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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
FOOD SECURITY IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD An introduction to the urgent global question of how to feed the hungry Global food production has never been more abundant, yet nearly a billion people worldwide suffer from malnutrition, virtually all of them in the developing world. Food security in these countries is a global humanitarian issue which becomes more urgent with every passing year. There is a vital need to understand the nature and causes of food scarcity in developing countries in order to see to it that our global bounty reaches the hungry people who need it. Food Security in the Developing World offers a comprehensive single-volume introduction to the subject. It focuses on three core issues--food availability, food accessibility, and food utilization--in order to produce a rounded picture of the causes and possible solutions for food scarcity. Thorough and accessible, it promises to help researchers and policymakers address this growing humanitarian crisis in a reasoned and targeted way. Food Security in the Developing World readers will also find: * Future-oriented approach which continuously highlights paths forward * Detailed discussion of topics including climate change and agricultural productivity, price volatility, diet and nutrition, and many more * Examples and case studies drawn from across the developing world, including Sudan, Uganda, Nepal, and Afghanistan Food Security in the Developing World is ideal for food scientists and technologists, students in programs related to food science, development studies, geography, and related subjects, and policymakers working in food production and distribution.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction to the Issue: Food Security
References
2 Food Availability: Stock Maintenance Policies
2.1 Food Security and Food Availability
2.2 Food Availability
2.3 Stock Maintenance Policies
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Postharvest Losses as a Factor of Food Insecurity: The Case of Fruit and Vegetables in Pakistan
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Horticulture Sector and Its Implications for Developing Countries
3.3 The Horticulture Sector in Pakistan
3.4 Fresh Produce Industry Analysis (2005–2015)
3.5 Constraints on Production and Postharvest Management
3.6 Postharvest Losses
3.7 Factors Responsible for Postharvest Losses
3.8 Strategies to Reduce PHLs in Fruits and Vegetables
3.9 Recent Advances in Postharvest Technology
References
4 Climate Change and Agricultural Productivity
4.1 Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security in Developing Countries
4.2 Case Studies
4.3 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
5 Agricultural Revolutions and Food Security
5.1 Background
5.2 Agricultural Revolutions: Historical Perspective
5.3 The Green Revolution
5.4 The White Revolution
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Dynamics of Income and Income Redistribution in Developing Countries
6.1 Historical Background
6.2 Concept and Measures of Income Distribution
6.3 Global Trends of Income Distribution
6.4 Concept and Need of Income Redistribution
6.5 Different Redistribution Methods
6.6 Case Studies of Developing Countries
6.7 Linkage Between Income Distribution and Food Security
6.8 Conclusion
References
7 Market Availability
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Markets and Their Functions
7.3 Stakeholders in Agricultural Markets
7.4 Agricultural Marketing Systems in Developing Countries
7.5 Market Availability Options for Producers
7.6 Markets Available to Consumers
7.7 Policy Measures for Improved Market Availability
7.8 Conclusion
References
8 Price Volatility and Food Security: Measurement and Implications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Implications of Food Price Volatility
8.3 Measuring Price Volatility
8.4 Conclusion
References
9 Food Security, Food Safety, and Sanitation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 What Is Food Safety?
9.3 Impact of Food Safety on Food Security
9.4 Major Problems and Challenges in Food Safety
9.5 Food Safety at Different Stages
9.6 Sanitation and Personal Hygiene
9.7 World Condition of Sanitation
9.8 Foodborne Illness
9.9 Sanitation at Industrial Level
9.10 Sanitation at Household Level
9.11 The Impact of Sanitation on Food Security
9.12 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Country rankings for sufficiency of supply (113 countries).
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Estimated growth in world’s population and food consumption.
Table 3.2 Malnutrition of children in South Asia (%).
Table 3.3 Provincial area under fruit production in Pakistan
(‘000 Hectares
...
Table 3.4 Provincial fruit production in Pakistan
(‘000Tonnes/Hectares)
...
Table 3.5 Provincial area under vegetable production in Pakistan
(‘000 Hect
...
Table 3.6 Provincial vegetable production in Pakistan
(‘000 Tonnes/Hectares
...
Table 3.7 Yield gap and ranking of important horticultural commodities.
Table 3.8 Strategies to reduce PHLs in fruits and vegetables.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Climate change impacts in Africa and Asia‐Pacific (literature sum...
Table 4.2 Food security and change in climate studies in China: an overview...
Table 4.3 Damages/losses due to flood 2022 in Pakistan.
Table 4.4 Impacts of climate change on Pakistan and its effects on agricult...
Table 4.5 Summary of flood impact damages on agriculture of Thailand 2011....
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Milk production for human consumption in Pakistan (million tons)....
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Coverage and budget of selected child transfer programs in Latin ...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Standard deviations of logarithmic price changes.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Personal hygiene checklist.
Table 9.2 Sources of foodborne diseases.
Table 9.3 List of pathogen, sources, diseases, and their prevention.
Table 9.4 Cleaning chemicals.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Food availability.
Figure 2.2 Domestic production and consumption comparisons of Asia and sub‐S...
Figure 2.3 Sufficiency of supply vs agricultural infrastructure.
Figure 2.4 (a) Food grain (wheat plus rice) year beginning stocks in South A...
Figure 2.5 Food grain stocks in India.
Figure 2.6 Food grain stocks in Bangladesh.
Figure 2.7 Food grain stocks in Pakistan.
Figure 2.8 Food grain stocks in China (estimated).
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Area and production of fruit, by province (2014–2015) (GoP 2023)....
Figure 3.2 Area and production of vegetables, by province (2014–2015) (GoP 2...
Figure 3.3 % share of fruits under total cultivated area (2014–2015) (GoP 20...
Figure 3.6 % share of vegetables in total production (2014–2015) (GoP 2023)....
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Interlinkages between climate and food systems, ecosystems (land,...
Figure 4.2 Glimpse of Africa and Asia‐Pacific’s climate change adaptation....
Figure 4.3 Impacts of climate change in Africa and Asia‐Pacific.
Figure 4.4 Climate change, food and farming: 2050 scenarios.
Figure 4.5 Food insecurity and climate change: Worldwide Scenario of Fishery...
Figure 4.6 Climate conditions and variables in different parts of China.
Figure 4.7 Climate change impacts on the natural environment and the society...
Figure 4.8 Various exposure in 29 states of India.
Figure 4.11 Vulnerability variations in 29 states of India using CUVI.
Figure 4.12 Comparative view of flood‐affected areas (2010 and 2022).
Figure 4.13 Oceanic Nino (ONI) Index.
Figure 4.14 Each ocean temperature 2011.
Figure 4.15 Average rainfall of Thailand 1987–2011.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Income distribution represented by the Lorenz curve.
Figure 6.2 Trends of income inequality in industrialized and developing coun...
Figure 6.3 Cash transfer.
Note:
*BC refers to the line budget curve.
Figure 6.4 In‐kind transfer.
Note:
*BC refers to the line budget curve.
Figure 6.5 Comparing different redistribution methods.
Note:
*BC refers to t...
Figure 6.6 Comparing different tax scenarios.
Figure 6.7 Annual cash transfer (Ct) per person for different countries.
Figure 6.8 Reduction in income inequality by dollar invested.
Figure 6.9 Income inequality across the globe.
Figure 6.10 Income inequality before and after redistribution through taxes ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Typical structure of an agricultural marketing system.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Logarithmic price returns in Pakistan’s domestic (average) and in...
Figure 8.2 Standard deviations of logarithmic price returns in Pakistan’s do...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Food safety and sanitation.
Figure 9.2 Personal hygiene pathways.
Figure 9.3 Disease burden in pan‐European region (2010–2013)
Figure 9.4 SSOP plan pathways.
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Food Security in the Developing World
Edited by
Muhammad Khalid Bashir
University of AgricultureFaisalabad, Pakistan
Steven G.M. Schilizzi
University of Western AustraliaAustralia
Ghaffar Ali
Shenzhen UniversityChina
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Bashir, Muhammad Khalid, editor. | Schilizzi, Steven G.M., editor. | Ali, Ghaffar, editor.Title: Food security in the developing world / edited by Muhammad Khalid Bashir, Steven G.M. Schilizzi, Ghaffar Ali.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2024. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023040109 (print) | LCCN 2023040110 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119265108 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119265160 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119265177 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Food security–Developing countries.Classification: LCC HD9018.D44 F66564 2024 (print) | LCC HD9018.D44 (ebook) | DDC 338.1/91724–dc23/eng/20240102LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023040109LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023040110
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © OlgaKlochanko/Adobe Stock Photos
About the Editors
Dr. Muhammad Khalid Bashir currently holds the position of Associate Professor at the Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. His commitment to academia and research extends beyond this role, as he also serves as the co‐chair of the Policy, Advocacy, and Outreach thematic division in the Pak‐Korea Nutrition Center (PKNC).
Dr. Bashir's academic journey has been marked by significant accomplishments. He completed his PhD at the University of Western Australia, Australia, and his research expertise encompasses critical areas such as food security, poverty, and sustainable rural development. Throughout his career, he has secured numerous research grants from both national and international funding agencies, focusing on improving food availability and addressing food security challenges.
An accomplished scholar, Dr. Bashir has made substantial contributions to the field of agricultural and resource economics. He has authored over 70 research papers that have been published in esteemed national and international journals. His dedication to mentoring the next generation of scholars is evident in his supervision of over 70 students pursuing MS, MPhil, and MSc (Hons) degrees. Notably, three students have successfully completed their PhD studies under his guidance, while five others are currently under his mentorship.
Dr. Bashir's influence extends beyond the borders of Pakistan, as he has co‐supervised PhD students from prestigious institutions such as Huazhong Agricultural University in Wuhan, China, and Universiti Putra Malaysia. His exceptional contributions have earned him 18 national and international awards, including recognition for his teaching excellence in 2015, the Best Research Paper Award from the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan in 2016, and the Best Young Researcher Award in 2019. His remarkable dedication to research is further exemplified by the Research Productivity Award from the Pakistan Council for Science and Technology in 2016, Publons Reviewer Award in 2018, and Outstanding Contribution in Reviewing in the same year. Dr. Bashir's work has been acknowledged with Best Conference Paper awards in 2018 and 2019. Additionally, the University has nominated him for prestigious UNESCO and Alkharzmi awards in 2017 and 2019, respectively, underlining his significant contributions to the field of agricultural and resource economics.
Dr. Steven G.M. Schilizzi is a distinguished academic with a diverse educational background spanning multiple disciplines. Earning his PhD in Economics with a focus on Agriculture, Resources, and Energy in France, Steven is also an alumnus of the Ecole Normale Supérieure (Ulm) in Paris, where he immersed himself in humanities, classics, and languages. Before this, he achieved a Baccalaureate in Math and Physics, a master’s degree in Sociology, and a bachelor’s in international law.
Early in his career, while affiliated with France's National Institute of Agriculture Sciences in Montpellier (INRA), Steven cultivated rich, on‐ground experience across regions such as South‐East Asia, central Africa, and Central America. His association with UWA later saw him enhancing his expertise in Vietnam by spearheading various research initiatives and launching collaborative courses between UWA and Vietnamese institutions.
Currently a Professor of Environmental and Agricultural Economics at UWA's School of Agriculture and Environment, Steven's research gravitates toward exploring the confluence of social norms and economic incentives in prompting private landholders to offer environmental services, encompassing areas like biodiversity conservation and pollution control. He is deeply involved in understanding the intricate balance of equity in environmental policies, their trade‐offs, and their intersections with other policy areas. Over the years, Steven has shown a penchant for economic lab experiments, intertwining with the realms of behavioral economics.
An accomplished author, Steven has contributed to over 100 scientific publications, penned 20 book chapters, and authored 4 books, one notably being “Natural Resources and Environmental Justice.” Steven's mentorship extends to PhD, Masters, and Honors students from varied disciplines, supervising approximately 20 PhD candidates throughout his career. His cross‐disciplinary approach in research and teaching is evident, with a key focus on the symbiotic relationship between biological–geographical systems and socio‐economic determinants.
Dr. Ghaffar Ali is currently serving as Associate Professor at the College of Management, Shenzhen University, China. His scholarly endeavors have not only garnered him acclaim on a global scale but have also firmly established him as a prominent figure in the field of academia. This distinction is further affirmed by his ranking among the Top 2% of researchers worldwide, as per a recent evaluation conducted by Stanford University in the United States. Moreover, Dr. Ghaffar Ali's unwavering commitment to the advancement of research is underscored by his inclusion among the Top 1% of peer reviewers globally, a distinction conferred by Web of Science through Publons.
In addition to his commendable research accomplishments, Dr. Ali actively engages with the scholarly community, taking on roles as an Editor and serving on the Editorial Boards of four distinguished international journals. His dedication to shaping and enriching academic discourse within his areas of expertise is further manifested by his affiliation with several prominent academic societies. Notable among these affiliations are his memberships in esteemed organizations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), specifically within the IEEE's Energy & Power division, the International Society for Data Science and Statistics (ISDS) in Japan, and the Chinese Economic Society in the United States.
The breadth and depth of Dr. Ali's research interests span a wide spectrum of critical subjects within the domains of economics and energy. He has made substantial contributions to a diverse range of topics, including but not limited to environmental economics, energy economics, food economics, energy policy, renewable energy transition, green building practices, and climate change policy. His work not only contributes significantly to the expansion of knowledge within these domains but also has the potential to shape and influence policy decisions that bear profound implications for environmental sustainability, energy resource management, and economic dynamics. Dr. Ali's multifaceted contributions, coupled with his global recognition in the realms of research and academia, underscore his pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing challenges of our time. His dedication to advancing knowledge and effecting positive change makes him an indispensable asset to the academic and research communities.
List of Contributors
Namrah AbidNational Institute of Food Science and TechnologyUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Muhammad Abid BashirDepartment of Surgery, Rabigh Faculty of MedicineKing Abdul Aziz UniversityJeddahSaudi Arabia
Burhan AhmadInstitute of Business Management SciencesUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Ghaffar AliCollege of ManagementShenzhen UniversityShenzhenChina
Muhammad Sohail Amjad MakhdumDepartment of EconomicsGovernment College UniversityFaisalabadPakistan
Hammad BadarInstitute of Business Management SciencesUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Muhammad Hamid BashirDepartment of EntomologyUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Muhammad Khalid BashirInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Muhammad Umar FarrukhDepartment of EconomicsGovernment College Women UniversitySialkotPakistan
Ole GjølbergNMBU School of Economics and BusinessNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU)AasNorway
Muhammad HafeezInstitute of Business Management SciencesUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Sarfraz HassanInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Sabyan Faris HoneyRegional Bioscience CentreCABIRawalpindiPakistan
Muhammad Asif KamranInstitute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Social SciencesUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Rakhshanda KousarFaculty of Social SciencesInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Mubashir MehdiDepartment of Agri‐Business and Applied EconomicsMNS University of AgricultureMultanPakistan
Khalid MushtaqFaculty of Social SciencesInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Tahira SadafInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Kainat SarwarNational Institute of Food Science and TechnologyUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Steven G.M. SchilizziDepartment of Agricultural and Resource Economics, UWA School of Agriculture and EnvironmentThe University of Western AustraliaCrawley, PerthAustralia
Sana SeharInstitute of Agricultural and Resource EconomicsUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Mian Kamran SharifNational Institute of Food Science and TechnologyUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Raza UllahInstitute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Social SciencesUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
Farhad ZulfiqarAgribusiness Management Department of Food Agriculture and Bioresources School of Environment Resources and DevelopmentAsian Institute of Technology (AIT)Klong LuangPathum ThaniThailand
Preface
Food is a universal need, the very sustenance of life, and yet, access to it remains a privilege for many, which excludes too many fellow humans. The phrase “food security” is not new, but in today's fast‐paced, globalized world, it is more relevant than ever. The book, Food Security in the Developing World, delves into the complexities of this significant subject, shedding light on the myriad dimensions that are often overlooked in conventional discussions.
The developing world, with its vast landscapes, diverse cultures, and varied agricultural practices, is uniquely positioned in the discourse on food security. While these nations boast an abundance of natural resources and agricultural potential, they often grapple with paradoxes of plenty: hunger amidst abundant harvests, malnutrition in regions of food surplus, and economic disparities that can turn food from a basic right into a luxury.
This book is not just about the scarcity of food. It addresses the nuanced tapestry of socioeconomic policies, historical contexts, climatic challenges, agricultural practices, and even deeply ingrained cultural paradigms that influence food production, distribution, and consumption in the developing world. We will take our readers on a journey across continents, looking closely at real‐life narratives, innovative farming practices, policy challenges, and community‐led solutions that are making a difference.
Our objective is twofold: First, to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of factors that influence food security in developing nations. And second, to inspire action and dialogue among policymakers, activists, farmers, and consumers. We believe that a collaborative, informed approach is key to finding sustainable solutions to food insecurity.
As you delve into these pages, we hope you gain insights not just about the challenges but also about the resilience and innovation inherent in the developing world. While the road to global food security is long and fraught with challenges, the stories and analysis in this book aim to illuminate the path and inspire change.
To a future where every individual, irrespective of where they live, has access to nutritious food – that is the vision this book holds close to its heart.
Thank you for joining us on this journey.
Muhammad Khalid Bashir,Steven G.M. Schilizzi, and Ghaffar Ali
1Introduction to the Issue: Food Security
Muhammad Khalid Bashir1, Steven G.M. Schilizzi2, and Muhammad Umar Farrukh3
1Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
2Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Australia
3Department of Economics, Government College Women University, Sialkot, Pakistan
Even though the world is producing enough food, about 10.4% (800 million) of its population is malnourished (FAO 2022). Developing countries are home to about 98% of the world's undernourished people. These poor people are unable to afford adequate diets, which is the biggest hurdle for achieving the goal of “zero hunger.” The situation has been worsened by the COVID‐19 pandemic. The dynamics of food security are multifaceted and need special attention. Developing countries are similar in general characteristics (low levels of growth in national income, low levels of per capita growth, highly skewed patterns of income distribution, masses suffering from absolute poverty, ill health and malnutrition, low levels of literacy). It is time to understand the dynamics of “food security” in these countries and what is driving them. A simple but meticulous approach will help in this regard, building on the background and deep insights provided in a more general setting by Acemoglu and Robinson’s 2012 book, “Why Nations Fail.”
Food security became an issue for academic study in the 1970s (Bashir and Schilizzi 2013). Since then, it has attracted the attention of researchers and policymakers. Initially, food security was defined as the ability of nations to consistently meet their aggregate food needs, especially cereals. Then the influential work of Sen (1981) changed the course of food security focus from sufficiency (availability) to access. According to him, individuals’ ability to access food depends on their entitlements, i.e. access to resources, markets, technology, and social networks. During the 1980s, the focus further narrowed down to the importance of nutritional security. The focus further shifted to market‐oriented research in the 1990s. During the 2010s, the challenges facing agricultural productivity under global climate change and limited farmer resources have again modified the focus by linking it to vulnerability analysis.
Three core areas, food availability, accessibility, and utilization, evolved from the well‐known and accepted definition of food security, i.e. food that is always available; that all persons have means of access to it; that it is nutritionally adequate in terms of quantity, quality, and variety; and that it is acceptable within the given culture. Only when all these conditions are in place can a population be considered food secure (FAO 2004). Understanding these core areas in depth will help us understand the phenomenon of food insecurity and better inform the policy process in developing countries. This book is organized into nine chapters, focusing on the following challenges:
The second chapter focuses on food availability levels and general policy practices to maintain food stocks in developing countries. Food availability depends not only on the general food supply but also on the policy environment enacted by a country and, in particular, on the incentive structures in place. A favorable environment ensures stability and provides agricultural infrastructure for food supply and for maintaining food stocks. Food availability has therefore been measured in terms of sufficiency of supply and ease of access. This chapter starts with a discussion on building the concept of food security and food availability, followed by the status of food availability in terms of the policy environment across the globe. Sufficiency of supply is discussed in reference to food consumption in terms of kilocalories per day per capita. Thereafter, the relationship between food supply and agricultural infrastructure is explored. A comparison of South Asian, Southeast Asian, and global food stocks follows. The food stocks help in the case of food shortages, lean production seasons, and price volatility. These stocks help maintain a steady food supply and stable prices. A detailed discussion on stock maintenance policies and incentives is presented to identify the rationale and derive policy lessons.
The third chapter examines the status and economic significance of postharvest losses (PHLs) and discusses the case of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan. PHLs refer to the measurable loss in food quantity and quality from harvest to its final consumption. Losses in food quality refer to the reduction in both (objective) nutrient contents and (subjective) acceptability by the consumer. These are more common in developed countries (Kader
2002
). Losses in quantity refer to the reduction in the amount of product. These are more common in developing countries due to poor sanitation and handling facilities (Kitinoja and Gorny
1999
). Therefore, interventions in reducing PHL are necessary to address the key challenge of food security. Postharvest value addition is also considered as an integral part of all strategies aiming to combat food security for a growing population.
The fourth chapter links climate change to agricultural productivity. Climate change at the global level can affect agricultural systems at the regional and local levels by impacting ecological dynamics, especially when greater and more frequent flood disasters directly affect agricultural production, with immediate consequences on economic and human well‐being.
The fifth chapter presents a bird’s‐eye view of agricultural revolutions for ensuring food security and sustaining the livelihood of masses, particularly in developing countries. Several agricultural revolutions have happened in human history, including “the Neolithic Revolution,” the West‐European Technological Revolution, and the North American Mechanization Revolution. However, the most recent and influential agricultural revolution was the Green Revolution of the 1960s. It featured the advent of science and technology, like plant breeding, genetic engineering, and the use of hybrid varieties of grains, fertilizers, pesticides, machines, and improved irrigation systems. In the post‐Green Revolution Era, however, nations improved their R&D priorities by incorporating environmental concerns, poverty reduction, and sustainable resource management into farming systems, which may be considered as “a second agricultural revolution.”
The sixth chapter examines the dynamics of income and income redistribution in developing countries. Rising trends of income inequality in the world are cause for much concern, as they can lead to many other economic and social inequalities, each creating yet more challenges. This income gap has in recent decades grown mostly in developed economies; in developing and emerging economies this trend is mixed. The development of any economy depends not only on the total national income but also on the distribution of income. Indeed, the pattern of income distribution over the years has been a major factor in explaining the level of economic growth and development of any economy. The chapter also describes the subject matter with the help of real‐world case studies, taken mostly from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and from Latin American countries.
The seventh chapter examines the market availability of food. Food security has recently captured the imagination of public policy planners, thinkers, academia, and industry because of the rapid growth in the world population, which is expected to exceed nine billion in 2050. To meet this challenge, adequate availability of markets for producers and consumers is considered important. Markets facilitate the exchange of goods and services essential for ensuring a country’s food security. Other main market functions include price determination, resource allocation, policy implementation, value addition, and employment generation. Markets in developing countries involve different stakeholders, such as producers, consumers, traders, trade supporters, and policy planners, who operate to achieve their own goals. Agricultural producers have the option to directly market their produce, usually through farmers’ markets. However, most producers in developing countries opt for nondirect marketing options and sell their produce to traders, exporters, processors, or retailers, who then pass on this produce to consumers. Consumers buy their food requirements either from traditional or modern retailers. The performance of markets in developing countries cannot be termed optimal, mainly because of inequitable returns, the predominance of intermediaries, transportation and storage problems, credit constraints, lack of modern marketing and technical knowledge, defective measurement equipment, and lack of organized markets. To overcome the challenges markets face in developing countries, needed policy measures may include promotion of an entrepreneurial mindset, market governance, institutional innovations, diversification, standards, and certification, and greater use of information and communication technology (ICT).
The eighth chapter covers the developing world’s food (in)security challenges using a multifaceted approach. Prices send important signals to producers and consumers. Based on these signals, they make decisions. Price volatility poses difficulties in the efficient allocation of resources both for producers and consumers but may also do so for various stakeholders involved in the supply chain. Consequently, policymakers aim to formulate policies to better control price volatility. Repeated episodes of volatility may lead to food insecurity because of decisions responsible for the inefficient allocation of resources. As a basis for developing good policies, it is important to measure and identify the causes of price volatility and to devise policies for controlling it. Different methods are formulated to estimate conditional and unconditional volatilities. Standard deviations and coefficients of variation are generally used to measure unconditional volatilities, while univariate and multivariate GARCH models are widely used to model conditional volatility. Price volatility, particularly of food commodities, has implications for all the supply chain actors, market integration and food security and attracts the attention of policymakers. A case study of price volatility in Pakistan’s rice markets is an effort to address the aforementioned features and is also presented here.
The ninth chapter links the issue of food safety to sanitation. Safe food is a basic human right, which means that food should be free of any hazards and contaminants that pose a risk to human health. With advances in technology and globalization, food safety systems have come into existence, but at the same time new challenges for food safety have arisen, like climate change, new adulterants, use of additives, etc. Food safety requires effort at every step, from farm to plate. Sanitation and hygiene are one of the most important factors that greatly impact food safety. Food safety without sanitation is not possible. Hence, the focus should be on identifying the conditions under which the principles of sanitation and hygiene can be followed by everyone related to the food supply chain, either as producer, handler, or consumer. International organizations, governments, and stakeholders in the food industry should join hands to promote research, laws, awareness, and knowledge regarding food safety and sanitation so that the global burden of foodborne diseases around the world can be decreased. To sum up, the remaining chapters investigate the following key drivers of food (in)security: food availability; post‐harvest losses; the impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity; the history of how food security was addressed over time; and the ways in which income and wealth distribution, market governance, price volatility and sanitation and hygiene all affect food security.
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2Food Availability: Stock Maintenance Policies
Farhad Zulfiqar1, Raza Ullah2, and Muhammad Asif Kamran2
1Agribusiness Management, Department of Food, Agriculture and Bioresources, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Klong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand
2Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
This chapter focuses on food availability levels and general policy practices to maintain food stocks in developing countries. The food availability depends not only on the general food supply but also on the policy environment enacted by a country. A favorable environment ensures stability and provides agricultural infrastructure for food supply and maintaining food stocks. Therefore, food availability was measured in terms of sufficiency of supply and ease of access. This chapter starts with a discussion on building the concept for food security and food availability followed by the status of food availability in terms of the policy environment across the globe. Then, sufficiency of supply is discussed concerning food consumption in terms of kilo calorie per day per capita. Thereafter, the relationship between food supply and agricultural infrastructure is explored. A comparison of South Asian, Southeast Asian and global food stocks follows. The food stocks help in the case of food shortages, lean production seasons, and price volatility. Thus, these stocks help in maintaining a steady food supply and price stabilization. A detailed discussion on stock maintenance policies is presented to identify the rationale and policy lessons.
2.1 Food Security and Food Availability
Food security is a dynamic concept and has seen various dimensions added to its definition (FAO 2006). The most widely agreed definition from the World Food Summit 1996 stresses the achievement of dimensions, including food availability, access, utilization, and stability (Bashir and Schilizzi 2015; FAO 1996, 2006, 2008). The underachievement of food security may lead to any of the two types of food insecurity: chronic food insecurity or transitory food insecurity (FAO 2008). However, there is another possibility of people being food‐insecure—it is probable that people face seasonal food insecurity due to cycles of production (FAO 2008) or seasonal demand changes (Hussain et al. 2014). Agricultural production is extremely dependent on the external environment, and staple grains’ production is highly seasonal. Therefore, the food availability across seasons requires food stocks. Thus, stock maintenance policies form an important basis of overall food security policies of a country.
2.2 Food Availability
Food availability is an intrinsic component of food security, which also includes various other dimensions, including food affordability, food quality, and food safety (EIU 2016). The food availability needs to be considered as a dynamic concept because of changing food demand and food production. Demand changes due to improved income level and increasing population necessitate supply enhancements (Zulfiqar and Hussain 2014), which can be used for stocks. Food stocks are necessary to act as a buffer in the face of various risks to food availability. These include climate change‐related risks and changes in government regulations that risk stability in food availability and food prices (EIU 2016).
However, the availability of food hinges not only on the food supply but also on the ease of access to food. Therefore, food availability should be seen as a comprehensive package of food supply, access, distribution, and structural traits of a country’s capacity (EIU 2016). The structural traits include, but not limited to, good governance and policies for sufficient and affordable food, including fair distribution. These policies must also include stock maintenance policies because of the importance of stocks for supply and price stabilization. The expansion of food availability definition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which defines food availability in terms of sufficiency of good quality food through domestic or imported food (FAO 2006), into food supply as well as food access provides a clearer overview of food stocks needed and the appropriate policies for it.
The food availability in this chapter is discussed in length in terms of food supply and the overall policy environment ensuring food access. An index created by the Economist Intelligence Unit captures the same dimensions as required for the explanation of food availability envisioned here. This food availability index measures the status of food availability using various diverse indicators. These eight indicators included “sufficiency of supply, public expenditure on agricultural research and development (R&D), agricultural infrastructure, volatility of agricultural production, political stability risk, corruption, urban absorption capacity, and food loss” (EIU 2016). Therefore, this indicator was used to elaborate the status of food availability and its numerous dimensions.
2.2.1 Food Availability Status
The food availability status, measured in terms of the aforementioned eight indicators, showed the appropriateness of the policy environment. The countries were ranked on a scale of 0, for worst, and 100, for best policy environment for supply and access. This means a higher score entails a better environment.
It can be deduced from Figure 2.1 that most countries in North America and Europe had the best policy environment to ensure food availability. However, there were some countries in Australia and Asia too that showed good environment, including Australia, Japan, Malaysia, and Singapore. There were some similarities in all of these countries showing best scores which showed that an appropriate environment (referring to favorable policy environment) is necessary for food availability for ensuring food security. These countries have advanced agriculture, fewer structural problems, and higher agricultural hard and soft infrastructure (physical infrastructure, and research and innovation).
A majority of countries with low scores are in Africa. There are several reasons for this tendency. The biggest problem in these countries is the physical agricultural infrastructure (EIU 2016). The environment essential for ensuring sufficient food availability is not available in these countries. This low infrastructure is also linked to low investments, which is a result of capacity constraints of these countries. These are mostly low‐income countries. The countries having moderate environment scoring between 48% and 57% include major population centers and need major developments if we are to increase global food availability. These countries include India, Russia, Pakistan, and Indonesia.
Thus, it is appropriate to conclude from food availability variations across countries (Figure 2.1) that the existence of proper policy environment has an important link with food availability across continents.
2.2.2 Demand and Supply—Case Studies from Asia and Sub‐Saharan Africa
The overall food availability should be seen as having individual demand and supply components. The analysis of food availability from this perspective provides important insights into domestic policies and practices. A country with high domestic demand for a food product but less supply is expected to enable policies conducive for increased domestic production or liberal import regime. An appropriate policy environment is, therefore, essential for ensuring sufficient food availability in a country.
Figure 2.1 Food availability.
Source: Adapted from the FAO and WFP (EIU 2016).
Figure 2.2 Domestic production and consumption comparisons of Asia and sub‐Saharan Africa.
Source: Data from USDA (2017).
Generally, South Asia and Southeast Asia were self‐sufficient in rice availability during 2007–2017 (Figure 2.2). The domestic production is more than covered for domestic consumption. However, sub‐Saharan Africa faced a huge supply gap which further increased during the considered time (Figure 2.2). An appropriate policy environment will ensure that surplus rice in South Asia and Southeast Asia is exported to earn foreign exchange and demand gap in sub‐Saharan Africa will be met through imports or increased domestic production. However, low scores on the policy environment (Figure 2.1) showcase an impending hurdle to achieve this goal. This provides a clear framework for bridging the demand gap in sub‐Saharan Africa through improvement in the policy environment.
In the case of wheat, only South Asia has been able to satisfy demand through domestic production during 2007–2017 (Figure 2.2). Wheat demand has seen an exponential growth in Southeast Asia and sub‐Saharan Africa in recent years (Figure 2.2). However, the domestic supply has either remained flat (Southeast Asia) or increased very slowly (sub‐Saharan Africa). This calls for appropriate policy environment in South Asia to remain wheat self‐sufficient and in other two regions to provide an enabling environment for imports or domestic production promotion. The trade policies in the latter regions are very relevant in ensuring food availability.
2.2.3 Sufficiency of Supply
The sufficiency of supply (EIU 2016) was expressed here as an indicator of food availability in terms of average calorie intake as kcal/capita/day, including food aid. It is an indicator of net food consumption arising from domestic production and imports while subtracting the food exports. The countries were ranked from 1 to 113 based on average calorie intake with 1 referring to highest sufficiency and 113 as lowest (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 Country rankings for sufficiency of supply (113 countries).
Source: Adapted from EIU calculation based on data from the FAO and WFP (EIU 2016).
Top 10 scores
Bottom 10 scores
1
Belgium
100.0
104
Bangladesh
26.7
2
Austria
99.7
105
Madagascar
26.2
3
Turkey
96.1
106
Cambodia
25.4
4
United States
94.7
107
Malawi
22.7
5
Israel
94.0
108
Zambia
22.0
6
Ireland
93.0
109
Mozambique
20.9
=7
Germany
91.2
110
Congo (Dem. Rep.)
17.9
=7
Italy
91.2
111
Ethiopia
15.7
9
France
90.7
112
Chad
14.9
10
Switzerland
89.4
113
Burundi
0.0
A composite indicator that measures the availability of food through the food supply in kcal/capita/day and levels of food aid.
The developed countries, exclusively high‐income countries, ranked highest in supply sufficiency indicator, while the worst‐performing countries are either from Asia Pacific, South America, or Africa. The comparison of Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1 highlights important policy directions. The countries having good policy environment (Figure 2.1) also ranked high in terms of sufficiency of supply. While the majority of African countries with unfavorable policy environment also ranked lowest in sufficiency of supply. This confirms the notion that the overall environment affects the food sufficiency across regions.
The food supply sufficiency requires a good environment whereby public and private entities can work together to ensure food access and storage across seasons. The public investment in agricultural research and development also drives supply levels as it provides much‐needed technology for public and private use. Thus, it is necessary to have sufficient political will to ensure sufficiency of supply.
2.2.4 Sufficiency of Supply and Agricultural Infrastructure
The agricultural infrastructure needed for the year‐round supply of food includes storage facilities along with land and sea transportation services. The prioritization of physical infrastructure development, such as agricultural storage and transportation, enhances a country’s capacity to safeguard sufficiency of supply for increasing demand due to growing population (EIU 2016). The development of this physical infrastructure should be carried out through public and private partnerships to sustain the investment and infrastructure capacity for burgeoning future needs.
The emphasis on physical agricultural infrastructure cannot be overstated as there has been a global direct correlation between the availability of physical infrastructure and sufficiency of supply (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3 Sufficiency of supply vs agricultural infrastructure.
Source: Adapted from EIU (2016).
Note: The agricultural infrastructure includes all physical infrastructure, including storage, road, and port infrastructure for agriculture. The highlighted countries are from Asia and Pacific.
Figure 2.3
