Functional Coatings E-Book

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Beschreibung

FUNCTIONAL COATINGS A must-own resource for understanding functional coatings and their revolutionary potential Functional coatings are those which provide not only the protection and performance enhancement of a conventional coating, but also offer additional properties tailored to meet the specific requirements of a given industry or application. They have applications in a huge range of sectors, including automotive, aerospace, healthcare, energy, and more. Coatings with properties like fire retardancy, antimicrobial properties, or controlled drug release have the potential to revolutionize entire industries. Functional Coatings offers a comprehensive resource for engineers and researchers looking to understand these coatings and the opportunities they provide. Beginning with an overview of the subject's foundations and industrial significance, the book analyzes numerous coating methods and their properties, with a particular focus on anticorrosion coatings. The result is an indispensable resource for professionals in virtually any technological industry looking to understand the benefits of a cutting-edge toolkit. Functional Coatings readers will also find: * Coverage of synthesis, durability, reproducibility, cost-effectiveness, specialized surface morphology, and environmental friendliness of each coating * Detailed discussion of antimicrobial coatings, fire-retardant coatings, self-healing coatings, nanopowder coatings, coatings for marine applications, and many more * Applications of additives, machine learning, and sophisticated characterizations, etc. as per industry requirements Functional Coatings is ideal for researchers, engineers, and industry professionals working with any area of technology where coatings have purchase.

Leseprobe

Functional Coatings: Innovations and Challenges

Edited by

Raj K. Arya

Department of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of TechnologyJalandhar, India

George D. Verros

Public SectorThessaloniki, Greece

J. Paulo Davim

Department of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of AveiroAveiro, Portugal

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Arya, Raj K., editor. | Verros, George D., editor. | Davim, J. Paulo, editor.Title: Functional coatings : innovations and challenges / edited by Raj K. Arya, George D. Verros, J. Paulo Davim.Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley, [2024] | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023048464 (print) | LCCN 2023048465 (ebook) | ISBN 9781394207275 (cloth) | ISBN 9781394207282 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781394207299 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Coatings.Classification: LCC TA418.9.C57 F86 2024 (print) | LCC TA418.9.C57 (ebook) | DDC 667/.9–dc23/eng/20231122LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023048464LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023048465

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List of Contributors

Sushama AgarwallaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadHyderabad, TelanganaIndia

Raj K. AryaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Dibeyndu Sekhar BagPolymers and Rubber DivisionDefence Materials and Stores Researchand Development Establishment(DMSRDE)Kanpur, Uttar PradeshIndia

Jeetendra Kumar BanshiwalPolymers and Rubber DivisionDefence Materials and Stores Researchand Development Establishment(DMSRDE)Kanpur, Uttar PradeshIndia

Siva K. BathinaDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyGandhinagarGandhinagar, GujaratIndia

Shailendra Singh BhadauriaDepartment of Industrial andProduction EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Preetam Satish BharadiyaDepartment of Paint TechnologyUniversity Institute of ChemicalTechnology, Kavayitri BahinabaiChaudhari North MaharashtraUniversityJalgaon, MaharashtraIndia

Chitresh Kumar BhargavaIITB‐Monash Research AcademyIndian Institute ofTechnology BombayMumbai, MaharashtraIndia

Vishal ChauhanDepartment of Metallurgical andMaterials EngineeringDefence Institute of AdvancedTechnologyPuneIndia

Swati ChopraPolymers and Rubber DivisionDefence Materials and Stores Researchand Development Establishment(DMSRDE)Kanpur, Uttar PradeshIndia

Suhanya DuraiswamyDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadHyderabad, TelanganaIndia

Arvind K. GautamDepartment of Chemical EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyHamirpur, Himachal PradeshIndia

Gargi GhoshalDr. S.S.B. UICETPanjab UniversityChandigarhIndia

Sachin Kumar GodaraDepartment of Apparel and TextileTechnologyGuru Nanak Dev University AmritsarPunjabIndia

Simmi GoelDepartment of BiotechnologyMata Gujri CollegeFatehgarh Sahib, PunjabIndia

Jamna Prasad GujarDepartment of Chemical EngineeringMaulana Azad National Institute ofTechnologyBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia

Utkarsha U. GwalwanshiDepartment of Paint TechnologyUniversity Institute of ChemicalTechnology, Kavayitri BahinabaiChaudhari North MaharashtraUniversityJalgaon, MaharashtraIndia

Mohammed Adil IbrahimDepartment of Chemical EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadHyderabad, TelanganaIndia

Yash JaiswalDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDharmsinh Desai UniversityNadiad, GujaratIndia

Jay Mant JhaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringMaulana Azad National Institute ofTechnologyBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia

Dharitri KahaliDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia

Karan KapoorDepartment of BiotechnologyUniversity Institute of Engineering &Technology, Panjab UniversityChandigarhIndia

Amanpreet KaurDepartment of Industrial andProduction EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Anupreet KaurDepartment of BiotechnologyUniversity Institute of Engineering &Technology, Panjab UniversityChandigarhIndia

Sonanki KeshriDepartment of ChemistryJyoti Nivas College AutonomousBengaluru, KarnatakaIndia

Kamleshwar KumarDepartment of Industrial andProduction EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Kishant KumarDepartment of ChemistryIndian Institute of TechnologyRoparRupnagar, PunjabIndia

Omkar Singh KushwahaDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyChennai, Tamil NaduIndia

LipikaDepartment of ChemistryM. M. Engineering College,Maharishi Markandeshwar(Deemed to be University)Mullana, Ambala, HaryanaIndia

Aadhar MandotDepartment of Textile Engineering,Faculty of Technology andEngineeringThe Maharaja Sayajirao Universityof BarodaVadodara, GujaratIndia

Anshi MehraDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Harshit MittalUniversity School of ChemicalTechnologyGuru Gobind Singh IndraprasthaUniversityDwarka, DelhiIndia

Dharmit NakraniFire Safety Building ResearchEstablishmentBRE Science Park, Bucknalls LaneGarston, WatfordUnited Kingdom

Jitendra S. NarkhedeDepartment of Plastic TechnologyUniversity Institute of ChemicalTechnology, Kavayitri BahinabaiChaudhari North MaharashtraUniversityJalgaon, MaharashtraIndia

Hemanth NoothalapatiFaculty of Life and EnvironmentalSciencesShimane UniversityMatsueJapan

Kiran D. PatilSchool of Chemical andBioengineeringDr. Vishwanath Karad MIT WorldPeace UniversityPune, MaharashtraIndia

Shiv Charan PrajapatiDepartment of Paint TechnologyGovernment Polytechnic BindkiFatehpur, Uttar PradeshIndia

Ravindra G. PuriDepartment of Paint TechnologyUniversity Institute of ChemicalTechnologyKavayitri Bahinabai Chaudhari NorthMaharashtra UniversityJalgaon, MaharashtraIndia

Devendra RaiDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyRoorkee, UttarakhandIndia

Vinay RajDepartment of Civil EngineeringMaulana Azad National Institute ofTechnologyBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia

Narayanan RajagopalanDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringThe Hempel Foundation CoatingsScience and Technology Centre(CoaST), Denmark TechnicalUniversityDenmark

Snehil RanaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Shanmuk Srinivas RavuruDepartment of Chemical andMaterials EngineeringUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, AlbertaCanada

Subhajit RoychowdhuryMax‐Planck‐Institute for ChemicalPhysics of SolidsDresdenGermany

Deepak SahuDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Nihar SakhadeoDepartment of Bioproducts andBiosystems EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaSt. Paul, MNUSA

Pramita SenDepartment of Chemical EngineeringHeritage Institute of TechnologyKolkata, West BengalIndia

Reeta Rani SinghaniaDepartment of Marine EnvironmentalEngineeringNational Kaohsiung University ofScience and TechnologyKaohsiung CityTaiwan

Amit SinghPolymers and Rubber DivisionDefence Materials and Stores Researchand Development Establishment(DMSRDE)Kanpur, Uttar PradeshIndia

Arun K. SinghDepartment of ChemistryM. M. Engineering CollegeMaharishi Markandeshwar(Deemed to be University)Mullana, Ambala, HaryanaIndia

Mandeep SinghDepartment of PhysicsGuru Nanak Dev University AmritsarPunjabIndia

Sunil Kumar SinghDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadHyderabad, TelanganaIndia

Jeel SolankiDepartment of Chemical EngineeringSardar Vallabhbhai National Instituteof TechnologySurat, GujaratIndia

Ashwini Kumar SoodDepartment of ChemistryGuru Nanak Dev University AmritsarPunjabIndia

S. SudhaDepartment of ChemistryJyoti Nivas College AutonomousBengaluru, KarnatakaIndia

S.K. SundarDepartment of ChemicalEngineeringSardar Vallabhbhai National Instituteof TechnologySurat, GujaratIndia

Dhiraj Kishor TatarDepartment of Chemical EngineeringMaulana Azad National Institute ofTechnologyBhopal, Madhya PradeshIndia

Kshitij TewariDepartment of Chemical andBiomedical EngineeringWest Virginia UniversityMorgantown, WVUSA

Mahesh Kumar TiwariSustainability ClusterUniversity of Petroleum andEnergy StudiesDehradun, UttarakhandIndia

Devyani ThapliyalDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

Sarojini VermaDepartment of Chemical EngineeringDr. B R Ambedkar National Instituteof TechnologyJalandhar, PunjabIndia

T. Umasankar PatroDepartment of Metallurgical andMaterials EngineeringDefence Institute of AdvancedTechnologyPuneIndia

George D. VerrosDepartment of ChemistryAristotle University of ThessalonikiThessalonikiGreece

Ganesh S. ZadeDeccan Education Society’s TechnicalInstituteDeccan GymkhanaPune, MaharashtraIndia

Preface

Functional Coatings: Innovations and Challenges

Functional coatings play a crucial role in various industries, offering a range of protective, antimicrobial, superhydrophobic, and other specialized properties. In this book, “Functional Coatings: Innovations and Challenges,” an effort is made to serve as a comprehensive reference for researchers, engineers, and industry professionals seeking to understand the latest advancements, challenges, and opportunities in functional coatings across diverse industries.

The book begins with an introduction to functional coatings, emphasizing their significance in industrial applications. It explores innovative coating methods that are revolutionizing the industry and provides a comprehensive list of coating research institutes and organizations for further exploration.

A focus is placed on anticorrosion coatings, discussing their protective mechanisms, classifications, and recent advances in corrosion‐resistant coatings. Additionally, the book delves into the trend of using natural biopolymers for anticorrosion coatings, highlighting their potential as sustainable alternatives.

Marine and fire‐retardant coatings for modern lightweight materials are also explored. The book also examines antimicrobial coatings, detailing their current mechanisms, challenges, and opportunities. The synthesis mechanisms of antimicrobial coatings are discussed, shedding light on the innovative approaches used to create these functional coatings.

Furthermore, the book explores self‐healing, superhydrophobic, and nanopowder coatings, with the task to provide insights into their mechanisms, applications, and manufacturing processes. It also examines icephobic coatings, wetting and dispersing additives in coatings, and surface defect prevention and remedies. Characterization techniques for evaluating functional coatings are discussed, including techniques for structure–property evaluation.

We extend our heartfelt gratitude to all esteemed contributors for their invaluable contributions, enriching the book, “Functional Coatings: Innovations and Challenges.” Special thanks to Sarada Paul Roy for exceptional language editing. Our sincere appreciation goes to the Wiley editorial board, Summers Scholl, Executive Editor, Physical Sciences, Wiley, New York, United States, Satvinder Kaur, Managing Editor, Academic Professional Learning, Wiley Chennai, India, and Sindhu Raj Kuttappan, Content Refinement Specialist, Wiley Chennai, India, for their unwavering support, timely approval, and guidance during the project.

We also want to acknowledge and thank our families for their love and unwavering support throughout this endeavor. Their encouragement and understanding have been instrumental in completing this book.

We are hopeful that this book will serve as a significant reference for professionals and researchers in the field of functional coatings. Thank you all for your dedication and hard work.

Yours sincerelyEditorsRaj K. AryaGeorge D. VerrosJ. Paulo Davim

Part IIntroduction and Fundamentals

1Introduction to Functional Coatings

Devyani Thapliyal1, Sarojini Verma1, Kshitij Tewari2, Chitresh Kumar Bhargava3, Pramita Sen4, Simmi Goel5, Gargi Ghoshal6, George D. Verros7, and Raj K. Arya1

1Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

2Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

3IITB‐Monash Research Academy, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

4Department of Chemical Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

5Department of Biotechnology, Mata Gujri College, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India

6Dr. S.S.B. UICET, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

7Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

1.1 Introduction

The introduction chapter of the book “FunctionalCoatings: Innovations & Challenges” sets the stage for a captivating exploration into the fascinating world of coatings. As coatings continue to evolve and find applications in diverse industries, it becomes imperative to delve into the innovations and challenges that shape their development. This introductory chapter serves as a gateway, providing a comprehensive overview of the book’s content and highlighting the key themes that will be explored in subsequent chapters. From the fundamental principles of coatings to the latest breakthroughs in materials and technologies, this book offers valuable insights into the dynamic field of functional coatings. Whether you are a researcher, engineer, or industry professional, this introduction chapter invites you to embark on a journey of discovery, where you will uncover the transformative potential of coatings and gain a deeper understanding of the exciting advancements and challenges that lie ahead. The various types of functional coatings are shown in Figure 1.1. In what follows, the main types of coatings are described.

Figure 1.1 Various types of functional coatings.

1.2 Various Types of Coatings

Functional coatings encompass various types that serve specific purposes and enhance functionality on various surfaces. These coatings can be classified into different categories based on their specific applications. Some common types include antimicrobial coatings that inhibit the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms, corrosion‐resistant coatings that protect metal surfaces from rust and degradation, self‐cleaning coatings that repel dirt and stains, hydrophobic coatings that repel water and promote water resistance, and heat‐resistant coatings that provide thermal insulation and protect against high temperatures. Other types include UV‐resistant coatings for sun protection, anti‐fog coatings for enhanced visibility, anti‐graffiti coatings for easy graffiti removal, and conductive coatings for electrical conductivity. These functional coatings play a vital role in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, healthcare, electronics, and architecture, providing improved performance, durability, and protection to the coated surfaces. A few selected types are as follows.

1.2.1 Anticorrosive Coatings

Anticorrosive coatings play a vital role in protecting metal components from degradation caused by exposure to various environmental or industrial chemicals. These coatings are traditionally used to safeguard against corrosion in different environments. They can be classified based on the exposure environment, including immersion (for parts submerged in soil, fresh water, or sea water), splash zone (for structures near the waterline), and atmospheric (for equipment in marine, industrial, and rural areas) (Sørensen et al. 2009).

Functional anticorrosive coatings offer superior corrosion resistance compared to traditional coatings and provide additional properties such as self‐healing, corrosion sensing, antifouling, self‐cleaning, and antimicrobial capabilities. The protective mechanism of anticorrosive coatings is extensively reviewed elsewhere (Sørensen et al. 2009). Common materials used in smart (functional) coatings include bio‐based and waterborne epoxy resins, hyper‐branched polyesters, and waterborne and bio‐based polyurethanes, among others (Cui et al. 2020; Thomas et al. 2022).

Adhesion is another crucial property of coatings (Vrentas and Duda 1977). It involves the wetting and solidification of adhesive materials, which bind surfaces together during the coating process. Adhesives can be in liquid or solid form, with solid adhesives requiring heat to melt and solidify for bonding. A detailed review of adhesion mechanisms and coating classification can be found elsewhere (Vrentas and Duda 1977). Functional adhesive coatings employ various curing methods, such as instant, UV curing, and anaerobic, which enhance properties like transparency, conductivity, heat resistance, elasticity, and stiffness.

In industrial applications, preventing fouling is often necessary alongside anticorrosive and adhesive properties. Fouling refers to unwanted deposits on surfaces of flowing‐contacting materials and is observed in various fields, including marine, medical, nuclear power, heat exchangers, pipelines, and membranes. Fouling can originate from inorganic, biological, or organic sources, encompassing substances like macromolecules, bacteria, colloids, and salt crystals (Ekren et al. 2022). Research focuses on developing functional coatings that are more efficient and environmentally friendly, aiming to mitigate the negative impacts of fouling.

Functional antidust coatings are closely related to antifouling coatings. These coatings can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic and often possess antireflective properties, making them suitable for applications like solar panels (Gizer et al. 2023; Hossain et al. 2021; Mishra et al. 2019). Additionally, antidust coatings find use in gas absorption desulfurization processes, where membranes coated with an antidust layer improve overall performance (Xu et al. 2021).

1.2.2 Fire‐Resistant Coatings

According to (Thomas and Windle 1981), fire retardant coatings (or spray) are non‐combustible substances used in residential, commercial, and industrial structures for the following reasons.

Stop the spread of a fire

Slow down its progress

Put out less smoke

Stop it from spreading

Fire protection materials are used to reduce high temperatures in structural parts during a fire in order to prolong the time that a structure will remain fire resistant when built of materials like steel, concrete, or wood. These fire protection materials can be divided into reactive and passive types, such as intumescent coatings and incombustible boards (de Silva et al. 2022). Based on coatings, fire retardant materials can be further divided into the following categories (Lahoti et al. 2019).

1.2.2.1 Spray‐applied Fire‐Resistive Material (SFRM)

This material is frequently utilized for steel constructions as passive fire protection. In order to avoid explosive spalling, it is frequently used on structures made of reinforced concrete. Vermiculite, shreds of polystyrene, mineral fibers, or cement or gypsum plaster are frequently added to SFRM as additives. A wet mix (sprayed cementitious SFRM) or a dry mix (sprayed mineral fiber SFRM) can be used for spraying. SFRM can be used on existing structures and is economical. However, it could have an impact on how the structural components seem aesthetically. It has been linked to problems including brittleness and poor adherence to steel, which can cause structural steel that is not protected from dislodging and heating up quickly (Lahoti et al. 2019).

1.2.2.2 Intumescent Coating

This type of coating is specially formulated and applied to steel surfaces. Intumescent coatings are reactive and expand when exposed to heat, increasing their thickness and forming a carbonaceous char with small bubbles. This char acts as an insulating layer, protecting the substrate from fire (de Silva et al. 2022). Intumescent coatings are aesthetically pleasing and commonly used in architecturally exposed structural steel. However, they are more expensive compared to SFRM and typically provide fire ratings of 1–2 hours. Applying intumescent coatings is relatively fast and does not significantly increase weight or occupy space. However, cost is a concern when using this type of coating (de Silva et al. 2022).

In addition to the above coatings, polymers, and textiles are also important materials for fire‐resistant coatings. Coating techniques such as layer‐by‐layer assembly, dip coating, in‐situ solution‐based synthesis, and brushing/spray coating are used to impart flame retardancy to polymers and textiles without compromising their intrinsic properties (Wen et al. 2023). Silica‐based systems, alkali metal silicate solutions, colloidal silica, and other inorganic–organic hybrids produced through sol–gel chemistry are utilized for wood protection and improving fire resistance (Yona et al. 2021). Furthermore, nanomaterials, such as polyurea micro‐/nano‐capsules, nano‐cellulose, montmorillonite, and graphene‐based nanomaterials, are widely employed in fire‐resistant coatings (Zhou et al. 2022; Madelatparvar et al. 2023; Tavakoli et al. 2021; Jamsaz and Goharshadi 2022).

For example, polyurea micro‐/nano‐capsules find applications in thermal energy saving, self‐healing concrete, self‐healing polymers, and fire‐retarding in construction industries (Zhou et al. 2022). Waterproof and flame‐resistant cellulose‐based substrates have gained attention for resolving issues related to moisture and fire in cellulosic and nano‐cellulosic materials (Madelatparvar et al. 2023). Montmorillonite‐based coatings exhibit enhanced properties such as corrosion resistance, refractoriness, superhydrophobicity, antibacterial activity, and solar radiation absorption (Tavakoli et al. 2021). Polyurethane foams (PUFs) incorporating modified graphene nanomaterials are utilized in various applications, including fire‐alarm sensors, electromagnetic interference shielding, insulation material, and anticorrosion coatings (Jamsaz and Goharshadi 2022). Furthermore, fire‐resistant coatings are important in lithium‐ion batteries (Mallick and Gayen 2023).

1.2.3 Antimicrobial Coatings

Antimicrobial coatings have gained significant attention in recent years due to their potential to address the challenges of microbial contamination on various surfaces. These coatings offer a range of benefits, including reducing the risk of healthcare‐associated infections (HCAIs), preventing the spread of pathogens, and maintaining a clean and hygienic environment (Arya and Vinjamur 2012).

One important aspect of antimicrobial coatings is their ability to inhibit the growth and survival of microorganisms on surfaces. This is achieved by releasing antimicrobial agents that actively target and destroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other harmful microorganisms. The choice of antimicrobial agent depends on factors such as its effectiveness, safety, stability, and compatibility with the coating material.

Graphene and graphene‐like materials have shown great potential in antimicrobial coatings. These materials possess unique properties, such as high surface area, mechanical strength, and excellent conductivity, which can contribute to their antimicrobial efficacy. Graphene‐based coatings have demonstrated antibacterial properties against a wide range of bacteria, including antibiotic‐resistant strains. They can disrupt bacterial cell membranes, inhibit biofilm formation, and prevent the spread of pathogens.

Polycationic hydrogels are another class of materials used in antimicrobial coatings. These hydrogels have a positive charge, allowing them to interact with negatively charged microbial cell walls. The electrostatic interaction disrupts the cell membrane integrity, leading to cell death. Polycationic hydrogels have shown efficacy against various bacteria, including multidrug‐resistant strains.

Silver nanoparticles have long been recognized for their strong antimicrobial properties. They exhibit broad‐spectrum activity against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Silver nanoparticles can penetrate microbial cell membranes, leading to cell lysis or inhibition of cell division. Their small size allows for a large surface area, enhancing their antimicrobial effectiveness. Silver nanoparticle‐based coatings have been widely used in healthcare settings, such as hospitals, to reduce the risk of HCAIs.

Polymer brushes offer a unique approach to antimicrobial coatings. These densely packed polymer chains can be functionalized with antimicrobial agents, enabling controlled release and sustained antimicrobial activity. The release of antimicrobial agents from the polymer brushes can be triggered by environmental factors, such as pH or temperature, ensuring targeted and localized antimicrobial effects.

Dendrimers, with their highly branched and well‐defined structure, have also been investigated for their antimicrobial properties. These synthetic polymers can be designed to carry antimicrobial compounds, allowing for precise control over their release kinetics and antimicrobial activity. Dendrimers have shown efficacy against various bacteria and fungi and offer the potential for targeted delivery and enhanced antimicrobial effects.

Copper and its alloys possess inherent antimicrobial properties, often called the oligodynamic effect. When microorganisms come into contact with copper surfaces, copper ions are released, causing damage to the cell membrane and interfering with cellular processes. Copper has been used for antimicrobial applications for centuries, and its effectiveness in reducing microbial contamination on surfaces has been well‐documented. Copper‐based coatings find applications in healthcare facilities, public spaces, and even food preparation areas.

It is important to note that while antimicrobial coatings offer significant potential to reduce microbial contamination, they are not a substitute for good hygiene practices and regular cleaning. They are intended to complement existing infection control measures and provide additional protection against the spread of pathogens.

Continued research and development in the field of antimicrobial coatings are focused on improving their effectiveness, durability, and safety profiles. Novel materials, coating techniques, and strategies for controlled release are being explored to enhance antimicrobial efficacy and address emerging challenges, such as antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, regulatory standards and guidelines are being developed to ensure the safety and efficacy of antimicrobial coatings in various applications.

Overall, antimicrobial coatings hold immense promise in the fight against microbial contamination and the prevention of infections. Incorporating these coatings into various surfaces and materials can create cleaner, safer environments that help protect human health.

1.2.4 Other Functional Coatings

Superhydrophobic coatings are thin layers applied to surfaces that possess the remarkable ability to repel water. These coatings are made using superhydrophobic or ultra‐hydrophobic materials, which exhibit extremely low wetting properties. The effectiveness of superhydrophobic coatings relies on a combination of two key factors: surface roughness and low surface energy. The roughness component introduces microscopic or nanoscale structures that create air pockets, preventing water from directly contacting the surface. The low surface energy component reduces the adhesion between water molecules and the surface, causing water droplets to bead up and roll off the surface.

Numerous materials have been explored for the development of superhydrophobic coatings. Some notable examples include manganese oxide polystyrene (MnO2/PS) nanocomposite, zinc oxide polystyrene (ZnO/PS) nanocomposite, precipitated calcium carbonate, carbon nanotube (CNT) structures, silica nano‐coating, and fluorinated silanes. These materials can be combined in composite structures to optimize the desired surface properties (Katariya and Arya 2012).

In recent years, significant advances have been made in the field of superhydrophobic coatings. Researchers have successfully developed robust biomimetic superhydrophobic wood inspired by natural structures such as lotus leaves or butterfly wings (Li et al. 2023b). These coatings mimic the unique properties of natural superhydrophobic surfaces and offer enhanced durability and longevity.

Another exciting development is the creation of antifogging materials, which prevent the formation of fog or condensation on surfaces. These coatings find applications in various industries, including automotive, optical, and eyewear, where clear visibility is crucial (Wahab et al. 2023).

The exploration of novel corrosion‐resistant coatings has also been a focus of research. Corrosion is a significant concern for various metal‐based systems and structures. By applying superhydrophobic coatings, it is possible to create a protective barrier that effectively repels water and inhibits corrosion. The development of corrosion‐resistant coatings can extend the lifespan of metal components and reduce maintenance costs (Farag et al. 2023; Gupta et al. 2022).

Additionally, researchers have been investigating superhydrophobic coatings for anti‐icing applications. These coatings prevent ice accumulation on surfaces, reducing the need for mechanical removal methods and improving safety in cold climates (Li et al. 2023a).

Moving on to self‐healing coatings, they have emerged as a groundbreaking technology for enhancing the durability and longevity of protective coatings. While effective in providing a barrier against corrosive substances, traditional polymer coatings are prone to internal cracks. Detecting and repairing these cracks is often challenging, leading to reduced coating performance and potential corrosion damage.

Self‐healing coatings offer an innovative solution by incorporating healing agents within the coating matrix. When cracks occur, these coatings release the healing agents, filling the cracks and restoring the coating’s integrity. This autonomic repair mechanism ensures that self‐healing coatings can continuously maintain their protective function (Sadabadi et al. 2022).

Major advancements have been made in the development of self‐healing polymeric materials. These materials contain a coating matrix and nano/microcapsules containing the healing agents. The release of the encapsulated active agents can be controlled, allowing for efficient and targeted repair of internal cracks (Samadzadeh et al. 2010). One fascinating aspect of self‐healing coatings is incorporating bio‐friendly vegetable oils in the encapsulation process. This approach aligns with the growing emphasis on environmentally friendly and sustainable materials (Ataei et al. 2019).

In addition to autonomic repair mechanisms, self‐healing coatings can also employ non‐autonomous mechanisms. These mechanisms rely on external stimuli, such as heat or light, to trigger chemical reactions or physical transitions within the coating. These reactions or transitions facilitate bond formation or molecular chain movement, enabling self‐repair (Zhang et al. 2018).

Moreover, self‐healing coatings inspired by biological systems have gained attention. These coatings draw inspiration from the remarkable self‐healing abilities of living organisms. By embedding polymerizable healing agents or corrosion inhibitors in the coating matrices, these coatings can exhibit autonomous healing mechanisms similar to those found in nature. Non‐autonomous mechanisms can also be induced through external stimuli, such as heat or light, which initiate chemical reactions or physical transitions necessary for bond formation or molecular chain movement (Zhang et al. 2018).

Ceramic coatings have also been explored for self‐healing applications. Extensive research has focused on understanding these materials’ structural and chemical properties and their correlation with performance. By leveraging the unique properties of ceramics, such as high‐temperature resistance and durability, self‐healing ceramic coatings hold promise for various applications (Aouadi et al. 2020).

Waterborne polymers, including poly (vinyl alcohol) and carbohydrates, have shown potential for use in self‐healing coatings. These materials offer compatibility with water‐based systems and can contribute to developing environmentally friendly and sustainable coating solutions. The applications of self‐healing coatings extend beyond corrosion prevention, with potential uses in food packaging and tissue engineering (Song et al. 2023; Verma and Quraishi 2022; Lai 2023; Erezuma et al. 2022).

Shifting the focus to anti‐scratch coatings, these coatings play a crucial role in protecting surfaces from scratches caused by interactions with sharper objects. They consist of microscopic materials that possess scratch‐resistant properties. Incorporating these materials into the coating matrix provides an additional layer of defense against scratches. Various additives, filters, and binders are used to enhance scratch resistance, and the formation techniques employed during the coating process significantly impact the overall scratch resistance performance (Kumar et al. 2003).

The demand for anti‐scratch coatings has grown as traditional scratch‐resistant materials like metals and glass are replaced with low‐scratch‐resistant plastics. In the automotive industry, anti‐scratch coatings help maintain the appearance of vehicles and protect the underlying anticorrosion layers. In the optical industry, scratch‐resistant coatings are crucial for eyeglasses, as scratches can significantly impact a wearer’s vision. The electronics industry also benefits from anti‐scratch coatings, which are applied to electronic screens to prevent scratches caused by fingernails. Additionally, anti‐scratch coatings find use in a wide range of products, including optical discs, displays, injection‐molded parts, gauges, mirrors, signs, eye safety goggles, and cosmetic packaging (Kumar et al. 2003).

Electrically conducting polymers (CPs) have benefitted from developments in functional coatings. The groundbreaking class of organic compounds known as CPs has optical and electrical characteristics that are on par with those of metals and inorganic semiconductors. These materials are ideal for a variety of applications because of their remarkable processing robustness and adaptability. The shape memory alloy, actuator, sensor, biomedical, flexible electronics, solar cell, fuel cell, supercapacitor, LED, and adhesive applications all show promise for CP nanocomposites, which were developed and produced with specific functionalities. Incorporating nanocomposite elements into coatings is achieved by enhancing mechanical qualities, barrier properties, weight reduction, and long‐lasting performance in heat, wear, and scratch resistance (Sharma et al. 2021).

Lastly, refractory high‐entropy alloys (RHEAs) have gained attention as protective coatings for high‐temperature components. Initially developed for aerospace applications, RHEAs aim to provide increased erosion and corrosion resistance compared to high‐nickel superalloys. The performance characteristics of RHEAs, such as friction, wear rates, hardness, and strain rate‐dependent properties, have been thoroughly investigated using spheroconical scratch‐based and nanoindentation methods (Dixit et al. 2022).

1.3 Manufacturing of Coatings

Functional coatings can be manufactured or prepared using various methods depending on the specific requirements and characteristics desired for the coating. Detailed information for various innovative coating manufacturing processes is given in Chapter 2. However, some commonly used techniques for the manufacturing and preparation of functional coatings:

1.3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

PVD involves the deposition of thin films onto a substrate through physical processes such as evaporation or sputtering. The coating material is vaporized and condensed onto the substrate, forming a thin film with the desired functional properties. PVD techniques include thermal evaporation, electron beam evaporation, and magnetron sputtering.

1.3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

CVD is a process that involves the reaction of vaporized precursor chemicals to deposit a solid coating onto a substrate. The precursors react and form a thin film on the substrate surface. CVD can be carried out using various methods, such as atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), low‐pressure CVD (LPCVD), and plasma‐enhanced CVD (PECVD).

1.3.3 Sol–Gel Coating

Sol, which is a stable colloidal suspension of nanoparticles in a liquid, can be used as a starting point for thin films or coatings using the flexible sol–gel technique. After being applied to the substrate, the sol goes through a number of chemical processes, including condensation and hydrolysis, to create a solid covering. Techniques including dip coating, spin coating, and spray coating can be used to apply sol–gel coatings.

1.3.4 Electroplating/Electrodeposition

Electroplating involves depositing a metal coating onto a substrate through an electrochemical process. The substrate is immersed in an electrolyte solution containing metal ions, and an electric current is passed through the system, causing the metal ions to reduce and deposit onto the substrate surface. Electrodeposition allows for the precise control of coating thickness and composition.

1.3.5 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD)

CBD involves the immersion of a substrate into a chemical bath containing precursor compounds. The precursor compounds deposit onto the substrate surface through a series of chemical reactions, forming a thin film coating. CBD often deposits thin films of oxides, sulfides, or other complex compounds.

1.3.6 Spray Coating

Spray coating is a versatile technique that involves spraying a coating material onto a substrate surface using a spray gun or atomizer. The coating material can be in the form of a liquid solution, suspension, or powder. Spray coating methods include air spraying, electrostatic spraying, and ultrasonic spraying. This technique allows for uniform and controlled deposition of coatings over large areas.

1.3.7 Dip Coating

Dip coating involves immersing a substrate into a coating solution or suspension and slowly withdrawing it, allowing the excess coating material to drain off. The remaining thin film coating adheres to the substrate surface. Dip coating is a simple and cost‐effective method for applying coatings to complex‐shaped objects.

1.3.8 Spin Coating