, and the left v...
Figure 14.13 This picture is of a cat during a thyroid storm. There is open-mouth...
Figure 14.14 An electrocardiogram showing changes consistent with hyperkalemia. P...
Figure 14.15 Echocardiogram image of HCM.
Figure 14.16 A lateral thoracic radiograph demonstrating the VHS.
Figure 14.17 Normal ECG in lead II.
Figure 14.18 A normal ECG in lead II of a patient that may have a left anterior f...
Figure 14.19 Typical six-lead ECG for a patient with an LAFB.
Figure 14.20 MEA normal range for cats is 0–160°.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Tooth anatomy.
Figure 15.2 Example of an ideal feline dental suite designed with patient and ope...
Figure 15.3 Proper use of the dental probe using the modified pen grasp.
Figure 15.4 Radiograph on a feline skull using the bisecting angle technique.
Figure 15.5 Tooth resorption type 1.
Figure 15.6 Tooth resorption type 2.
Figure 15.7 Tooth resorption type 3.
Figure 15.8 AVDC classification of clinical stages.
Figure 15.9 Eosinophilic granuloma complex.
Figure 15.10 Stomatitis.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Self-induced alopecia.
Figure 16.2 Miliary dermatitis.
Figure 16.3 Cervical-facial dermatitis.
Figure 16.4 Eosinophilic granuloma complex—rodent ulcer.
Figure 16.5 Mosquito bite hypersensitivity.
Figure 16.6 Chin acne.
Figure 16.7 Dirty face of Persians.
Figure 16.8 Lentigo.
Figure 16.9 Normal CT of a feline with a shelf in the bulla.
Figure 16.10 Abnormal CT of a feline with otitis media.
Figure 16.11 Cystomatosis.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Cage set-up showing an appropriately sized litter pan (far left), wa...
Figure 17.2 A variety of containers from discount stores can be re-purposed as h...
Figure 17.3 The coccygeal artery is used to assess Doppler blood pressure in thi...
Figure 17.4 Profile view of a young female domestic shorthair cat bitten on the...
Figure 17.5 A closed collection system is essential for quantifying urine output...
Figure 17.6 Immunochromatography blood typing kit for cats; this patient is type A.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Figure of the anatomical feature of the hormone system.
Figure 18.2 A CT image of a patient with a functional adenoma (blue arrow) as th...
Figure 18.3 A parathyroid adenoma in a feline patient.
Figure 18.4 A feline patient with continuous glucose monitoring in place for hom...
Figure 18.5 Precision Xtra ketone meter used during diabetic mellitus patient mo...
Figure 18.6 AlphaTrak 3 glucometer.
Figure 18.7 Example of a desired feline diabetic glucose curve with blood glucos...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 A cat eating a bird.
Figure 19.2 A shelter kitten with a fecal score of 7/7.
Figure 19.3 A feline patient receiving a thorough physical examination.
Figure 19.4 Highly digestible, palliative diets with GI disease can be the corner...
Figure 19.5 A cat with tenesmus due to constipation.
Figure 19.6 An image of the pyloric sphincter taken during an upper gastroduodenoscopy.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Abyssinian breeding – Studs will mount the female and grasp onto the...
Figure 20.2 Cat penis barbs – Barbs are only present in intact male cats and the...
Figure 20.3 Kitten placenta – Zonary placentas encircle the fetus.
Figure 20.4 Post-parturition.
Figure 20.5 Male kitten – At birth, the sex of the male kittens can be easily de...
Figure 20.6 Female kitten – At birth, the sex of the female kittens can be deter...
Figure 20.7 Newborn kitten- Breed, maternal illness, and nutrition play a role i...
Figure 20.8 Body scoring – Body scoring compliments daily weight loss and gain. ...
Figure 20.9 Neonatal ophthalmia – Neonatal ophthalmia is a common illness in kit...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Types of blood cells.
Figure 21.2 Coagulation cascade.
Figure 21.3 Example of spun hematocrit tube, PCV read at 40%.
Figure 21.4 Blood smear technique. (a) Example of finished blood smear, ready fo...
Figure 21.5 Feline blood donor living quarters at the University of Florida, Col...
Figure 21.6 Semi-closed blood collection set from Animal Blood Resources Interna...
Figure 21.7 Sedated blood donor receiving flow by oxygen, collection syringe wit...
Figure 21.8 Unit packed in centrifuge (Thermo Scientific Sorvall BP 8) balanced ...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 A patient with icteric oral mucous membranes. Also, notice the icter...
Figure 22.2 Common biochemistry panel results associated with hepatic lipidosis.
Figure 22.3 A cat with enlarged common bile duct due to an obstruction before un...
Figure 22.4 The same patient after cholycystoenterostomy. Note the reduction in ...
Figure 22.5 Concurrent medical conditions associated with pancreatitis [30, 31].
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Clotrimazole 1% for intranasal infusion.
Figure 23.2 Positive Wood’s lamp examination of dermatophytosis on a kitten’s face.
Figure 23.3 Positive Wood’s lamp examination of dermatophytosis on a kitten’s paw.
Figure 23.4 A thoracic radiograph of a feline patient with Histoplasmosis.
Figure 23.5
Toxoplasma gondii
life cycle.
Figure 23.6 Gingivostomatitis in a feline patient.
Figure 23.7 Retrovirus-associated diseases.
Figure 23.8 Example of a positive FeLV ELISA test.
Figure 23.9 An example of ocular clinical signs in a patient with herpesvirus.
Figure 23.10 An example of a positive DTM culture.
Figure 23.11
M. canis
dermatophyte.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 The “crab like” appearance of a tumor illustrating margins.
Figure 24.2 Radiation passing through healthy tissue to treat tumors illustratin...
Figure 24.3 Gastric wall thickening and loss of layering noted on ultrasound in ...
Figure 24.4 Resolution of gastric wall thickening and loss of layering on ultras...
Figure 24.5 Nasal planum SCC in a feline, pretherapy.
Figure 24.6 Postoperative nasal planum SCC in a feline, completely excised.
Figure 24.7 Cat with intrascapular ISS recurrence postradiation therapy. Radiati...
Figure 24.8 Fine needle aspirate, coring technique.
Figure 24.9 Fine needle aspirate, aspiration technique.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 The feline respiratory system.
Figure 25.2 Exchange of gases at alveoli.
Figure 25.3 Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
Figure 25.4 The transmission probe is pictured on the right. In this style of pr...
Figure 25.5 Pictured are common clip-style pulse oximetry probes used in feline ...
Figure 25.6 A patient with mucopurulent nasal discharge due to idiopathic rhinitis.
Figure 25.7 This figure demonstrates the presence of fluid-filled alveoli indica...
Figure 25.8 These thoracic radiographs represent an alveolar lung pattern in a f...
Figure 25.9 Supplies needed for a bronchoalveolar lavage: 8 FrFrench red rubber ...
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Kidney and nephron.
Figure 26.2 Doppler.
Figure 26.3 Kidney stones.
Figure 26.4 Urolith.
Figure 26.5 Refractometer measurements.
Figure 26.6 Refractometer.
Figure 26.7 Urine dipstick.
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 A summary of behaviors associated before, during and after classical...
Table 1.2 A summary of events during the A-B-Cs of behavior.
Table 1.3 A summary of veterinary behavior organizations.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Chapter definitions.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Approximate eruption schedule for teeth in cats.
Table 4.2 Fragility scales examples.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 General topics of discussion for all feline life stages during welln...
Table 5.2 Topics of discussion based on feline life stage (0 to >10 years) [1, 5].
Table 5.3 Feline behavior needs depending on feline life stage (0 > 10 years)...
Table 5.4 Esophagostomy and gastrostomy tube guidelines for feline owners [28].
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Anesthetic physical exam. A minimum physical assessment to aid in cr.cr..
Table 6.2 Range of normal values.
Table 6.3 ASA classification system.
Table 6.4 Premedication options. Examples of premedication options with sugges...
Table 6.5 Steps of intravenous catheterization. Suggested materials and steps ...
Table 6.6 Guedel’s stages of anesthesia.
Table 6.7 Injectable induction agents. Examples of induction options with sugg...
Table 6.8 Intubation. Suggested materials and steps to place an intravenous ca...
Table 6.9 Equipment check. Suggestions to assess the endotracheal tube and ane...
Table 6.10 Leak checking a machine.
Table 6.11 Selecting a reservoir bag. Suggested calculation to select a reservoir bag.
Table 6.12 Continuous rate of infusion of injectable anesthetics. Examples of d...
Table 6.13 Arterial oxygen content. This formula demonstrates the factors that ...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Inflammatory soup – examples of mediators that can be released durin...
Table 7.2 Types of pain [18, 21–23]. Classifications of pain based on the type...
Table 7.3 Examples of behaviors indicating pain – feline behaviors and express...
Table 7.4 Attributes of a pain scoring instrument [34], efficacious attributes...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Method of drug metabolism and enzymes or processes involved [2–4, 6–9].
Table 8.2 Drugs with direct evidence of slower glucuronidation and those with ...
Table 8.3 Opioid drugs and their schedule [13].
Table 8.4 Definition of drug dispensing terms [17].
Table 8.5 Drugs that are contraindicated in cats due to impaired metabolic pathways [9].
Table 8.6 Antimicrobial stewardship.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 While in practice, we typically provide three routine vaccinations f...
Table 9.2 Chapter definitions.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 List of the 20 patient parameters included in Kirby’s Rule of 20.
Table 10.2 Quick reference chart for general reference ranges of venous blood g...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Normal feline CBC and PCV values [2, 4, 5].
Table 11.2 Normal chemistry values in cats [8–10].
Table 11.3 Diagnostic tests performed by reference laboratories [16].
Table 11.4 Common feline parasites [20–23, 24].
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Composition of milk replacers compared with queens’ milk [9].
Table 12.2 Formula(s) for calculating RER in adult maintenance in kcal/day, usi...
Table 12.3 Recommended levels of fats, protein, and carbohydrates in critical c...
Table 12.4 Life stage factors used to calculate daily energy requirements [21].
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Wound healing phases, their onset, and average duration.
Table 13.2 Sample detailed history questions for the feline trauma patient. A r...
Table 13.3 Types of wound closure and their intended uses.
Table 13.4 Burn classifications and the associated layers of skin affected desc...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Table clarifying commonly used medications for managing heart diseas...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Feline dental formula and feline eruption table.
Table 15.2 Dental instruments for the feline patient.
Table 15.3 Steps of a professional dental cleaning.
Table 15.4 A summary of the stages of tooth resorption.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Drugs that will interfere with skin testing and medications that wil...
Table 16.2 Causes of facial dermatitis in felines [1].
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Using the “Wish, Worry, Wonder” communication model to guide crucial...
Table 17.2 Calculation for mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) using systolic an...
Table 17.3 Normal arterial blood pressure ranges in the cat [24–27].
Table 17.4 Sample history questions for the obstructed cat that may identify co...
Table 17.5 Comprehensive list of potential feline transfusion reactions, includ...
Table 17.6 Clinical signs of transfusion reactions in feline patients [77–80, 8...
Table 17.7 Clinical signs of fluid intolerance [35–38].
Table 17.8 Modified Glasgow Coma Score [124].
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Hormone functions summary [1].
Table 18.2 Medium and long-acting insulin options currently available for the f...
Table 18.3 Example insulin CRI recipe.
Table 18.4 Insulin CRI and dextrose administration guide for the DKA patient.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Common clinical signs, history, and physical assessment findings in ...
Table 19.2 Differentiating small bowel, large bowel, and mixed bowel diarrhea.
Table 19.3 Nutritional factors in diets [10].
Table 19.4 Treatment modalities for IBD in the cat [8, 12–22].
Table 19.5 Terminology used to describe intestinal foreign body obstruction.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Blood transfusion therapy for neonatal isoerythrolysis (Type A males...
Table 20.2 Week-by-week milestones: What to expect and when.
Table 20.3 Fluid calculations/recommendations for dehydration correction in fel...
Table 20.4 Chapter definitions. [11–13, 15, 16, 18, 19]
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Method to microscopically evaluate blood smears.
Table 21.2 Erythrocyte morphology.
Table 21.3 Erythrocyte inclusions.
Table 21.4 Infectious organisms in blood smears.
Table 21.5 Supplies for semi-closed feline blood donation.
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Functions of the liver [4].
Table 22.2 Summary of pancreatic digestive enzymes.
Table 22.3 Liver enzymes and their functions [14, 15].
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Infectious disease, clinical signs, and physical examination findings.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 The most commonly used chemotherapeutics in the feline patient.
Table 24.2 Supportive care medications that may be used for chemotherapy-relate...
Table 24.3 Common hematologic abnormalities seen in the feline patient receivin...
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Terms and definitions commonly used to describe respiratory patients.
Table 25.2 Respiratory sound descriptions.
Table 25.3 Classification of pneumothorax [26, 27].
Chapter 26
Table 26.1 Normal systolic BP.
Table 26.2 Kidney disease staging.
Table 26.3 Localization of azotemia.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgment
About the Companion Website
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians
Edited by Paula Plummer
LVT, VTS (ECC, SAIM, CP-fe)
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Copyright 2025 by Paula Plummer. All rights reserved. All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for:
Print ISBN: 9781394239047
ePDF ISBN: 9781394239061
ePub ISBN: 9781394239054
oBook ISBN: 9781394239078
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Images: Courtesy of Paula Plummer
This textbook is dedicated to veterinary technicians and their feline patients. May this textbook be the resource you need to become your best feline patient advocate.
List of Contributors
Ellen M. Carozza, LVT, VTS (CP-Feline)
The Cat LVT LLC.
Herndon, Virginia USA
Jaci Christensen, BAS, LVT, VTS (Oncology)
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Christina M. Daigle, LVT, VTS (CP-C/F)
Kindred Spirits Veterinary Clinic
Glenburn, Maine, USA
Monique Feyrecilde, BA, LVT, VTS (Behavior), Elite FFCP Veterinary
Teaching Animals
Maple Valley, Washington, USA
Kelly M. Foltz, BA, AAT, CVT, LVT, RVT, VTS (ECC)
BluePearl
Tallassee, Alabama, USA
Amanda Friedeck, BS, LVT, VTS (Dermatology)
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Kristie Garcia, LVT, VTS (Cardiology)
Garden State Veterinary Specialists
Eatontown New Jersey, USA
Lanette Jordan, BS, LVT, VTS (Anesthesia and Analgesia)
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Camille Kelly, CVT, VTS (ECC)
University of Florida, College of Veterinary Medicine
Gainesville, Florida, USA
Chastity Ketchum, LVT, VTS (Internal Medicine-SA)
Veterinary Emergency Group
Charleston, South Carolina, USA
Paula Plummer, LVT, VTS (ECC, SAIM, CP-fe)
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Rhonda South-Bodiford, LVT, VTS (SAIM)
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital
Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
College Station, Texas, USA
Courtney Waxman, MS, CVT, RVT, VTS (ECC)
Veterinary Nurse Consulting, LLC
Green Cove Springs, Florida, USA
Ann Wortinger, BIS, LVT, VTS (ECC) (SAIM) (Nutrition), Elite FFCP
Appalachian State University, Veterinary Technology Program
Belleville, Michigan, USA
Jan Yaroslav, RVT, VTS (Dentistry), VTS (CP-Feline)
Chico Hospital for Cats
Chico, California, USA
Preface
As a credentialed veterinary technician, I have dedicated my career to the idea of “lifelong learning” as outlined in the Veterinary Technician Oath. This commitment extends to both my personal development and assisting others in achieving their goals. A significant part of my career has been focused on caring for my patients, particularly feline patients. Serving as a patient advocate is a great privilege that I hold dear. Being their voice in times of need, providing support, and ensuring their well-being are the most rewarding aspects of my role as a veterinary technician. Early in my career, this meant acquiring as much knowledge and skill as possible to effectively advocate for my patients. As my career has progressed, I have transitioned into sharing knowledge with others so they, too, can become the best veterinary technicians and patient advocates they can be.
This book is designed for clinical veterinary technicians working with feline patients. It caters to those working in multi-species hospitals as well as those exclusively with feline patients, offering comprehensive knowledge about this species. It also targets individuals aspiring to become a feline veterinary technician specialist. The book covers a broad knowledge base of feline diseases, including physical examination findings, clinical signs, and step-by-step procedure lists for common diagnostic techniques.
The book is divided into sections that address patient care needs and special considerations for feline patients, as well as systematic diseases and conditions. The first section focuses on the cat and specific considerations, covering topics from behavior and interactions to feline-specific pharmacology and analgesic considerations. The second section delves into patient care, including critical thinking, wound care, and bandaging. The third section focuses on diseases and conditions of the feline body systems. The companion website offers study questions for each chapter, educational tools, and clinical handouts, providing study materials and clinical tools for readers.
The book is a result of the collective effort of a group of phenomenal veterinary technician specialists dedicated to feline patients. Your devotion to this book as well as the profession inspires me to continue to grow and reach for the stars. It has been my honor to work with you all.
Paula Plummer
Acknowledgment
As I sat down to write this portion of the book, I quickly realized how challenging this page would be. I took a moment to reflect on my years as a credentialed technician and I am reminded of so many people that I not only consider a friend but family. So many people have touched my life and helped shape who I have become not just a technician but as a person. There are a few that I want to recognize a little more formally.
First and foremost, I give all the glory and recognition to God. His grace has provided me with this extraordinary life and has made endless opportunities possible. Reflecting on my career, I realize that many mentors were strategically placed in my life at pivotal points, guiding and shaping my professional journey. I am forever grateful to each of you for generously sharing your knowledge and unwavering belief in me, providing constant encouragement to reach for greatness.
To my husband, Josh, thank you for years of constant support and encouragement to reach for the next dream. I call myself blessed to walk through this life by your side. And to my family and friends, your constant presence in my corner is not just comforting, but inspiring.
Without the dedication and hard work of all the contributors and the publishing team, this book would not have been possible. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to everyone involved for bringing this cherished dream to fruition.
About the Companion Website
Feline Medicine for Veterinary Technicians is accompanied by a companion website.
http://www.wiley.com/go/plummer/felinemedvettech1e
The website includes:
Over 200 study questions related to each chapter of the textbook
Educational and case-based videos
Procedural checklists
Client educational tools
Feline dental radiograph guide
Educational handouts
Figures and tables from the book
Section 1The Cat and Special Considerations
Chapter 1Feline Behavior
Monique Feyrecilde BA, LVT, VTS (Behavior), Elite FFCP Veterinary
TECHNICIAN TIDBITS
Cats share behaviors with other species and have unique feline behaviors.
Emotions impact feline welfare and quality of life.
All animals learn via essentially the same mechanisms.
How cats sense and perceive the world impacts their behavior inside and outside the veterinary hospital.
Recognizing normal and abnormal behavior positions professionals to help clients and facilitate a healthy human–animal bond.
Understanding the learning theory is essential for veterinary professionals.
Screening for common unwanted behaviors should be part of every veterinary visit.
Incorporating behavior into every visit improves the lives of both cats and people.
The three most common cat behaviors that clients describe as problematic can sometimes be prevented or reversed.
Early detection improves the prognosis for treating problematic behaviors.
It is not necessary to know everything about behavior modification to provide early detection.
Building a referral community allows rapid referral when indicated.
All animals share certain behavioral traits and also have unique species-specific behaviors. Essentially, most animals learn through the same mechanisms. They acquire behaviors and abandon behaviors based on whether the behaviors are effective from the individual animal’s point of view. Emotions impact the animal’s overall experience, future decision-making, and even affect how memories are stored in the brain [1, 2]. To fulfill our vocation as veterinary professionals, we need to take time to understand the behavior of our patients: how they learn, how species are unique, and how they are similar. Differentiating between normal and abnormal behavior, anticipating how an animal will respond in a given situation, and knowing how to modify or change behavior are all crucial skills for veterinary professionals [1, 2]. In this chapter, we discuss how cats are similar to other species and how they are unique.
The human–animal bond is the heart of veterinary medicine. How animals behave can have a dramatic impact on the quality and length of the human–animal bond. A strong human–animal bond protects the physical and emotional health of cats. When we take the time to understand feline behavior, we can be good stewards of the human–animal bond. Caring stewardship improves the welfare for both pets and people [2, 3].
1.1 Sensation and Perception
Animals are equipped with a sensory system that gathers information from the environment. Sensory information is transmitted to the brain, where it is decoded. Decoding sensations into useful information is called perception. Senses drive perceptions and perceptions impact behavior. Cats share similar senses to other mammals, including sight, olfaction, hearing, tactile (touch), and taste. How cats sense and perceive the world is unique, and understanding their special sensory organs and perceptive abilities allows veterinary professionals to provide the best possible care.
1.1.1 Hearing
Sounds are measured by their frequency, measured in hertz (Hz). Cats have very sensitive hearing, with an approximate range spanning 55–79 000 Hz. For comparison, dogs hear frequencies between 67 and 45 000 Hz, and humans can only hear 20–20 000 Hz [2]. Cats are born with their ear canals closed and incompletely developed. As their ears open between 7 and 14 days of age, they begin to sense and perceive sounds in the environment [1]. Much like humans and many other mammals, as cats age and the hairs inside the inner ear stiffen, they will not hear higher frequencies as clearly [2]. Individual variation occurs, and some cats may be entirely deaf for part or all of their lives. Many of the sounds cats make are accompanied by a tactile experience. Purring is a good example. Neonatal kittens and deaf cats can perceive purring and will express vocalizations even if they cannot hear themselves [1].
When working with cats, providing an environment free from loud and shrill sounds will help them be more comfortable. For training purposes, a marker sound is often useful. Hospitalized cats should not be housed near equipment with high-frequency emissions, such as ultrasonic scalers or cleaners, as this may cause undue stress even though human caregivers are not able to fully hear these sounds [2].
1.1.2 Olfaction and Pheromones
Olfaction, or sensing and perceiving odors, is an important part of the lives of cats and how they communicate. When odor molecules enter the nasal epithelium, they will encounter olfaction centers that transmit this information to the olfactory bulb in the brain. Humans have about 5 million receptors. Cats have 150–200 million [2]! Cats spend a similar amount of time as dogs investigating odors in the environment. Odors that seem pleasant or mild to humans can be quite strong to cats, and potent chemicals and cleansers can cause “nose blindness” [1]. Nose blindness is when the olfactory center is temporarily overwhelmed by strong or noxious information. Being nose blind is uncomfortable for cats because it limits their ability to scan the environment for odor in a normal way.
Pheromones are another means of chemical communication for cats. Individual species have their own pheromones, and they are unique and specific to a given species. For example, humans cannot detect dog pheromones, and dogs cannot detect cat pheromones. Fear pheromones from a dog will not prompt a fear response in a cat, but fear pheromones from another cat may [1]. Pheromones are sensed by the Vomeronasal Organ or VNO. The VNO is considered part of the olfactory system, but pheromones and odors are different. Cats deposit pheromones in the environment via glands in the paws, cheeks, chin, mammary glands, anal gland secretions, and urine to share information about age, health, sexual and reproductive status, territory, and social interactions [1]. Synthetic pheromones simulating the F3 fraction deposited by facial rubbing can sometimes have a calming effect on cats. Many cats prefer and enjoy petting and touching the areas where the facial glands are located [4]. Figure 1.1 shows the locations of facial glands in cats.
Figure 1.1 Facial gland locations in cats. Many cats prefer petting and touching in these locations.
Source: International Society of Feline Medicine (ISFM).
1.1.3 Vision
Cats are very sensitive to both contrast and motion, but the spectrum of colors they see is far smaller than that of humans and dogs. Cats’ eyes have about 10% of the number of color receptors found in human eyes. Because they have tapetum lucidum, cats have superior vision under low light conditions [2].
When training cats, consider using high-contrast items for treats, targets, beds, scale pads, feeding stations, and toys. Moving toys are often more exciting to cats as a reward than stationary items.
1.1.4 Tactile and Touch
In the veterinary setting, many of our patient interactions involve touch. The density of nerve-ending distribution over the body affects how intense a sensory input when it reaches the brain. Individual variation will determine how each animal processes and responds to touch. Take the example of tickling: touching a ticklish person and a non-ticklish person in the exact same way produces two very different responses [1, 2, 4]. This is due to individual variations in how the two different brains perceive similar raw sensory data. Perception drives behavior.
Similar to humans, dogs, and many other mammals, cats have a higher density of nerve endings around the face, lips, ears, paws, and genitals with the trunk having a lower density of nerve endings per square centimeter of surface area. Cats also have special sensory hairs (vibrissae) on their lips and cheeks, chin, above their eyes, and on the caudal aspect of the forelimbs above the carpal pads.
When planning touch for cats, consider how they experience these sensations. Starting touch in a less sensitive area and gliding to a more sensitive area is a good general practice [1–4]. For instance, if touching a forelimb, begin touching the back of the head or shoulder, then glide down the limb and avoid putting excessive pressure on the vibrissae. Many cats enjoy tactile stimulation around their cheeks, head, and rump areas. Pleasurable tactile stimulation is often a valuable form of distraction and reinforcement when interacting with and training cats. Actions such as tapping a cat’s head should not be used as a distraction, because it relies on an unpleasant or annoying sensation in a very sensitive area of the cat’s body.
1.1.5 Taste
Cats have about 500 taste receptors, while most humans have between 4000 and 9000 taste receptors [2]. Olfaction and taste are closely linked, and the palatability of food often relies more heavily on odor than flavor for cats. Based on anatomical studies, it is believed cats detect savory and bitter and show a decreased response to salty and sweet. Cats are somewhat unique in their propensity to develop rapid conditioned taste aversion. Just a single experience triggering an unpleasant taste response can lead to a cat showing extreme behavior when presented with the same odor (predictor of taste) in the future [3]. This can be particularly problematic when administering medications, and formulations should be considered with this behavioral need of cats in mind [2].
1.2 Feline Body Language
Animals rely heavily on body language to communicate their thoughts and feelings, and to broadcast their intent about upcoming actions or behaviors. Veterinary professionals can carefully observe feline body language to provide the best possible veterinary experience, help cats participate in training and conditioning programs, and assess responses to behavioral therapies.
When first learning the body language signals of cats, it can help to evaluate each body part of interest, and then consider the whole picture and the context before arriving at an interpretation. Since cats do not share our human language, we will never be able to ask about their precise intention, but through careful and repeated observation, we can anticipate the likely sequence of a cat’s behaviors based on their body language.
1.2.1 Arousal and Stress
Arousal refers to the overall emotional state of readiness to act or react [2]. Cats experience enhanced arousal when they are excited, pursuing prey, playing, greeting friendly people or animals, or participating in fun activities. Arousal is also increased during times of stress when the fear response has been activated and cats must respond to a perceived threat or conflict. Evaluating the overall context of the observed behavior helps guide the interpretation of a cat’s body language. For instance, when pupils are mentioned, consider the ambient light. Dilated pupils can be a sign of stress, or dim lighting [1]. Context matters.
1.2.1.1 Calm or Relaxed
A calm or relaxed cat will express a low level of arousal and will appear comfortable. The cat may appear neutral or solicit interaction. Sometimes, these signals are referred to as distance-decreasing signals because they invite interaction.
Pupils
: Appropriate to ambient light.
Eyes
: Open and attentive or squinting with slow blinking, may hold prolonged eye contact if something is interesting.
Brows
: The muscles between the eyes are relaxed, creating a soft or neutral brow.
Ears
: Muscles around the ears are relaxed and the ears are held in a neutral or slightly forward position.
Lips and whiskers
: The commissure is relaxed, the whiskers are neutral and positioned to the side.
Body tension
: The cat’s muscles are largely relaxed. If lying down, often the cat will be stretched out or rolled on a hip. If walking, the cat will cross open spaces and appear free in its movements.
Tail
: When walking, the tail is held up and the tip is often curled over. Tail movements are fluid with relaxed muscles.
Proximity
: Will approach or will not move away when approached.
1.2.1.2 Mild to Moderate Stress
A cat experiencing mild-to-moderate stress will appear more aroused and settle less frequently. The cat may solicit interaction, but its body language when soliciting will appear more tentative. Mildly or moderately stressed cats may appear ambivalent, as though it is difficult for them to decide if they wish to approach or would prefer more distance.
Pupils
