Ferroic Materials-Based Technologies E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 574

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

FERROIC MATERIALS-BASED TECHNOLOGIES The book addresses the prospective, relevant, and original research developments in the ferroelectric, magnetic, and multiferroic fields. Ferroic materials have sparked widespread attention because they represent a broad spectrum of elementary physics and are employed in a plethora of fields, including flexible memory, enormous energy harvesting/storage, spintronic functionalities, spin caloritronics, and a large range of other multi-functional devices. With the application of new ferroic materials, strong room-temperature ferroelectricity with high saturation polarization may be established in ferroelectric materials, and magnetism with significant magnetization can be accomplished in magnetic materials. Furthermore, magnetoelectric interaction between ferroelectric and magnetic orderings is high in multiferroic materials, which could enable a wide range of innovative devices. Magnetic, ferroelectric, and multiferroic 2D materials with ultrathin characteristics above ambient temperature are often expected to enable future miniaturization of electronics beyond Moore's law for energy-efficient nanodevices. This book addresses the prospective, relevant, and original research developments in the ferroelectric, magnetic, and multiferroic fields. Audience The book will interest materials scientists, physicists, and engineers working in ferroic and multiferroic materials.

Leseprobe

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Ferroic Materials-Based Technologies

Edited by

Inamuddin

Tariq Altalhi

and

Mohammad Abu Jafar Mazumder

This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-23815-6

Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

Ferroic materials have sparked widespread attention because they represent a broad spectrum of elementary physics and are employed in a plethora of fields, including flexible memory, enormous energy harvesting/storage potential, spintronic functionalities, spin caloritronics, and a large range of other multi-functional devices. Moreover, in multiferroic materials, two or more primary ferroic orderings—such as ferroelectrics; Dia-, Para-, Ferro-, Ferri-, and Antiferromagnetic materials; ferroelastic materials; and ferrotoroidicity as the fourth form of ferroic order—are all present simultaneously in the similar phase. Magnetic materials exhibit significant electro-mechanical coupling, pyro-electricity, and electro-optical characteristics, as well as spontaneous but switchable magnetic behavior, whereas ferroelectric materials exhibit spontaneous but switchable electric polarization.

With the application of new ferroic materials, a strong room-temperature ferroelectricity with high saturation polarization may be established in ferroelectric materials, and magnetism with significant magnetization can be accomplished in magnetic materials. Furthermore, magnetoelectric interaction between ferroelectric and magnetic orderings is high in multiferroic materials, which could enable a wide range of innovative devices. Magnetic, ferroelectric, and multiferroic 2D materials with ultrathin characteristics above ambient temperature are often expected to enable future miniaturization of electronics beyond Moore’s law for energy-efficient nanodevices. This book addresses the prospective, relevant, and original research developments in the ferroelectric, magnetic, and multiferroic fields. Readers of this book will can gain a better understanding of ferroic materials, their related technologies, and their various applications. In fields both specific and related to ferroic materials, this book serves as a great reference tool for students, physicists, academics, researchers, and professionals.

Chapter 1 gives a complete overview of ferroic materials, their history, and the latest progress. It discusses four main types, ferromagnetic, ferroelastic, ferroelectric, and multiferroic materials, while explaining their properties and various applications like data storage, sensors, and more. The chapter also covers the current research pertaining to these materials.

Chapter 2 encapsulates the history and current presence of ferroic materials. This chapter gives details of ferroic materials, e.g., primary and secondary types of ferroic materials. Primary ferroic materials include ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, and ferroelastic, while secondary ferroic materials include multiferroics, ferromagnetoelectric, ferromagnetoelastic, and ferroelastoelectric materials, and all are addressed. The origin of ferroelectricity, ferroelasticity, ferromagnetism, scaling, and recent advances in ferroic materials is also outlined.

Chapter 3 covers an in-depth evaluation of the state of these materials currently and their promising future possibilities. This chapter offers a greater understanding of the possible improvements and applications of ferroic and multiferroic materials in a variety of industries, making it an invaluable resource for researchers and scientists.

Chapter 4 presents a brief history, working principle, theory, and various measurement techniques of electrocaloric effect (ECE) in ferroelectrics. Furthermore, it focuses on different strategies that are adopted to enhance ECE in various lead-based and lead-free ferroelectrics, relaxor ferroelectrics, and hafnia-zirconia-based ferroelectrics.

Chapter 5 discusses the preparation, improvement, and characterizations of ferroelectric and ferroelastoelectric materials. Several synthesis methods for ferroelectric and ferroelastoelectric materials are explained in detail. Improvements and applications of ferroelectric and ferroelastoelectric materials are also discussed.

Chapter 6 examines the elastocaloric impact (ECE) in the discipline of solid-state cooling. Ferroelectric materials are employed for solid-state cooling purposes due to their distinctive thermodynamic features and phase transition uses. Additionally, ECE is further divided into uniaxial and biaxial based on its behavior in the microstructure of materials.

Chapter 7 discusses the flexoeffect alterations in the ferroic nanosystem and their attributes that result from the inhomogeneity of order parameters. This effect exists spontaneously. The equation framework of FCT (flexoelectric coupling tensor) for various point groups using a direct matrix approach, including the quantity of non-zero independent components, is also covered.

Chapter 8 covers recent advancements in ferroic thin films, multi-layers, and hetero-structures, including their historical background, properties, and characterization methods. The significance of atomically controlled thin films and interfaces is emphasized, along with their applications in microelectronics, data storage, sensing, and energy conversion. The chapter also reviews the ongoing research into the enhancement of their characteristics and the expansion of their usage in the future.

Chapter 9 deals with multiferroic materials, their origin, history, and present development, along with the origin of ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and ferroelectric phases. Classification of multiferroics in singlephase and composite multiferroic materials based on their coupling is also addressed. Single-phase multiferroics classification in type I and type II multiferroics and their prominent examples are discussed, as are possible applications, such as magnetic field sensors, memory devices, and laser applications of multiferroics.

Chapter 10 delves into the basic concepts, formation mechanism, phase structure, feasibility, and classifications of ferroic materials. Furthermore, it elaborates on comparing primary and secondary ferroics along with multi-ferroics formation and their relation with both classes of ferroic materials. Applications of these ferroic materials in various fields, including nanotechnology, are also elaborated upon.

Chapter 11 discusses the importance of domain boundary engineering in multiferroic materials and how it affects the properties of these materials. Domain boundary engineering can be used to manipulate the domain structure and affect the interaction between various ferroic orders. The advantages and challenges of domain boundary engineering are also discussed.

In chapter 12, magneto-electric, dielectric, and optical features of ferro/antiferroelectric materials are explained in detail. Polarization curves for 0.96BaTi–0.04BaFO were studied after the samples had been treated at different temperatures. Additionally, dielectric characteristics of La-modified AFE PbZrO3 thin films, BNTC22, PLZST-AFE material and BiMgFeCeO6 are reviewed.

Chapter 13 details the rapid growth in smart electronic and optical devices based on metal-halide perovskites (MHPs), due to their auspicious and innovative semiconducting nature to show ferroelectric behavior. The theoretical and experimental evidence of the ferroic nature of MHPs, the dimension dimension-dependent ferroelectricity within MHPs, and their applications in devices are all covered thoroughly.

We are deeply grateful to everyone who helped with this book and greatly appreciate the dedicated support and valuable assistance rendered by Martin Scrivener and the Scrivener Publishing team during its publication.

The EditorsMarch 2024

1Ferroic Materials: From Past to Present

Sandeep Yadav1, Pallavi Jain1* and Prashant Singh2†

1Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi-NCR Campus, Modinagar, India

2Department of Chemistry, Atma Ram Sanatan Dharma College, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Abstract

The chapter provides an overview of the development and applications of ferroic materials. The chapter begins with a brief history of ferroic materials and their discovery and a detailed discussion of the four major types of ferroic materials: ferromagnetic, ferroelastic, ferroelectric, and multiferroic materials. The section on ferromagnetic materials covers their magnetic properties and applications in data storage, sensing, and medical imaging. The section on ferroelastic materials describes their mechanical properties and applications in actuators, sensors, and energy-harvesting devices. The section on ferroelectric materials explains their electrical properties and applications in capacitors, transducers, and memory devices. Finally, the section on multiferroic materials discusses their unique combination of multiple ferroic properties and their potential applications in next-generation devices such as spintronics, magneto-electric sensors, and nonvolatile memory. The chapter concludes by mentioning the present state of research and probable future directions for developing and applying ferroic materials. This chapter comprehensively introduces ferroic materials, their historical development, and their diverse applications across multiple fields. It will interest researchers, students, and materials science, physics, and engineering professionals.

Keywords: Ferromagnetic, ferroelectric, ferroelastic, multiferroic, piezoelectric sensors, magnetic sensors

1.1 Introduction

Ferroic materials exhibit ferroic ordering, a long-range ordered state in which the material shows a spontaneous polarization, magnetization, strain, or other physical properties. Intense research has been done on these materials over the past few decades due to their potential for various technological applications.

One of the most critical applications of ferroic materials is in the field of data storage. Ferromagnetic materials, for example, are used extensively in hard disk drives, where they store digital information in magnetic domains. Ferroelectric materials, on the other hand, are used in nonvolatile memory devices. One example of a nonvolatile memory device is ferroelectric random access memory (FeRAM). It has faster access times and lower power consumption than conventional memory devices. In data storage, ferroelastic materials have some potential applications because they can undergo reversible strain, and this property can be utilized to develop data storage devices with high-density data [1, 2].

Besides data storage, ferroic materials have found applications in various other fields. For example, ferromagnetic materials are used in motors, transformers, and generators due to their ability to generate a magnetic field.

The study of ferroic materials has a long and rich history, dating back to the discovery of ferromagnetism in lodestones by the ancient Greeks. However, it was in the 1930s that the concept of ferroic materials as a class of materials with similar properties was established. Since then, the field has proliferated with the discovery of new materials and phenomena and the development of new characterization techniques [3].

Recently, ferroic materials came into the limelight due to their potential use in technologies such as nanoelectronics and spintronics. Developing new synthesis and fabrication techniques has caused the formation of new materials with novel properties and functionalities, such as multiferroics, which exhibit more than one type of ferroic ordering. The study of ferroic materials is a crucial research field with a wide range of practical applications across different industries and disciplines. The history of ferroic materials research dates back centuries, and recent developments in synthesis and characterization techniques have led to the discovery of new materials with novel properties and functionalities. The remaining sections of this chapter will provide a detailed overview of the different types of ferroic materials, their properties, and their applications.

1.2 Types of Ferroic Materials

Ferroic materials encompassed various types of ordered materials. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and nickel, possessed spontaneous magnetization even without an external magnetic field. Ferroelectric materials, like barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate, exhibited spontaneous electric polarization that could be reversed with an electric field. Ferroelastic materials, including shape memory alloys like Nitinol, showcased reversible deformation and strain. Moreover, multiferroic materials exhibited multiple ferroic properties simultaneously, allowing for coupling between different types of orderings. These materials offered promising potential for applications in diverse fields, including magnetoelectric sensors and memory devices [4]. Figure 1.1 shows the types of ferroic materials.

1.2.1 Ferromagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials are a type of ferroic materials that exhibit spontaneous magnetization. This means that these materials have some magnetic behavior even when no external magnetic field exists. Ferromagnetic materials have been extensively studied over the past century due to their importance in technological applications.

Figure 1.1 Types of ferroic materials.

1.2.1.1 Past of Ferromagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetism dates back to ancient times when the Greeks discovered that certain minerals could attract iron. However, it was not until the 19th century that the phenomenon was studied in detail. In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted saw a magnetic needle gets deflected when placed near a current-carrying wire, indicating a relationship between electricity and magnetism. This led to the development of electromagnetic theory and the discovery of the connection between electricity and magnetism.

In 1825, William Sturgeon developed the first practical electromagnet, which used a coil of wire to create a magnetic field. This was followed by the development of permanent magnets made of ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel. In 1915, the German physicist Wilhelm Lenz proposed the concept of ferromagnetism, which explained the phenomenon of spontaneous magnetization in certain materials [5].

Ferromagnetic materials have found numerous technological applications. One of the most important applications is in the field of data storage. Hard disk drives, for example, use ferromagnetic materials to store digital information in the form of magnetic domains. The development of high-density magnetic storage devices has been made possible by discovering new ferromagnetic materials and fabrication techniques.

Ferromagnetic materials are also used in various electrical and electronic devices, such as motors, transformers, and generators, due to their ability to generate a magnetic field. In addition, they are used in magnetic sensors and actuators, which are widely used in automotive, aerospace, and biomedical applications.

1.2.1.2 Present of Ferromagnetic Materials

Recent developments in ferromagnetic materials research have focused on discovering new materials with improved magnetic properties. The development of magnetic nanoparticles is one of the most promising research areas, with potential applications in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), drug delivery, and magnetic hyperthermia. In addition, there has been significant progress in the development of spintronics. This field aims to utilize the electronic spin and its charge for information processing and storage. Ferromagnetic materials are crucial in spintronics, as they are used as magnetic electrodes and spin injectors [6].

Chiu and colleagues conducted research where they explored ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMA) in actuating robots. Their findings indicated that Ni-Mn-Ga alloys were well-suited for this purpose, as they exhibited a high work:volume ratio with rapid response rates. The alloys had a 5-modulated (5M) martensite phase, which could provoke martensite variant reorientation (MVR) when an external magnetic or stress field is applied. Additionally, the study revealed that 7–13 vol.% of the Ni-Mn-Ga alloy was necessary to initiate MVR [7].

Wang et al. found that the heterogeneous nanocrystalline Co/Ni sample exhibited a high permeability and good impedance similarity between permeability and permittivity, resulting in good absorption in the Ku-band (12–18 GHz). The CoNi microsphere sample displayed good absorption in the microwave region, also known as C-band (4–8 GHz) and X-band (8–11.5 GHz). On the other hand, CoNi microspheres with diameters greater than 2 μm formed chain-like structures that demonstrated inadequate microwave absorption capability [8].

A Fe3O4-based aerogel was produced by Lo et al. via the sol-gel method and supercritical freezing. Loaded Ag enhanced its photocatalytic Fentonoxidation and reduction activities, leading to the efficient removal of benzoic acid and the production of 4-aminophenol under visible light. The Ag-loaded porous structure of the aerogel provided a high surface area, many active sites, and many active radicals. The research provides valuable information on creating a highly effective aerogel catalyst that can be used for environmental clean-up purposes [9].

Choi et al. added carbon to FePt ferromagnetic grains to improve magnetic isolation and enable smaller grain sizes. This is important for developing high-density magnetic recording media, such as heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) technology. This technology is used in hard disk drives and other data storage devices to increase capacity. By identifying the optimal carbon concentration for L10-ordered FePt films, the researchers have provided a valuable guide for designing media with high areal densities of 4 Tb/in2 and beyond, which could lead to even higher capacity and more advanced data storage technologies in the future [10]. Fe/N codoping was used by Li et al. to alter the magnetic and electrical properties of graphdiyne (GDY) materials. The Fe-N-GDY achieved high conductivity as a ferromagnetic semiconductor with a Curie temperature of about −68°C. Fe-N-GDY could be used as a conductive ink in printers and flexible field-effect transistors with a high mobility of 215 cm2 V-1 s-1. These results demonstrate an easy way of modulating the properties of GDY and promoting its potential in electronic devices [11]. A few more recent studies are mentioned in Table 1.1.

In conclusion, ferromagnetic materials are a class of ferroic materials that exhibit spontaneous magnetization. They have been extensively studied for their applications in modern-day technologies, such as motors, sensors, and data storage. The history of ferromagnetic materials research dates back to the 19th century, and recent developments have focused on discovering new materials with improved magnetic properties and the development of spintronics. The remaining sections of this chapter will provide a detailed overview of the properties, applications, and recent developments in ferroelectric, ferroelastic, and multiferroic materials.

Table 1.1 Some recent studies of various ferromagnetic materials.

S. no.

Application

Ferromagnetic material

Ref.

1

Soft robotics

Ni-Mn-Ga

[7]

2

Microwave absorption materials

Co/Ni nanocrystalline

[8]

3

Environmental remediation

Fe

3

O

4

aerogel

[9]

4

Magnetic data storage

FePt-C

[10]

5

Spin caloritronics

NiFe

2

O

4

[12]

6

Flexible electronics

Fe-N-GDY

[11]

8

Energy storage

Fe

3

O

4

@C

[13]

9

Cancer therapy

FeNi-CNT

[14]

10

Magnetic sensors

VSe

2

-graphite/MoS

2

[15]

11

Electromagnetic interference shielding

Co

0.5

Zn

0.5

Fe

2

O

4

/PANI-PTSA

[16]

14

Magnetic nano-devices

NiFe

2

O

4

nanocrystals

[17]

1.2.2 Ferroelectric Materials

Ferroelectric materials exhibit immediate electric polarization, which can be changed by applying an external electric field. This behavior arises due to the displacement of ions within the crystal lattice, leading to a net dipole moment. The ferroelectric behavior can occur at a specific temperature or below a critical size, known as the Curie temperature and Curie size. Figure 1.2 shows the working of ferroelectric materials

Figure 1.2 Effect of electric field on ferroelectric materials.

1.2.2.1 Past of Ferroelectric Materials

The study of ferroelectric materials began in the early 20th century with the discovery of piezoelectricity. The first ferroelectric material discovered was Rochelle salt, which exhibits ferroelectric and piezoelectric behavior. In 1920, the ferroelectric properties of Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) were successfully elucidated by the Curie brothers, marking a significant breakthrough. Subsequent investigations carried out during the 1940s by Valasek and Stevenson revealed the reversible polarization behavior that characterizes ferroelectric materials, with barium titanate being a prominent example. A momentous milestone arose in the 1950s with the discovery of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) by Jaffe, Cook, and Jaffe. PZT quickly garnered acclaim as a versatile ferroelectric material due to its exceptional attributes, including its piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and electrostrictive properties [18, 19].

Since then, extensive research has been carried out to explore the fundamental properties of ferroelectric materials and their potential applications.

Ferroelectric materials have numerous applications in various fields, including electronics, memory devices, energy harvesting, and sensors. For example, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is a commonly used ferroelectric material for constructing electronic devices, including piezoelectric actuators and sensors. Another example is lithium niobate (LiNbO3), commonly used in optical modulators, switches, and sensors. Barium titanate (BaTiO3) is another crucial ferroelectric material used in capacitors, electromechanical transducers, and nonlinear optics.

1.2.2.2 Present of Ferroelectric Materials

Recent developments in ferroelectric materials research have focused on improving their properties and exploring new applications. One approach is to develop new ferroelectric materials with enhanced properties, such as high dielectric constant, high piezoelectric response, and high Curie temperature. For example, bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) is a promising ferroelectric material with high spontaneous polarization, high Curie temperature, and magneto-electric solid coupling. Another approach is to engineer the interface between different ferroelectric materials to create novel properties and functionalities.

A metal/ferroelectric capacitor [(FE)-HfO2/IGZO/metal] was constructed by Mo et al. without atomic interdiffusion for three-dimensional high-density memory. The composite exhibited ferroelectricity with many endurance cycles and retention of up to 10 years. The lack of the wake-up effect improves the design and manufacturing process of the circuit. The asymmetric effect was caused by the varying band modulations in different states of IGZO [20].

In another example, researchers found a new method to develop a three-dimensional memory structure by self-rolling up single-crystalline ferroelectric oxides, which enhanced the information density more than 40 times. The “Pb(Zr,Ti)O3/stressor” membranes also had a strong self-rolling up force, which increased the area ratio and allowed for high-density information storage of 102 Tbit. The study provided a new method for developing concise memory devices having high-density and three-dimensional memories from oxide materials [21].

In another study, the researchers achieved enormous pyroelectric performance in ceramics by changing the phase boundary made of ferroelectric-relaxor. They engineered the phase boundaries by introducing BaTiO3, which broke the long-range antiferroelectric order. Due to the planned phase boundaries, ceramics exhibited a significant pyroelectric coefficient and figures of merit. The results promised potential applications for ultrasensitive infrared detectors and some technological insights into pyroelectric ceramic design [22].

Huang et al. used a coaxial electrospinning technique to manage the distribution of polarization gradient in a TiO2 nanofiber and polymer hybrid nanocomposite system, significantly boosting the discharged energy storage density (Ue) from 6.5 J cm−3 to 12.7 J cm−3[23].

Habib et al. achieved excellent room-temperature piezoelectric performance in 0.67Bi1.03FeO3-0.33Ba1-xLaxTiO3 ceramics with a very high temperature of 482°C. The researchers conducted a study where they slightly modified the piezoelectric strain within a temperature range of 25°C to 125°C, which resulted in hysteresis of low strain and a significant average electrostrictive coefficient. This development in non-lead ceramics provided an opportunity to advance temperature-insensitive piezoelectric properties, thus making it viable for high-temperature commercial applications [24]. Table 1.2 lists some ferroelectric materials with their applications.

Ferroelectric materials also have been explored for use in energy storage and conversion. For example, using ferroelectric materials in capacitors can lead to high energy-density storage devices with fast charging and discharging times. Ferroelectric materials have also been studied for photovoltaic devices, where their polarization can enhance the transformation efficiency of solar to electrical energy.

In summary, ferroelectric materials have significantly influenced various technological advancements and scientific discoveries. Studying these materials has led to a better understanding of their fundamental properties and potential for various applications. Ongoing research in this field continues to explore new materials, improve existing properties, and develop new applications for ferroelectric materials.

Table 1.2 Some recent studies of various ferroelectric materials.

S. no.

Application

Ferroelectric material

Ref.

1

Nonvolatile memory

HfO

2

/IGZO

[20]

2

Ultrahigh-density data storage

PbZr

0.3

Ti

0.7

O

3

[21]

3

Infrared detectors

Ferroelectric BaTiO

3

[22]

4

Energy storage

Ferroelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene)

[23]

5

Piezoelectric actuators

BiFeO

3

–BaTiO

3

ceramics

[24]

6

Ferroelectric memory

Ferroelectric thin films of BaTiO

3

[25]

7

Sensor and actuator technology

Ferroelectric single crystals of LiNbO

3

[26]

9

Ferroelectric tunnel junctions

Ferroelectric Hf

0.5

Zr

0.5

O

2

[27]

10

Energy storage

Bi

0.5

Na

0.5

TiO

3

–Ba(Zr

0.2

Ti

0.8

)O

3

film

[28]

12

Photovoltaics

Pb

0.93

La

0.07

(Zr

0.6

Ti

0.4

)

0.9825

O

3

(PLZT) thin films

[29]

1.2.3 Ferroelastic Materials

Ferroelastic materials are another class of ferroic materials that exhibit reversible deformation because of the electric or magnetic field. The term “ferroelastic” comes from the Greek word “elasticos,” meaning capable of being stretched or compressed without breaking. In ferroelastic materials, the deformation is caused by the movement of domain walls, which can change the shape of the material.

The definition of ferroelastic materials has been refined over time, but it is generally accepted that these materials exhibit reversible deformation due to the applied electric or magnetic field. Ferroelastic materials are typically classified into soft and hard ferroelastic materials. Soft ferroelastic materials exhibit large deformations at low applied fields, while hard ferroelastic materials require higher areas to induce deformation. Figure 1.3 shows how ferroelastic materials function in stress.

1.2.3.1 Past of Ferroelastic Materials

The history of ferroelastic materials research dates back to the early 20th century when researchers first discovered the phenomenon of reversible deformation in certain materials.

During the early 20th century, the term “ferroelasticity” was introduced by Auguste Brusconi to describe the reversible deformation observed in specific materials. Extensive research conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, led by James G. Simmons and colleagues, focused on investigating ferroelasticity in crystals and identifying materials that exhibited spontaneous strain and reversible phase transitions when subjected to external influences. Significant studies were carried out on potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP) to explore their ferroelastic properties, revealing the intricate relationship between crystal structure and ferroelastic behavior. Subsequent research delved into the exploration of complex perovskite oxides, shape memory alloys, and organic compounds, leading to the discovery of remarkable ferroelastic materials such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [30]. Over the years, the understanding of ferroelastic materials has grown, and scientists have identified several materials that exhibit ferroelastic behavior. Some earliest examples of ferroelastic materials include lead zirconate (PZT) and barium titanate (BaTiO3).

Figure 1.3 Effect of mechanical stress on ferroelastic materials.

Ferroelastic materials have various applications, including medicine, electronics, and energy. One of the most essential applications of ferroelastic materials is in medical devices. For example, ferroelastic materials can create implants that can change shape in response to an applied field, making them ideal for use in devices such as stents and catheters.

In the electronics industry, ferroelastic materials are used to create piezoelectric sensors and actuators. The devices mentioned above could convert energy from mechanical form to electrical and vice versa, proving useful in several applications such as automotive sensors, inkjet printers, and vibration control systems.

1.2.3.2 Present of Ferroelastic Materials

Recent developments in ferroelastic materials research have focused on improving the properties of existing materials and discovering new ferroelastic materials. For example, researchers have developed ferroelastic composites that exhibit enhanced properties over traditional ferroelastic materials. They have also discovered new materials, such as ferroelastic graphene, that exhibit unique ferroelastic properties.

The researchers aimed to enhance the performance of metal halide perovskite (MHP) solar cells by inducing the creation of ferroelectric and ferroelastic domains in CsPbBr3 nanowires.

In the study, an AFM or atomic force microscope tip was utilized to trigger the development of ferroelastic portions at room temperature, and the fields were observed by using nano-focused X-ray diffraction. The researchers noticed orthorhombic 004 reflections along the nanowire axis in areas observed with a low force of AFM tip, while areas under higher forces displayed 220 reflections. The lattice tilts caused by the applied stress defined the ferroelastic areas, which terminated at {112}-type domain walls. This achievement has opened up significant potential for new designs of devices and basic experimental studies [31].

Xie et al. investigated the mechanical properties linked to ferroelastic behaviors of W/Cr co-doped BIT ceramics, a type of bismuth layer-structured ferroelectrics, to provide design considerations for practical applications of the ceramics. The researchers synthesized BTWC ceramics using optimal chemical composition and analyzed the structures of the ferroelastic domains, their switching characteristics, and some harmful properties of the sintered ceramics, such as mechanical failure. It was observed that the ferroelastic switching caused by mechanical stress enhanced the fracture toughness of BTWC ceramics. Also, the ceramics sintered at elevated temperatures were expected to demonstrate enhanced ferroelastic properties, even at a lower failure stress level [32].

Zednik et al. investigated the properties of ferroelastic areas in thin films of Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT). The traditional method of probing using electric fields was limited because of the mechanical clamping effect of the substrate. To explore this issue, the researchers applied biaxial stress to 70-nm-thick Pb(Zr0.25Ti0.75)O3 films, inducing 90° domain wall motion and resulting in crystallographic reorientation. The team used X-ray diffraction and piezo force microscopy to observe the phenomenon. The researchers found that the mobile 90° domain walls were responsible for the orientation switching in the grains without wall pinning, demonstrating that bulk-like ferroelastic behavior was extended to nanocrystalline films without substrate clamping [33]. Table 1.3 contains a few examples of ferroelastic materials with their respective applications.

In conclusion, ferroelastic materials are a type of ferroic materials that exhibit reversible deformation in the presence of an external electric or magnetic field. They have various applications in various fields, including medicine, electronics, and energy. The history of ferroelastic materials research dates back to the early 20th century, and recent developments in this field have focused on improving the properties of existing materials and discovering new materials.

Table 1.3 Some recent studies of various ferroelastic materials.

S. no.

Application

Ferroelastic material

Ref.

1

Solar cells

CsPbBr

3

perovskite

[31]

Ferroelectric devices

Bi

4

Ti

2·95

W

0·05

O

12.05

+0.2 wt% Cr

2

O

3

[32]

2

Displacive ferroelectrics

Pb(Zr,Ti)O

3

films

[33]

3

Energy harvester

8/65/35 PLZT

[34]

4

Ferroic switching

BaTiO

3

[35]

5

Flexible electronics

BiFeO

3

[36]

1.2.4 Multiferroic Materials

Multiferroic materials possess both magnetic and electric properties that are coupled together, making them attractive for various technological applications. A multiferroic material can exhibit ferromagnetism, ferroelectricity, and ferroelasticity, all in one material, providing enhanced functionalities compared to their counterparts.

1.2.4.1 Past of Multiferroic Materials

The study of multiferroic materials dates back to the 1960s when researchers discovered that some materials exhibit magnetic and electric properties. Since then, multiferroic materials have gained significant attention in the scientific community because of their possible applications in information storage, sensing, and energy conversion.

The definition of multiferroic materials can vary, but generally, a material is considered multiferroic if it exhibits more than one ferroic property. Ferroic properties refer to spontaneous magnetization, polarization, or strain that can be changed in the presence of an external magnetic, electric, or stress field, respectively. A multiferroic material can have a magnetization coupled with its polarization or strain, leading to interesting properties that can be exploited for technological applications.

The history of multiferroic materials research can be traced back to the discovery of bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3) in the 1960s. BiFeO3 is the first material discovered to exhibit both ferroelectricity and antiferromagnetism, making it a promising candidate for multiferroic applications. Since then, researchers have discovered other materials that exhibit multiferroic properties, such as TbMnO3 and CoCr2O4.

Multiferroic materials have shown great promise in various technological applications. For example, multiferroic materials can be used in magnetic random-access memory (MRAM) devices, which use magnetic fields to write data and electric fields to read data, providing high-speed data storage with low power consumption. Multiferroic materials can also be used in sensors and actuators, where their magnetic and electric properties can convert energy from one form to another.

Table 1.4 Some recent studies of various multiferroic materials.

S. no.

Application

Multiferroic material

Ref.

1

Gas sensing

BiFeO

3

[37]

2

Energy storage

CoFe

2

O

4

/BaTiO

3

[38]

4

Magnetic field sensing

BiFeO

3

and BaTiO

3

[39]

5

Modulation of anomalous Hall effect

BiFeO

3

/SrRuO

3

[40]

7

Spintronic devices

La

0.7

Sr

0.3

MnO

3

/BiFeO

3

[41]

1.2.4.2 Present of Multiferroic Materials

Recent developments in multiferroic materials research have focused on discovering new materials with improved multiferroic properties and understanding the fundamental physics that governs their behavior. Researchers have also been exploring ways to manipulate the coupling between multiferroic materials’ magnetic and electric properties to enhance their functionality. For example, by applying an electric field to a multiferroic material, researchers can change its magnetic properties, leading to new possibilities for device designs. Table 1.4 contains a few multiferroic materials with their respective applications.

In conclusion, multiferroic materials possess unique magnetic and electric properties that make them attractive for various technological applications. The study of multiferroic materials dates back to the 1960s with the discovery of bismuth ferrite. Since then, researchers have discovered new materials and gained a deeper understanding of their fundamental properties. As research in this field continues, new and exciting applications for multiferroic materials will likely be discovered, further advancing technology and scientific understanding.

1.3 Conclusion

In summary, this chapter provided an overview of ferroic materials and their significance in various fields of science and technology. Ferroic materials show properties like magnetization, polarization, and strain, making them useful for many applications. Ferromagnetic materials have been extensively researched due to their technological importance in magnetic storage, sensing, and energy conversion. Similarly, ferroelectric materials have applications in actuators, capacitors, and memory devices. Ferroelastic materials are used in sensors, transducers, and switches. Multiferroic materials exhibit multiple ferroic properties and have promising potential for developing next-generation memory and sensing devices. The history of ferroic materials research dates back to the early 19th century, and since then, there have been significant advancements in their understanding and applications. Recent developments in ferroic materials research have led to the discovery of new materials and the optimization of their properties, leading to the development of novel devices. Future research directions in ferroic materials include discovering new materials with enhanced properties, developing novel synthesis and fabrication techniques, and exploring new applications. In particular, integrating ferroic materials with other emerging technologies such as nanotechnology, 2D materials, and biotechnology is an exciting area of research with significant potential for advancing scientific understanding and technology.

In conclusion, the study of ferroic materials has contributed significantly to advancing science and technology, and its importance is expected to grow further. Continued research in this field will enable the development of new materials and technologies with improved performance and functionalities.

References

1. Wu, H., Li, L., Liang, L.Z., Liang, S., Zhu, Y.Y., Zhu, X.H., Recent progress on the structural characterizations of domain structures in ferroic and multiferroic perovskite oxides: A review.

J. Eur. Ceram. Soc.

, 35, 411, 2015.

2. Ajayan, J., Mohankumar, P., Nirmal, D., Joseph, L.M.I.L., Bhattacharya, S., Sreejith, S., Kollem, S., Rebelli, S., Tayal, S., Mounika, B., Ferroelectric Field Effect Transistors (FeFETs): Advancements, challenges and exciting prospects for next generation Non-Volatile Memory (NVM) applications.

Mater. Today Commun.

, 35, 105591, 2023.

3. Stojanovic, B.D.,

Magnetic, ferroelectric, and multiferroic metal oxides

, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2018.

4. Cano, A., Meier, D., Trassin, M.,

Multiferroics: Fundamentals and applications

, De Gruyter, Berlin, 2021.

5. Coey, J.M.D., History of magnetism and basic concepts, in:

Handbook of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials

, J.M.D. Coey, S.S.P.P. (Eds.), pp. 3–51, Springer International Publishing, Berlin, 2021.

6. Rafiq, S., Awan, S.U., Zheng, R.K., Wen, Z., Rani, M., Akinwande, D., Rizwan, S., Novel room-temperature ferromagnetism in Gd-doped 2-dimensional Ti3C2Tx MXene semiconductor for spintronics.

J. Magn. Magn. Mater.

, 497, 165954, 2020.

7. Chiu, W.T., Goto, A., Tahara, M., Inamura, T., Hosoda, H., Effects of volume fraction between single crystal Ni-Mn-Ga ferromagnetic shape memory alloy and silicone rubber on the martensite variant reorientation.

J. Alloys Compd.

, 926, 166862, 2022.

8. Wang, Z., Yang, W., Lv, Q., Liu, S., Fang, Z., Ferromagnetic and excellent microwave absorbing properties of CoNi microspheres and heterogeneous Co/Ni nanocrystallines.

RSC Adv.

, 9, 13365, 2019.

9. Lo, L., Yang, Z.J., Hung, Y.C., Tseng, P.Y., Nomura, M., Lin, Y.F., Hu, C., Boosting photoassisted activity for catalytic oxidation of benzoic acid and reduction of 4-nitrophenol with Ag-supported Fe

3

O

4

aerogel.

Chem. Eng. J.

, 405, 126641, 2021.

10. Choi, M., Hong, Y.K., Won, H., Mankey, G.J., Yeo, C.D., Shah, N.M.R., Lee, W., Jung, M.H., Thiele, J.U., Upper limit of carbon concentration in ferromagnetic L1-ordered FePt-C for Tb/in data storage density heat-assisted magnetic recording media.

IEEE Trans. Magn.

, 57, 1, 2021.

11. Li, R., Li, X., Zhang, M., Li, Y., Yang, Z., Huang, C., A universal Fe/N incorporated graphdiyne for printing flexible ferromagnetic semiconducting electronics.

J. Phys. Chem. Lett.

, 12, 204, 2021.

12. Rastogi, A., Li, Z., Singh, A.V., Regmi, S., Peters, T., Bougiatioti, P., Carsten Né Meier, D., Mohammadi, J.B., Khodadadi, B., Mewes, T., Mishra, R., Gazquez, J., Borisevich, A.Y., Galazka, Z., Uecker, R., Reiss, G., Kuschel, T., Gupta, A., Enhancement in thermally generated spin voltage at the interfaces between Pd and NiFe

2

O

4

films grown on lattice-matched substrates.

Phys. Rev. Appl.

, 14, 014014, 2020.

13. Huang, Y., Li, Z., Zhu, T., Gao, X., Lv, X., Ling, M., Wan, Z., Xia, Y., Ferromagnetic 1D-Fe

3

O

4

@C microrods boost polysulfide anchoring for lithium-sulfur batteries.

ACS Appl. Energy Mater.

, 4, 3921, 2021.

14. Cui, X., Self-thermoregulating ferromagnetic FeNi filled carbon nanotubes for magnetic hyperthermia cancer therapy.

IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci.

, 310, 42016, 2019.

15. Jimenez, V.O., Kalappattil, V., Eggers, T., Bonilla, M., Kolekar, S., Huy, P.T., Batzill, M., Phan, M.H., A magnetic sensor using a 2D van der Waals ferromagnetic material.

Sci. Rep.

, 10, 4789, 2020.

16. Sulaiman, J.M.A., Ismail, M.M., Rafeeq, S.N., Mandal, A., Enhancement of electromagnetic interference shielding based on Co0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4/PANI-PTSA nanocomposites.

Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process.

, 126, 236, 2020.

17. Zhou, H., An, Z., Yuan, C., Luo, X., Light-modulated ferromagnetism of strained NiFe

2

O

4

nanocrystals.

Ceram. Int.

, 45, 13319, 2019.

18. Haertling, G.H., Ferroelectric ceramics: History and technology.

J. Am. Ceram. Soc.

, 82, 797, 1999.

19. Sakka, S., History of ferroelectric materials prepared by sol-gel method.

J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol.

, 101, 140, 2022.

20. Mo, F., Saraya, T., Hiramoto, T., Kobayashi, M., Reliability characteristics of metal/ferroelectric-HfO2/IGZO/metal capacitor for non-volatile memory application.

Appl. Phys. Express

, 13, 74005, 2020.

21. Guo, Y., Peng, B., Qiu, R., Dong, G., Yao, Y., Zhao, Y., Zhou, Z., Liu, M., Self-rolling-up enabled ultrahigh-density information storage in freestanding single-crystalline ferroic oxide films (Adv. Funct. Mater. 20/2023).

Adv. Funct. Mater.

, 33, 2213668, 2023.

22. Li, L., Wang, S., Li, X., Sha, Y., Liu, Z., Liu, L., Zhang, J., Zhang, S.T., Wang, Y., Large pyroelectricity via engineered ferroelectric-relaxor phase boundary.

J. Am. Ceram. Soc.

, 105, 5230, 2022.

23. Huang, C., Zhang, L., Liu, S., Wang, Y., Wang, N., Deng, Y., Double enhanced energy storage density via polarization gradient design in ferroelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride)-based nanocomposites.

Chem. Eng. J.

, 411, 128585, 2021.

24. Habib, M., Lee, M.H., Akram, F., Kim, M.H., Kim, W.J., Song, T.K., Temperature-insensitive piezoelectric properties of lead-free BiFeO

3

–BaTiO

3

ceramics with high Curie temperature.

J. Alloys Compd.

, 851, 156788, 2021.

25. Choi, K.J., Biegalski, M., Li, Y.L., Sharan, A., Schubert, J., Uecker, R., Reiche, P., Chen, Y.B., Pan, X.Q., Gopalan, V., Che, L.Q., Schlom, D.C., Eom, C.B., Enhancement of ferroelectricity in strained BaTiO

3

thin films.

Sci. (80-. )

, 306, 1005, 2004.

26. Roshchupkin, D., Emelin, E., Plotitcyna, O., Rashid, F., Irzhak, D., Karandashev, V., Orlova, T., Targonskaya, N., Sakharov, S., Mololkin, A., Redkin, B., Fritze, H., Suhak, Y., Kovalev, D., Vadilonga, S., Ortega, L., Leitenberger, W., Single crystals of ferroelectric lithium niobate tantalate LiNb1 xTaxO3solid solutions for hightemperature sensor and actuator applications.

Acta Crystallogr. Sect. B Struct. Sci. Cryst. Eng. Mater.

, 76, 1071, 2020.

27. Long, X., Tan, H., Sánchez, F., Fina, I., Fontcuberta, J., Ferroelectric electroresistance after a breakdown in epitaxial Hf0.5Zr0.5O2 tunnel junctions.

ACS Appl. Electron. Mater.

, 5, 740, 2023.

28. Qian, J., Li, G., Zhu, K., Ge, G., Shi, C., Liu, Y., Yan, F., Li, Y., Shen, B., Zhai, J., Cheng, Z., High energy storage performances and large electrocaloric response in Bi0.5na0.5tio3-Ba(Zr0.2ti0.8)O3 thin films.

SSRN Electron. J.

, 14, 54012-54020, 2022.

29. Chen, G., Zou, K., Yu, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q., Lu, Y., He, Y., Effects of the film thickness and poling electric field on photovoltaic performances of (Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O

3

ferroelectric thin film-based devices.

Ceram. Int.

, 46, 4148, 2020.

30. Salje, E.K.H., Ferroelastic materials.

Annu. Rev. Mater. Res.

, 42, 265, 2012.

31. Marçal, L.A.B., Benter, S., Irish, A., Dzhigaev, D., Oksenberg, E., Rothman, A., Sanders, E., Hammarberg, S., Zhang, Z., Sala, S., Björling, A., Unger, E., Mikkelsen, A., Joselevich, E., Timm, R., Wallentin, J., Inducing ferroelastic domains in single-crystal CsPbBr3 perovskite nanowires using atomic force microscopy.

Phys. Rev. Mater.

, 5, L063001, 2021.

32. Xie, S., Tan, Z., Jiang, L., Nie, R., Xu, Q., Chen, Y., Zhu, J., Wang, Q., Ferroelastic properties and compressive stress-strain response of bismuth titanate based ferroelectrics.

Ceram. Int.

, 46, 1183, 2020.

33. Zednik, R.J., Varatharajan, A., Oliver, M., Valanoor, N., McIntyre, P.C., Mobile ferroelastic domain walls in nanocrystalline PZT films: The direct piezoelectric effect.

Adv. Funct. Mater.

, 21, 3104, 2011.

34. Kang, W. and Huber, J.E., Energy harvesting based on compressive stress-induced ferroelectric/ferroelastic switching in polycrystalline ferroelectric materials.

Cell Rep. Phys. Sci.

, 3, 100707, 2022.

35. Xu, Y., Shao, G., Pang, J., Zhou, Y., Ding, X., Sun, J., Lookman, T., Salje, E.K.H., Xue, D., Avalanches during ferroelectric and ferroelastic switching in barium titanate ceramics.

Phys. Rev. Mater.

, 6, 124413, 2022.

36. Dong, G., Li, S., Li, T., Wu, H., Nan, T., Wang, X., Liu, H., Cheng, Y., Zhou, Y., Qu, W., Zhao, Y., Peng, B., Wang, Z., Hu, Z., Luo, Z., Ren, W., Pennycook, S.J., Li, J., Sun, J., Ye, Z., Jiang, Z., Zhou, Z., Ding, X., Min, T., Liu, M., Flexible ferroelectrics: Periodic wrinkle-patterned single-crystalline ferroelectric oxide membranes with enhanced piezoelectricity (Adv. Mater. 50/2020).

Adv. Mater.

, 32, 2070377, 2020.

37. Ji, H., Zhang, L., Zhang, R., Gas sensitive performance and mechanism of multiferroic BiFeO

3

under thermal-magnetic synergetic excitation.

Inorg. Chem. Commun.

, 150, 110491, 2023.

38. Ahmed, S., Atif, M., Rehman, A.U., Bashir, S., Iqbal, N., Khalid, W., Ali, Z., Nadeem, M., Enhancement in the magnetoelectric and energy storage properties of core-shell-like CoFe

2

O

4

–BaTiO

3

multiferroic nanocomposite.

J. Alloys Compd.

, 883, 160875, 2021.

39. Sharma, S., Paliwal, A., Tomar, M., Gupta, V., Multiferroic BFO/BTO multilayer structures based magnetic field sensor.

Phys. B Condens. Matter

, 571, 1, 2019.

40. Ren, Z.Y., Shao, F., Liu, P.F., Wang, M.X., Chen, J.K., Meng, K.K., Xu, X.G., Miao, J., Jiang, Y., Nonvolatile ferroelectric field control of the anomalous Hall effect in BiFe O

3

/SrRu O

3

bilayer.

Phys. Rev. Appl.

, 13, 024044, 2020.

41. Jin, C., Zhu, Y., Han, W., Liu, Q., Hu, S., Ji, Y., Xu, Z., Hu, S., Ye, M., Chen, L., Exchange bias in flexible freestanding La

0.7

Sr

0.3

MnO

3

/BiFeO

3

membranes.

Appl. Phys. Lett.

, 117, 252902, 2020.

Notes

*

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

†

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

2An Overview of Ferroic Materials

M. Rizwan1*, K. Nawaz1, F. Arooj1, F. Noor1 and A. Ayub2

1School of Physical Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

2Department of Physics, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan

Abstract