Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Unravelling the Role of Vegetables, Pulses and Spices as Therapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Anticancer Activity Of Plants
Dietary Supplements Or Nutraceuticals
Treatment of Cancer
Health Benefits Vegetables, Spices, And Pulses
Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi, Umbelliferae)
Arbi (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae)
Asafoetida (Ferula asafoetida, Umbelliferae)
Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus, Liliaceae)
Beetroot (Beta vulgaris, Amaranthaceae)
Shimla Mirch (Capsicumannuum, Solanaceae)
Karela (Momordica charantia, Cucurbitaceae)
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum, Piperaceae)
Lauki (Lagenaria siceraria, Cucurbitaceae)
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiberaceae)
Carrots (Daucus carota, Apiaceae)
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea, Brassicaceae)
Green Onion (Allium schoenoprasum, Amaryllidaceae)
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Lauraceae)
Clove (Suzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae)
Coconut (Cocosnucifera, Arecaceae)
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum, Umbelliferae)
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, Apiaceae)
Eggplant (Solanum melongana, Solanaceae)
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, Umbelliferae /Apiaceae)
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Allium Species: A Remarkable Repertoire of Nutraceuticals with Anti-cancer Properties
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Cancer Prevalence
Management of Cancer
Lifestyle Modification And Cancer Management
Anti-cancer Promise of Allium Species
Allium ampeloprasum L.
Allium ascalonicum L.
Allium cepa L
Onion and its anti-cancer effects: in-vitro and in-vivo evidences
Onion And Its Anti-cancer Effects: Clinical Evidences
The anticancer activities of garlic
Clinical Experience With Garlic
Allium Schoenoprasum L.
Chives and its Anti-Cancer Effects: In-vitro and in-vivo Evidences
Chives and its Anti-cancer Effects: Clinical Evidences
conclusion and future directions
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Mechanistic Insight into the Chemotherapeutic Potential of Dietary Phytochemicals
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Natural phytochemicals for cancer chemoprevention
Resveratrol
Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG)
Gingerol
Genistein
Curcumin
Lycopene
Quercetin
Kaempferol
Gallic Acid
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Complementary and Alternative Strategies for Cancer Prevention and Therapy
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
REASONS FOR GROWING INTEREST IN ALTERNATIVE THERAPY FOR CANCER
COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES FOR CANCER
BODY MIND RELATED THERAPY
CANCER-PREVENTIVE PLANT DERIVATIVES
Therapies
Acupuncture
Massage
Yoga
Tai Chi
Aromatherapy
Music therapy
Dietary Cancer Treatments
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Current Trends in Target-Specific Delivery of Phytomedicine: A Possible Strategy for Cancer Treatment
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Liposomes
Polymeric Nanoparticles
Dendrimers
Solid–Lipid Nanoparticles
Micelles
Metal Nanoparticles
Gold Nanoparticles
Silver Nanoparticles
Other Metal NPs
Magnetic Nanoparticles
Carbon Nanotubes
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress as Foe and Friends in Prevention of Cancer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
OXIDATIVE STRESS AND CANCER
FREE RADICALS AND ROS
ROS Mediated Damage to Biomolecules
CONTROVERSIAL ROLE OF ROS IN CANCER
ANTIOXIDANTS AND THE ANTIOXIDANT DEFENSE SYSTEM
TYPES OF ANTIOXIDANTS
Enzymatic Antioxidants
Superoxide Dismutase
Catalase
Glutathione Peroxidase
Glutathione Reductase
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs)
Nonenzymatic Antioxidants
Glutathione
Melatonin
Coenzyme Q10
Metal Chelating Proteins
Uric Acid
Bilirubin
NADPH
Polyamines
α-Lipoic Acid
Selenium
Zinc
Vitamin E
Vitamin C
Polyphenols
Carotenoids
SYNTHETIC ANTIOXIDANTS
NATURAL SOURCES OF ANTIOXIDANTS
Legumes, Nuts and Oilseeds
Vegetables
Cereals
Fruits
Herbs and Spices
Beverages
Animal-derived foods
LEVELS AND MODE OF ANTIOXIDANT ACTION
First Line of Defense (Preventive Antioxidants)
Second Line of Defense (Scavenger Antioxidants)
Third Line of Defense (Repair and de novo Antioxidants)
Fourth Line of Defense (Adaptation)
ANTIOXIDANTS AND CANCER
ROLE OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS IN PREVENTION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS AND CANCER
ANTIOXIDANTS IN CONJUNCTION WITH CONVENTIONAL CANCER TREATMENT
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF ANTIOXIDANTS
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF ANTIOXIDANTS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Efficacy of Chemopreventive Agents in Steroid Hormone Dependent Mouse Mammary Organ Culture (MMOC) Model: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Classification Of Cancer Chemopreventive Agents
Mechanism-based Classification
Models To Evaluate Efficacy (preclinical)
Screening Assays
In Vitro Efficacy Models
In Vivo Models
Mouse Mammary Organ Culture (MMOC)
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Molecular Mechanisms of Flavonoids Mediated Therapy and Chemoprevention of Cancer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Anticancer Properties of Flavonols and Flavones
ANTHOCYANINS
Modifying Redox Status
Intervening Basic Functioning of Cells
ISOFLAVONES
Anticancer Property of Isoflavones
Mechanism of Action
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Protective and Therapeutic Effects of Plant Saponins
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Saponins: structure, types, sources and properties
Biosynthesis of Saponins
Bioavailability of Saponins
Saponins: Protective and Therapeutic Effects
Saponins: Structure and Anticancer Activity
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Chemomodulatory Potential of Lutein Derived from Dietary Sources
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Lutein and its Sources
Food Sources of Lutein
Lutein as a Functional Food Ingredient
Lutein in the Treatment of Cancer
Breast Cancer
Cervical Cancer
Lung Cancer
Skin Cancer
Colon Cancer
Storage and Bioavailability of Lutein
Conclusion
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
References
Potential of Biomaterials Derived from Marine Algae as Anticancer Agent
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ANTICANCER POTENTIAL OF MARINE ALGAE
Cyanophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Bacillariophyceae
Rhodophyceae
Phaeophyceae
CANCER CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC BIOMATERIAL DERIVED FROM MARINE ALGAE
Polyphenols
Alkaloids
Terpenoids
Sterols
Fatty acids
Polysaccharides
Carotenoids
Phycobiliproteins
Peptides
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Biomarkers as Tools for the Early Detection of Cancer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Properties Of An Ideal Cancer Biomarker
ADVANTAGES OF USING BIOMARKERS OVER TRADITIONAL METHODS
BIOMARKER DISCOVERY AND VALIDATION PROCESS
USES OF CANCER BIOMARKERS
Screening or Early Detection
Diagnosis or Differential Diagnosis
Prognosis or Prediction
Therapeutic Monitoring or Follow-up Assessment for the Evidence of Metastasis or Relapse/Recurrence
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF CANCER BIOMARKERS
Genetic or Nucleic Acid Biomarkers
Epigenetic Biomarkers
Non-coding Mirnas as Biomarkers
Protein Biomarkers
Viral Biomarkers
Circulating Tumor Cells as Biomarkers
Exosomes as Novel Biomarkers
Exosomal Proteins as Biomarkers
Exosomal Nucleic acid as Biomarkers
SOME CANCER-SPECIFIC BIOMARKERS
Colorectal Cancer Biomarkers
Genetic and Epigenetic Modifications
Tissue miRNAs
Circulating miRNAs
Proteins
Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers
Proteins
Macrophage Inhibitory Cytokine 1
PAM 4
Glypican
Osteopontin Proteins
KRAS Mutation
Epigenetic Biomarkers
miRNAs
Ovarian Cancer Biomarkers
Proteins
Circulating Tumor DNA
Epigenetic Biomarkers (DNA Methylation)
Autoantibodies
miRNAs
Lung Cancer Biomarkers
Breath based Biomarkers
Protein Biomarkers
miRNA Biomarkers
DNA Methylation-based Biomarkers
Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs)
Breast Cancer Biomarkers
Protein Biomarkers
Volatile Organic Compounds
Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs)
miRNA Biomarkers
Prostate Cancer Biomarkers
Protein Biomarkers
Genetic Biomarkers
miRNA Biomarkers
Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs)
Exosomal Biomarkers
CONCLUSION: CURRENT CHALLENGES AND FUTURISTIC APPROACH
REFERENCES
Biomarkers for the Diagnosis and Surveillance of Cancer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
JOURNEY OF CANCER BIOMARKERS
NEED FOR BIOMARKERS AND DISCOVERY APPROACH
TYPES OF CANCER BIOMARKERS
Protein Biomarkers
Genomic Biomarkers
Circulating Tumor DNA as Biomarkers
Non-coding RNA
Long non-coding RNAs
Micro RNAs
Epigenetic Modifications as Biomarkers
Metabolomics Biomarkers
Immunological Biomarkers
Proteoglycans (PGs) as Biomarkers
Breath Biopsy as a Cancer Biomarker
Role of Heat Shock Proteins
Salivary Biomarkers
PRESENT STATUS OF CANCER BIOMARKERS
CHALLENGES FOR CANCER BIOMARKERS
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES: BENCH TO BEDSIDE
CONCLUSION
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
REFERENCES
Animal Models used in Cancer Research: Role of Transgenic Animals
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Spontaneous Tumour Models
Transplantable Tumour Models
Radiation-Induced Tumour Models
Chemically Induced Tumour Models
Virus-Induced Tumour Models
DNA Tumour Viruses
RNA Tumour Viruses
Transgenic Animal Models
OTHER ANIMAL MODELS
Pigs as Animal Models
Porcines as Models for Breast Cancer and Colorectal Cancer
Fishes as Animal Models
Canines as Animal Models
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Stem Cell Models: Novel Experimental Approach for Testable Alternatives against Therapy-resistant Breast and Colon Cancer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Experimental Models
Lead Compounds
Growth inhibitory effects of lead compounds
Drug-resistant models
Efficacy of Lead Compounds in Stem Cell Models
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
In vitro and in vivo Methods used for the Evaluation of Anticancer Secondary Metabolites
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Evaluating Approaches for Anticancer Activity
In vitro Approaches
Trypan Blue Dye Exclusion Assay
Lactate Dehydrogenase Approaches
MTT Assay
XTT Assay
Sulforhodamine B Assay
In vivo Approach
Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Model
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Nano-based Nutraceuticals and their Applications: Food Safety, Regulation and Challenges
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
IMPACT OF NANOTECHNOLOGY ON FOOD SUPPLEMENTS
Bioactive Compounds
Interactive Foods
Texture
FOOD APPLICATIONS
Nanoemulsions
Biopolymeric Nanoparticles
Nanolaminates
Nanofibers and Nanotubes
Nano-sensors
Nanocantilevers
NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATION IN NUTRACEUTICALS
Distribution of Bioactive Components
Probiotic Administration
FOOD SAFETY AND TOXIC EFFECTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
CURRENT STATUS OF REGULATION OF NANOMATERIALS IN FOOD: SAFETY REGULATIONS
FUTURE CHALLENGES
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Role of Functional Foods in the Amelioration of Alzheimer's and Related Diseases
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Classification of functional foods
Dietary Fibres
Sugar Alcohol and other Alcohol
Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
Phenols and Phenolic Compounds
Flavonoid Compounds
Triterpenes and Terpenoids
Alkaloids
Lignans and Lignin Glycosides
Vitamins
Probiotics and Prebiotics
Natural Compounds useful in the Prevention and Management of ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
Antioxidants
CURRENT STATUS
FUTURE PROSPECTS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Functional Foods for Health Maintenance:
Understanding their Role in Cancer Prevention
Edited by
Saroj Arora
Department of Botanical & Environmental Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, India
Tajinder Kaur
Department of Botany
S.R. Government College for Women
Amritsar, Punjab, India
Rajendra G. Mehta
Cancer Biology Division
IIT Research Institute
Chicago, IL, United States
Balbir Singh
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, India
&
Sandeep Kaur
Department of Botanical & Environmental Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, India
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FOREWORD
I feel privileged to write a foreword for this book that addresses the potential of natural product-derived nutraceuticals in the prevention and treatment of cancer and examines the techniques and methods employed for detecting their mechanism of action at the molecular and cellular level. Considering that cancer incidence and associated mortality and morbidity are increasing worldwide, accompanied by spiraling treatment and healthcare costs, strategies for the prevention of the disease are becoming very important. Many approaches have been implemented to reduce the incidence of this dreadful disease, but the use of natural chemopreventive agents remains, in my opinion, a promising and cost-effective strategy. Furthermore, natural product-derived chemopreventive agents are expected to be free of undesirable toxicities. Non-invasive methods for cancer detection, screening, diagnosis, treatment and metastasis are also of paramount importance in cancer chemoprevention. These methods are also addressed in this book titled “Functional Foods for Health Maintenance: Understanding their Role in Cancer Prevention” edited by Dr. Saroj Arora, Dr. Tajinder Kaur, Dr. Rajendra Mehta, Dr. Balbir Singh and Dr. Sandeep Kaur.
The book covers a broad range of topics contributed by experts in their field. Among them, it includes comprehensive overviews of nutraceuticals, phytochemicals, the application of nano-technology in cancer chemoprevention, and the techniques used for monitoring treatment outcomes. The book presents several studies that comprehensively demonstrate that nutraceuticals have anti-cancer properties. Understanding the mechanism of action of these natural chemopreventive agents is essential for the selection of the most promising combinations for maximum efficacy. Generally, chemopreventive agents modulate or disrupt the molecular mechanisms driving the process of carcinogenesis, including (a) preventing or reducing DNA damage introduced by reactive oxygen species in normal cells, (b) blocking cellular signal pathways involved in cell cycle progression and proliferation in cancer cells, and (c) promoting apoptosis in cancer cells.
I congratulate the editors for compiling this publication that provides the reader with the most recent advances in cancer chemoprevention and explains the use of nutraceuticals and functional foods in health maintenance. I expect that scientists interested in cancer treatment and prevention within the fields of cancer biology, biochemistry, pharmaceutical sciences and biotechnology will find this book very useful.
Andreas Constantinou
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Cyprus
Nicosia, Cyprus
PREFACE
Cancer is a complex genetic disease which accounts for more than eight million deaths and roughly fourteen million new cases each year, inspite of the modern advancement in medical therapeutics in the world. Several evidences have shown that the plant-based foods consumption lower the risk and incidence of cancer and other degenerative diseases. Phytochemicals as secondary plant metabolites possesses antioxidant activity by inhibiting DNA damage induced by oxidative stress and thereby play crucial role in cancer chemoprevention. In contrast, the pro-oxidant activity of these phytochemicals/nutraceuticals has been found in the treatment of cancer in which they modulate cellular processes undergoing molecular alterations involve in the development of cancer. Furthermore, in vivo, in vitro and ex-vivo studies and the techniques employed for the diagnosis of cancer have been fully capable to expose phytochemicals having distinct impact on the prevention and treatment of cancer and other diseases.
The present book “Functional Foods for Health Maintenance: Understanding their Role in Cancer Prevention” summarizes the evidences, methods and techniques focused on identifying specific nutraceuticals capable of interfering and reducing the risk of cancer and other diseases development along with their underlying molecular mechanism. It contributes an up-to-date information and understanding in the context of interaction between nutraceuticals as chemotherapeutic agents and cancer progression which is a crucial contemporary discovery. Chapter one provides an overview of spices, herbs, fruits and vegetables used as medicine and studied as an important source for cancer chemoprevention. Chapter two shows that dietary intake of Allium species reduce the risk of cancer and have significant antitumor activities. Chapter three to ten mainly deals with the chemomodulatory effects of phytochemicals/nutraceuticals along with their varied action mechanisms including inhibition of gene expression, promotion of apoptosis of cancer cells, antiproliferative activity, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Chapter eleven elucidate the pharmacological properties of biomolecules derived from marine algae to provide baseline information for promoting anticancer research. Chapter twelve to sixteen comprehensively deals with the biomarkers, methods and models playing crucial roles in screening, asymptomatic and early stage detection, monitoring of the treatment therapy of cancer. Chapter seventeen highlights the role of nanotechnology in functional foods in order to enhance their bioavailability, absorption and biological activity. Chapter eighteen discusses the biological activity of nutraceuticals for the prevention and therapy of several diseases and its market demand because of increasing consumer knowledge of these compounds.
We express our gratitude to all the contributors. We would like to thank Prof. (Dr) Andreas Constantinou for writing foreword. Finally, it is a profound pleasure to thank Bentham Science for taking up the publication of this book. We hope that this book will provide recent scientific knowledge on chemotherapeutic potential of natural products and the techniques employed for the detection of cancer and other diseases and will lead to new discussions about the global scope of nutraceuticals.
Saroj Arora
Department of Botanical & Environmental Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, IndiaTajinder Kaur
Department of Botany
S.R. Government College for Women
Amritsar, Punjab, IndiaRajendra G. Mehta
Cancer Biology Division
IIT Research Institute
Chicago, IL, United StatesBalbir Singh
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Guru Nanak Dev University
Amritsar, Punjab, India
&Sandeep Kaur
Department of Botanical & Environmental Sciences
List of Contributors
Ajay KumarDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaAnjaliDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana 124001, IndiaAnkita RajputDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaAvinash Kaur NagpalDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaAvinash SharmaDepartment of Microbiology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaBalbir SinghDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaBrahmjot SinghDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaD.P. SinghDepartment of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala-147002, Punjab, IndiaDikshaDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaDrishtant SinghDepartment of Biotechnology, Khalsa College, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaEvani MahajanDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaG.K. PratapDepartment of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Jnana Kaveri PG Centre Chikka Aluvara, Kodagu, Karnataka 571 232, IndiaHarjit Kaur BajwaDepartment of Botany and Environmental Science, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib 140407, IndiaHasandeep SinghDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaHina KhanDepartment of Botany and Environmental Science, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib 140407, IndiaIrfan Ahmed NooraniDepartment of Animal Sciences, Central University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Ganderbal-191201, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaJ.I.S. KhattarDepartment of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala-147002, Punjab, IndiaJeevanjot KaurDepartment of Botany, Khalsa College, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaKiran KangraDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana 124001, IndiaKomalDepartment of Botany and Environmental Science, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib-140406, Punjab, IndiaKritika PanditDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaKshema ThakurDepartment of Biochemistry, Sri Lal Bahadur Shastri Government Medical College Mandi, Mandi-175008, Himachal Pradesh, India
Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaManjula ShantaramDepartment of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Jnana Kaveri PG Centre Chikka Aluvara, Kodagu, Karnataka 571 232, IndiaMhaveer SinghSchool of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram-122103, IndiaMichael HawthorneDivision of Cancer Biology, IIT Research Institute, Chicago, IL 60616, United StatesRaaman N.Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai-600025, IndiaNeha SharmaDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaNitin TelangCancer Prevention Research Program, Palindrome Liaisons Consultants, New Jersey, USAPalaqDepartment of Zoology, University of Jammu, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaPalvi SharmaDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaPayal KapoorDepartment of Biotechnology, Khalsa College, Amritsar-143002, Punjab, IndiaRahul BadruDepartment of Chemistry, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib-140406, Punjab, IndiaRahul DuttaDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaRahul Pratap SinghSchool of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram-122103, IndiaRajendra G. MehtaDivision of Cancer Biology, IIT Research Institute, Chicago, IL 60616, United StatesRajesh NaithaniDivision of Cancer Biology, IIT Research Institute, Chicago, IL 60616, United StatesRajeshwari R. MehtaDivision of Cancer Biology, IIT Research Institute, Chicago, IL 60616, United StatesRasdeep KourDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaRenu BhardwajDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaRicha ShriDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, 147002, IndiaRohit DuttGandhi Memorial National College, Ambala Cantt, Haryana 133001, IndiaRupinder Pal SinghDepartment of Food Processing Technology, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib-140406, Punjab, IndiaSakshi SharmaDepartment of Botany, DAV College, Amritsar-143001, Punjab, IndiaSamikshaDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaSandeep KaurDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaSarabjit KaurDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaSarika DhirBS Anangpuria Institute of Pharmacy, Faridabad, Haryana 121004, IndiaSaroj AroraDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Punjab, IndiaSatwinder Kaur SohalDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaSatwinderjeet KaurDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaShagun VermaDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaShallina GuptaDepartment of Zoology, Cluster University of Jammu, Jammu-180001, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaSharad ThakurDietetics and Nutrition Technology, COVID-19 Facility, CSIR-IHBT, Palampur-176061, Himachal Pradesh, IndiaSonali SharmaDepartment of Zoology, Cluster University of Jammu, Jammu-180001, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaSumit SinghDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, IndiaVandana GargDepartment of Pharmacy, Maharshi Dyananad University, Rohtak, Haryana 124001, IndiaVarinder SinghChitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, IndiaVarsha JayakarDepartment of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Jnana Kaveri PG Centre Chikka Aluvara, Kodagu, Karnataka 571 232, IndiaVikas JhawatSchool of Medical and Allied Sciences, GD Goenka University, Gurugram-122103, IndiaVinayak LokapurDepartment of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Jnana Kaveri PG Centre Chikka Aluvara, Kodagu, Karnataka 571 232, IndiaYadvinder SinghDepartment of Botany and Environmental Science, Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib-140406, Punjab, India
Unravelling the Role of Vegetables, Pulses and Spices as Therapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents
Vandana Garg1,Anjali1,Kiran Kangra1,Rohit Dutt2,*
1 Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak, Haryana-124001, India
2 Gandhi Memorial National College, Ambala Cantt, Haryana 133001, India
Abstract
Worldwide, cancer has become the most life-threatening disease. The current remedial treatment of cancer includes chemotherapy, surgery, immunotherapy, stem cell transplant and hormone therapy. Plants produce secondary metabolites in abundance having medicinal properties used for treating various diseases, such as AIDS, diabetes, cancer, inflammation, fever, diarrhoea and bacterial and fungal infections. Naturally derived components are largely considered by scientists and researchers due to their low toxicity and lesser side effects. Functional foods are the food or food components that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Functional foods simply provide nutrients that help to maintain health, thereby reducing the risk of disease. Various vegetables like Asparagus racemosus, Cocos nucifera, Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis, Zingiber officinale, Atrocarpus heterophyllus, etc., pulses, i.e., Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna radiate, Vigna mungo, etc., and Spices viz., Ferula asafoetida, Piper nigrum, Elettaria cardamomum, Coriandrum sativum, Nigella sativa and Curcuma longa, are explored for their potential role to fight many diseases and anticancer activity. This review aims to highlight the protective and synergistic role of functional foods in cancer prevention.
Keywords: Anticancer activity, Chemotherapy, Hormone therapy, Immunotherapy, Life-threatening disease, Secondary metabolites, Surgery, Stem cell transplant.
*Corresponding Author Rohit Dutt: Gandhi Memorial National College, Ambala Cantt, Haryana 133001, India;
E-mail:
[email protected]INTRODUCTION
Cancer is one of the most deadly or life-threatening diseases that critically affects the human population [1]. Cancer is described as a disease in which the formation
of abnormal cells grows destructively by overlooking the natural process of cell division [2]. There are more than 100 different types of cancers that occur due to some molecular variance in the cell [3]. The known types of cancers in India are blood, stomach, bladder, lungs, breast, liver, prostate, mouth, skin, cervix, rectum and oesophagus cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded cases of leading types of cancer. In 2030, there will be nearly 26 million fresh cancer patients and 17 million deaths per year [4]. Conventional methods like chemotherapy could cause undesirable and lethal side effects on normal cells while treating infected cells. The use of natural plants is an alternative key to the destructive effects of synthetic agents. Natural products are considered conventionally a rich source of phytochemicals that possess potent bioactivities against chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes and infectious diseases [5]. World Health Organization states that about 80% of people living in rustic areas depend on the herb as a prime healthcare system because of cost factors and easy availability [6].
Anticancer Activity Of Plants
About 187 plant species, 102 genera and 61 families provide active sources of various phytoconstituents having anticancer activity, interrelating to a 41% rise from the past 5 years [7].
Plants are the most reliable source for various disease treatments. More than 60% are of the natural origin, of which the maximum is picked up from higher plants. The active principles collected from different plants, such as Solanum tuberosum, Prunella vulgaris, Aloe vera, Vinca rosea, Glycine max, Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Cucurbita maxima, Tinospora cordifolia and Zingiber officinale and many more are greatly utilized in various pharmaceutical preparations to upgrade the activity of immune cells of our body that stimulate the growth of cytokines in addition to interferon, colony-stimulating factor, interleukin and tumour necrosis factor [8]. Different herbs, fruits and vegetables are used as medicine and studied as an important source for cancer chemoprevention drug discovery and development [9].
Dietary Supplements Or Nutraceuticals
Nutraceutical is a word made by combining two words, ‘nutrition’ and ‘pharmaceuticals’. Nutraceutical may be defined as food or maybe a part of food that acts significantly to recast and control the normal physiologic behaviour of human beings to maintain their good health [10]. Nutraceuticals are made to prevent various chronic diseases of human beings. They cure or inhibit disorders which are related to oxidative stress, e.g., cardiovascular diseases, allergies, hypo- and hyper- glycaemia, inflammation, alzheimer, cancer, Parkinson’s disease, and eye and immune disorders [11]. Around 2,500 years past, Hippocrates (ancient Greek physician) cited, “Let food be the medicine and medicine be the food”. Presently, nutraceuticals may be called the bridge between “food” and “medicine”. Nutraceuticals may be herbal products, regular nutritive products, withdrawn nutrients, vitamins and processed food products (like soups, juices, cereals and beverages) [10].
Treatment of Cancer
After heart disease, cancer is the next leading cause of death. Cancer may occur due to many reasons, such as improper diet, junk foods, smoking and drinking. Treatments for cancer have been developed to cure the disease from ancient times. At present, there are many therapies to treat different types of cancer shown in Table 1.
Table 1Therapies that treat different types of cancer.Name of TherapyMechanism of ActionReferencesSurgeryRemoval of the cancerous part of the body.[12]ChemotherapyA cancer cell is damaged or killed with the help of drugs.[13]Hormonal therapyWithdrawal of hormone-secreting gland, e.g., inhibition of adrenal steroid genesis.[14]Radiation therapyX-rays are used for curing cancer.[15]Targeted therapyA specific molecule or cell is targeted for invasion.[16]Photodynamic therapyPhotodynamic therapy involves the use of light, oxygen and photosensitizers to cure cancer.[17]Stem cell transplantThe affected cells are replaced by healthy cells.[18]
Health Benefits Vegetables, Spices, And Pulses
As we know, functional foods contain phytoconstituents used in the treatment of various diseases. As reported in the literature, vegetables, spices and pulses have a great potential for prevention and treatment through their anticancer activity. Some potential vegetables that are a remarkable source to treat various cancer types of cancer are listed in Table 2. Cereals are a good source of peptide-protein and amino acids. Each cereal has its own protein amount. Some peptides are used as nutraceuticals, which exert biological activity and promote health benefits by reducing the risk of various disorders tabulated in Table 3. From the ancient period, spices are also used as folk medicines. Spices may be used as an anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound healer [19]. Some common spices and their health benefits are tabulated in Table 4.
Table 2Anticancer cancer activity of vegetables.Common NameScientific Name and FamilyPart UsedExtractCell LinesAnti-cancer ActivityReferencesArbi, poi, yamColocasia esculenta (Araceae)RootAqueousYYTBreast cancer[30]Colorectal cancerAsparagus, Shatavari, SatmooliAsparagus racemosus (Liliaceae)RootMethanolMCF-7, HT-29, A-498, EACBreast, Colon, Kidney cancers[41]MethanolHepG2Liver cancerLeavesChloroform, Dimethyl sulfoxide, Aqueous extractUOK-146Kidney cancerBeet RootBeta vulgaris (Amaranthaceae)RootBeet root extract/ crude extractPC-3Prostate cancer[46]MCF-7Breast cancersShimla mirch
(4 different color)Capsicum annuum
(Solanaceae)FruitMethanolic extractHT-29Colon cancer[49]Aqueous extractPC-3, MCF-7Prostate, Breast cancersKarelaMomordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae)Fruit
SeedEthanolic extractHT-29
HeLa, MCF-7Colon cancer[54, 55]Breast, Cervical cancersBottle gourd, laukiLagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae)Arial partMethanol extractEACEAC[68]Petroleum ether, chloroform and methanolic extractsMCF-7, HOP62, DU-145Breast, Lungs, Prostate cancers[69]CabbageBrassica oleracea (Cruciferae)FlowerIsolated SulforaphaneHep-2Human epithelial type 2[134]CarrotsDaucus carota (Apiaceae)WholeMethanolic extractHT-29Colon cancer[78]Pentane diethyl etherCaco-2, HT-29, MCF-7, MDA-MB-23, DMBA / TPA, MDA-MB231, SF-268, B16F-10Colon, Breast, Skin cancers[78]CauliflowerBrassica oleracea (Brassicaceae)WholeAqueous extractMCF-7Breast cancer[83]Chives, onion greenAllium schoenoprasum (Amaryllidaceae)Arial partsEthanolic extracts4-T1B16 melanoma, Breast cancer[88]CoconutCocos nucifera (Arecaceae)Hust fiberAqueous extractK-562, Lucena-1Leukaemia[106-108]Shell/ EndocarpEthanolic, aqueous extractsHeLaCervical cancerCrude extractMCF-7Breast cancerDrumstickMoringa oleifera (Moringaceae)Leaves
Bark
SeedsEthanolic extractsMDA-MB-231, HCT-8Breast, Colorectal cancer[135]Hot aqueous, cold aqueous, ethanolic extractsAMLLeukemia[136]Ethanolic extractHeLaCervical cancer[137]Eggplant, bringalSolanum melongana (Solanaceae)Fruit peelMethanol extractHCT-116, HEP-2, MCF-7, Hela, HEPG-2Liver cancer
Stomach cancer
Breast cancer
Cervical cancer[125]FenugreekTrigonella foenum-graecum
(Fabaceae)Whole plantChloroform extractMCF-7Breast cancer[138]SeedsCrude extractPCa, PC-3, DU-145, MCF-7Prostate, Pancreatic, Breast cancers[139]GarlicAllium sativum (Amaryllidaceae)BulbsGarlic oilAsPC-1, Mia PaCa-2, PANC-Pancreatic cancer[140]Thiosulfinate-Enriched Allium sativum ExtractCaco-2 and HT-29Colon cancer[141]GingerZingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae)RhizomeEthanolic extractCL-6, HepG2, Hep2Bile duct, Liver, Cervical cancers[142]Methanolic, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate extractsMCF-7, MDA-MB231, HCT-116, SW-480, LoVo, HepG-2Breast, Colorectal, Liver cancers[143]Green chilliCapsicum annum (Solanaceae)Seeds
LeavesAcetonitrile extractHepG2Liver cancer[144]Acetone extractHeLaCervical cancer[145]Jack fruit, kathalAtrocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)FruitMethanolic crude extractMCF-7, MDA-MB-231Breast cancer[146]SeedMethanolic extractA549, Hela, MCF-7Skin, Cervical, Breast cancer[147]MCF-7, H-1299Breast, Lung cancers[148]KalonjiNigella sativa (Ranuculaceae)SeedMethanolic, aqueous extractsMC-38, L-428Colon cancer, Hodgkin’s lymphoma[149]Methanolic extractHL-60, U- 937Leukaemia[150]Lady fingerAbelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae)FruitEthyl acetate extractHePG2Liver cancer[151]Luffa, TuraiLuffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)Seed, LeavesAqua-alcoholic extractCD44+/24-Breast cancer[152]Aqua-alcoholic extractHT-29 and HCT-15Colon cancer[153]Mint, podinaMenthe arvensis (Lamiaceae)LeavesEthanolic extractHepG-2Liver cancer[154]Aqueous extractA-549, COLO-205, HCT-116, MCF-7, NCI-H322, PC-3, THP-1 and U-87MGBreast, Colon, Glioblastoma, Lung, Leukemia and Prostate[155]MushroomAgaricus bisporus (Agaricaceae)BulbEthyl acetate extract, methanol, n-hexane and n-butanolextractsCalu-6
SNU-601Pulmonary cancer
Gastric cancer[156]CrudeMCF-7Breast cancer[157]Aqueous extractA-549, HT-29Lung, Colon cancers[158]OliveOlea europaea (Oleaceae)Fruit, SeedAqueous, ethanolic, methanolic extractsMiaPaCa-2Pancreas cancer[159]Olive oilMCF-7, HCT-116Breast, Colorectal cancer[160]OnionAllium cepa (Amaryllidaceae)Fruit
LeavesPetroleum ether, ethanolic extractsMDA-MB-231Breast cancer[161]Aqueous extractSwiss controlColorectal cancer[162]Pea, garden peaPisum sativum (Fabaceae)Seed, Leaves, BudsSeed extractHT-29, HepG2, LS-174, MDA-MB-453, MCF-7, A-594, K-562, Hep-2, HCT-116Liver, Breast, Lungs, Blood, Larynx, Colon cancers[163]Pointed gourd, parwalTrichosanthes dioica (Cucurbitaceae)RootHydroalcoholic extractEACEhrlich Ascites Carcinoma[164]PotatoSolanum tuberosum (Solanaceae)StemPhenolic extractsLNCaP, PC-3, MCF-7Colon, Prostate, Breast cancers[165]anthocyanin-rich extractsCaco-2, SW48 and MCF7, MDA-MB-231Colon Cancer
Breast cancer[166]PumpkinCucurbita maxima (Cucurbitaceae)Arial partsMethanol extractEACEhrlich Ascites Carcinoma[167]
Table 3Anticancer cancer activity of cereal.Common NameScientific Name and FamilyPart UsedExtractCell LinesAnti-cancer ActivityReferencesChickpea, chholeCicer arietinum (Fabaceae)SeedsMethanolic extractMCF-7, MDA-MB-231PC-3,
LNCaPBreast cancer
Prostate cancer[168]Kidney beansPhaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae)Seed coatMethanolic extractL1210 MBL2Leukemia
lymphoma[169]RiceOryza sativa
(Poaceae)Rice branRice bran extractSW-480, HT-29Leukaemia, Colorectal, Cervical, Stomach, Breast, Lung, Liver cancers[170]SoyabeanGlycine max (Fabaceae)SeedsPeptide fractionsMAT- LyLu, DU-145, PC3, Hela, HCT-116 MCF-7Prostate, Breast cancers[171]WheatTrictium aestivum (Gramineae)GrassWheatgrass juice, Aqueous extractMCF-7
Caco-2, SW48Liver, Colon, Stomach, GIT, Breast cancers[172]Mung dalVigna radiate (Fabaceae)SeedsSeeds: aqueous extractSNU-601,GIT, Pulmonary cancers[173]
Table 4Anticancer cancer activity of spices.Common NameScientific Name and FamilyPart UsedExtractCell LinesAnti-cancer ActivityReferencesAjwainTrachyspermum ammi (Umbelliferae)SeedsEthanolic extractMCF-7Breast cancer[26]Asafoetida, hingFerula asafoetida (Umbelliferae)RhizomeHexane and chloroform extractsHepG2, A549, HT-29,Liver, Lungs, Colon[34-36]RootHexane and chloroform extractsMCF7, MDBKBreast, Kidney cancers[37]Black pepperPiper nigrum (Piperaceae)SeedsEthanolic extractHCT-15Colorectal cancer[63]CinnamonCinnamomum zeylanicum (Lauraceae)BarkBark methanolic extractHepG2Liver cancer[92-94]Fresh and dry barkAcetone and methanolic extractPC-3Head and neck, Prostate cancersCloveSuzygium aromaticum (Myrtaceae)FruitAqueous extract
Ethanol extractMCF-7, MDA-MB-231Breast cancer[100, 101]Clove oil extractHela, DU-145, TE-13Cervical, Prostate, Esophageal cancersCuminCuminum cyminum (Apiaceae)SeedsSeed oilHelaCervical cancers[122]FennelFoeniculum vulgare (Umbelliferae /Apiaceae)SeedMethanolic extractMCF-7, HCT-116, HePG-2Breast, Colon, Liver cancers[133]Tamarind, ImliTamarindus indica (Leguminosae/ Fabaceae)Seed kernelEthyl acetate, Water, Chloroform extractA-549, KB, MCF-7, DLA, EACSkin, Breast cancers[174]CorianderCoriandrum sativum (Umbelliferae)Root
Leaves
StemHexane, Ethyl acetate, Dichloromethane, Methanol, Water extractMCF-7
HT-29Breast cancer
Colon cancer[114, 115]
Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi, Umbelliferae)
Ajwain is widely grown in India, but mainly it is cultivated in Gujarat and Rajasthan. Pharmacological activities of ajwain are antitussive, broncho-dilator, antinociceptive [20], antifungal [21], nematicidal [22], diuretic, abortifacient, antilithiasis [23], antioxidant, antimicrobial [24], anthelmintic and antifilarial [25]. Phenolic compounds of seeds of T. ammi possess anticancer and cytotoxic activity [26].
Arbi (Colocasia esculenta, Araceae)
Arbi possesses antidiabetic [27], antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities [28]. Arbi is also used as a nervine tonic [29]. The water-soluble extract of C. esculenta is found to be effective against breast cancer (MCF-7 cell lines) and colorectal cancer (YYT cell lines) [30].
Asafoetida (Ferula asafoetida, Umbelliferae)
F. asafoetida acts as an antispasmodic and antihypertensive [31], antipyretic, anthelmintic, antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory [32, 33]. F. asafoetida showed cytotoxic activity towards HepG2 (liver carcinoma cells), A549 (lung carcinoma cells), HT-29 (colon cancer cells), MCF7 (breast cancer cells) and MDBK (kidney cancer cells) [34-37].
Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus, Liliaceae)
It contains terpenoids (taxol), shatavarin I-IV [38], saponins [39] and 9, 10-dihydrophenanthrene (kaempferol, racemosol) [40]. These phytoconstituents are found to be active against breast and kidney cancers, renal carcinoma cell lines, MCF-7 for breast cancer, HT-29 for colorectal adenocarcinoma, EAC cell lines and HepG2 cell line (liver cancer) [41].
Beetroot (Beta vulgaris, Amaranthaceae)
The root of B. vulgaris contains betanin and betacyanin [42]. B. vulgaris possess antiproliferative, antioxidant [43], the neuroprotective effect [44], and antifungal and antidiabetic activities [45]. The crude or beetroot extract showed effective cytotoxic activity against skin cancer, liver cancer (HC) and breast cancer (MCF-7) cell lines [46].
Shimla Mirch (Capsicumannuum, Solanaceae)
It is a good source of β-carotene and vitamin C [47]. It shows antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities [48]. Shimla mirch exhibits anticarcinogenic activity against human colon cancer cells (HT-29), human prostate cancer cell line (PC-3) and breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) [49].
Karela (Momordica charantia, Cucurbitaceae)
It is recognized that the phenolic content present in fruits and seeds of M. charantia exhibits various pharmacological actions to treat a variety of diseases like diabetes [50], hypolipidemia [51], antiviral [52], antibacterial and also act as immunomodulatory [53]. It shows anticancer activity against colon cancer (HCT-116 and HT-29 cells) [54], cervical (HeLa cells) and breast (MCF-7 cells) [55].
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum, Piperaceae)
It contains piperine (1-peperoyl piperidine) [56], which possesses various pharmacological activities, like antimicrobial [57], antihypertensive [58], antiasthmatic [59], antioxidant, antidiabetic [60], anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic [61] and also immunostimulator [62]. Piperine is reported to have anticancer activity against lung cancer (DU-145), breast cancer (MCF-7) and prostate cancer (PC-3) [63].
Lauki (Lagenaria siceraria, Cucurbitaceae)
L. siceraria is reported to have anti-inflammatory [64], antidepressant [65], antioxidant, antimicrobial [66] and antidiabetic [67] activities. Cytotoxic activity of aerial parts of L. siceraria has been found to be active on the EAC model of mice [68], MCF-7 (breast cancer cells), DU-145 (prostate cancer cell line) and HOP62 (lungs cancer cells) [69].
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum, Zingiberaceae)
E. cardamomum contains alkaloids, tannins, phytosterols, phenolic compounds, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, fixed oils, fatty acids, carbohydrates and proteins. Cardamom exhibits antihypertensive and antioxidant [70], gastroprotective [71], antispasmodic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory [72] and antibacterial properties [73]. Ethanol extract of seeds of E. cardamomumalso possesses anticarcinogenic properties [74].
Carrots (Daucus carota, Apiaceae)
Carrot juice extract contains phenylpropanoids. It exhibits antioxidant [75], anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer activities [76]. D. carota is reported to possess cytotoxic activity against HaCaT, A549 cell lines for skin cancer, and HepG2 cell lines for liver cancer [77]. Methanol extract showed meaningful anticancer activity against HL-60 cell lines for liver cancer [78].
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea, Brassicaceae)
It is a rich source of protein, vitamin K, vitamin B6, thiamine, potassium, magnesium, manganese, riboflavin and phosphorus. It is beneficial in type 2 diabetes [79] and possesses antioxidant [80], antibacterial [81], and antifungal [82] activities. The biosynthesised silver nanoparticles obtained from the aqueous extract of B. oleracea are active against cervical and prostate cancer [83].
Green Onion (Allium schoenoprasum, Amaryllidaceae)
Chives contain many active constituents such as propanal diethyl acetal, dimethyl trisulfide, borneol, α-copaene, β-selinene, β-ionone, palmitic acid, ethyl palmitate, methyl linoleate [84]. The pharmacological properties of A. schoenoprasum are anti-inflammatory [85], nephrolithiasis [86] and protection against Alzheimer’s
disease [87]. Anticancer activity of ethanol extract of Chives is reported in B16 melanoma and breast cancer (4T1 cell lines) [88].
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Lauraceae)
C. zeylanicum possesses antioxidant [89], antidiabetic [90], antifungal and antibacterial [91] activities. Antitumor activity of methanol extract of C. zeylanicum was found in the Hep-G2 cell line (hepatic cancer cell line) [92]. Cytotoxic activity of C. zeylanicum oil is active against head and neck carcinoma [93] and prostate cancer (PC-3) [94].
Clove (Suzygium aromaticum, Myrtaceae)
Clove contains phytoconstituents like essential oils (eugenol, eugenyl acetate, thymol, caryophyllene oxide, eugenyl, vitamin E acetate) in a high amount [95]. Cloves have analgesic, anti-inflammatory [96], antioxidant [97], antibacterial [98] and antifungal [99] properties. Essential oil and ethanol extract from the clove are active against breast cancer (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cell lines) [100], esophageal cancer (TE-13 cell line), cervical cancer (HeLa cell line) and prostate cancer (DU-145 cell lines) [101].
Coconut (Cocosnucifera, Arecaceae)
C. nucifera possesses antioxidant, antimicrobial [102], antinociceptive, antipyretic [103], anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal [104] and anthelmenthic [105] activities. In-vitro anticancer studies of husk fibre of C. nucifera found to be active against neoplastic cell lines [106]. Shell of C. nucifera shows anticancer activity against HeLa cell lines for cervical cancer [107]. Extract from coconut milk kefir is active against MCF-7 cell lines for breast cancer [108].
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum, Umbelliferae)
C. sativum is known to exhibit several pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anti-diabetic [109], antianxiety [110], anthelmentic [111], anticonvulsant [112], antifungal and antibacterial [113]. The ethyl acetate extract of root is active against breast cancer cells (MCF-7) [114]. Ethanol extract is found to be active against HT-29 Cell lines for colon cancer [115].
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, Apiaceae)
C. cyminum contains anthraquinone, alkaloids, flavanoids, coumarin, glycosides, protein, saponins and resin. C. cyminum exhibits antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic [116], antioxidant [117], anti-inflammatory [118], antibacterial [119], anxiolytic, muscle relaxant, locomotor [120] and contraceptive [121] effects. Cumin seeds are reported to lower the risk of fore-stomach cancer and uterine cervix tumours [122].
Eggplant (Solanum melongana, Solanaceae)
S. melongana fruit is a rich source of alkaloids. It is observed that anthocyanin (delphinidin, delphinidin3-diglucoside, nasunin) and anthocyanase [123] are responsible for antioxidant properties [124]. Methanol extract from the peel of the fruit, S. melongana, is found to be active in human gastric adenocarcinoma [125].
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, Umbelliferae /Apiaceae)
It possesses antioxidant [126], antibacterial [127], anti-inflammatory [128], antidiabetic [129], hepatic-protective [130], diuretic [131] and estrogenic [132] activities. Niacin and riboflavin are the two vitamins present in F. vulgare. Anticancer activity of methanol extract of seed is found to be active against breast cancer (MCF-7), colorectal cancer (HCT-116) and liver cancer (HePG-2) [133].
CONCLUSION
Cancer is a disease that is causing a large number of deaths at present. It may be caused due to the deficiency of vitamin B-12, or there are many reasons that are responsible for the occurrence of cancer, such as smoking, consumption of alcohol, intake of unhealthy food, junk food and fast food in excess amounts. It can be prevented to some extent by regular intake of vegetables, fruits and other dietary supplements. As vegetables are a rich source of vitamins, proteins, fats, fibre, antioxidants and phytochemicals (alkaloids, steroids, polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins), hence, they help us and help our children to grow and become strong. Functional foods also prevent different types of harmful ailments (e.g., heart disease, lung disease, liver disease, diabetes, arthritis, etc.) in the body. Different functional food like vegetables, spices and pulses have anticancer activity, if they are taken in an adequate amount on a daily basis, that may be helpful to cure and treat various types of cancer.
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