Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Fundamentals
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 747

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology An introduction to anatomy and physiology specifically tailored to the needs of midwives Existing resources often fall short in addressing the unique needs of midwives, focusing instead on broader healthcare perspectives. This book fulfils the demand for midwifery-specific knowledge in anatomy and physiology, offering a robust yet accessible introduction to key body systems. Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology ensures a thorough understanding of the subject matter with full-colour illustrations, from the intricacies of the placenta to the dynamics of the musculoskeletal and cardiac systems. Supported by the latest research and aligned with professional best practices, this book is an indispensable companion for both aspiring and seasoned midwives. It provides insight and understanding of maternal anatomy and physiology applied to midwifery practice. Suitable for undergraduate and postgraduate midwifery students, as well as midwives returning to practice, this resource is an invaluable asset in advancing anatomical and physiological knowledge within midwifery practice.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements

CHAPTER 1: Learning the Language: Terminology

Introduction

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

Physiology

Terminology

Pathophysiology

Hints and Tips for Using a Midwifery Dictionary

Common Abbreviations

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Summary

References

Further Reading

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 2: Cell Physiology

Introduction

The Cell and Organelles

Exocytosis

Endocytosis

Homeostasis

Cell Division

Cell Division and Multiple Pregnancy

Summary

References

Further Reading

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 3: The Female Reproductive System and Associated Disorders

Introduction

The External Genitalia

Internal Reproductive Organs

Menstrual Cycle

The Breasts

Summary

References

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 4: Embryology and Fetal Development

Introduction

Fertilisation of the Oocyte

The Pre‐embryonic Period

The Embryonic Period

Overview of the Development of Body Systems and Organs

The Urogenital System

Ears and Eyes

References

Further Reading

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 5: Genetics

Introduction

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

Chromosomes

Mitosis

Meiosis

Second Meiotic Division

Genes

When Things Go Wrong

When Things Go Wrong at the Level of the Gene

Patterns of Inheritance

Genotype and Phenotype

Summary

References

Further Reading

Online Resource

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 6: Tissues

Introduction

Development of Tissues

Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy That Affect Tissues

Types of Tissues

Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue Proper

Fluid Connective Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Tissue Repair

Summary

References

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 7: The Placenta

Introduction

Background

Placental Anatomy and Physiology

Placental Anomalies and Pathophysiology

Anomalies of the Umbilical Cord

The Midwife and the Placenta: Care and Considerations

Summary

References

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 8: The Musculoskeletal System

Introduction

The Human Skeleton

Key Divisions of the Human Skeleton

Types of Bones

The Muscular System

Physical Activity and the Musculoskeletal System

References

Further Reading

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 9: The Circulatory System

Introduction

The Circulatory System

The Fetal Circulation

Structure of the Vessels Supporting the Circulatory System

Blood Constituents

Summary

References

Further Reading

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 10: The Cardiac System

Introduction

Location of the Heart

Structures and Blood Flow of the Heart

The Chambers of the Heart

The Great Vessels of the Heart

Cardiac Conducting System

Nerve Supply

The Cardiac Cycle

Pregnancy and Childbirth and Maternal Cardiac System

Changes in Pregnancy

Changes in Pregnancy for Women with Known Cardiac Impairment

Medications Management

Clinical Assessment

Summary

References

Appendix: Obstetric Early Warning Chart

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 11: The Digestive System

Introduction

The Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract

The Mouth

Pharynx

Oesophagus

Stomach

The Small Intestine

The Large Intestine

Accessory Structures

The Pancreas

The Liver

The Gall Bladder

Summary

References

Further Reading

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 12: The Renal System

Introduction

Renal System

Kidneys

Urine Formation

Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

Ureters

Lower Urinary Tract

Summary

References

Further Reading

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 13: The Respiratory System

Introduction

Overview of the Respiratory System

The Upper Respiratory Tract

The Lower Respiratory Tract

The Respiratory Muscles

Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing)

Gaseous Exchange

External Respiration

Internal Respiration

Transport of Gases

Control of Respiration

Physiological Changes in Pregnancy

The Respiratory System and the Neonate

Surfactant

References

Further Reading

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 14: The Nervous System

Introduction

Neurons

Neuroglia

The Brain

Meninges

Cerebrospinal Fluid and Ventricles

Intracranial Pressure

Blood Supply

Cranial Nerves

Spinal Cord

Spinal Nerves

Sensory Division of the Peripheral Nervous System

Motor Division of the Peripheral Nervous System

Summary

References

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 15: The Endocrine System

Introduction

Changes During Pregnancy

Secretion, Transportation and Action of Hormones

Regulation

Excretion

The Hypothalamus

The Pituitary Gland

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

The Adrenal Glands

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

The Thymus Gland

The Pineal Gland

Endocrine Cells in the Body

Summary

References

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

CHAPTER 16: The Immune System

Introduction

Non‐specific or Innate Immunity

Physical Barriers

Natural Antimicrobial Substances

Phagocytosis

The Inflammatory Response

Pyrexia

Complement

Organs of the Immune System

Lymphatic Vessels

Cells of the Immune System

Specific or Adaptive Immunity

Physiological Changes to the Immune System in Pregnancy

Increased Vulnerability to Infection in Pregnancy

Fetal Tolerance

The Placenta and Membrane Barrier

Group B Streptococcus

Colostrum and Breast Milk

Sepsis

Summary

References

Further Reading

Online Resources

Glossary

Multiple Choice Questions

Multiple Choice Answers

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

TABLE 1.1 Anatomical descriptive terms.

TABLE 1.2 Anatomical regions of the head and neck.

TABLE 1.3 Anatomical regions of the trunk (thorax and abdomen).

TABLE 1.4 Anatomical regions of the upper limbs.

TABLE 1.5 Anatomical regions of the lower limbs (legs).

TABLE 1.6 Basic components.

TABLE 1.7 Some prefixes, suffixes, their meaning and examples.

TABLE 1.8 Confusing terminology.

Chapter 2

TABLE 2.1 Common types of cells in the human body.

TABLE 2.2 The timing of the split.

Chapter 3

TABLE 3.1 Types of female genital mutilation.

TABLE 3.2 Classifications of peritoneal trauma.

TABLE 3.3 Female reproductive hormones.

Chapter 4

TABLE 4.1 Timings of clinical gestation related to embryological timings....

TABLE 4.2 The contribution of the layers of the trilaminar disc to the body...

Chapter 6

TABLE 6.1 Epithelial tissues.

TABLE 6.2 Connective tissues summary.

Chapter 7

TABLE 7.1 Types of placenta praevia.

Chapter 8

TABLE 8.1 Types of bones in the skeleton.

TABLE 8.2 Types of joints.

TABLE 8.3 Types of muscle tissue.

Chapter 9

TABLE 9.1 Overview of temporary structure required for fetal circulation.

TABLE 9.2 Arteries, veins and arterioles.

TABLE 9.3 Overview of red blood cells as analysed by full blood count testi...

Chapter 10

TABLE 10.1 Vessels and their functions.

Chapter 11

TABLE 11.1 Summary of the role of the digestive hormones.

Chapter 12

TABLE 12.1 Tubular reabsorption and excretion.

TABLE 12.2 Common laboratory values in pregnancy.

TABLE 12.3 Common characteristics of urine.

TABLE 12.4 Principle electrolytes and their functions.

Chapter 13

TABLE 13.1 Composition of air and partial pressures of gases.

TABLE 13.2 Physiological changes in respiratory function in pregnancy.

Chapter 14

TABLE 14.1 Types of neuroglia.

TABLE 14.2 Functions associated with the cerebral cortex.

TABLE 14.3 Cranial nerves and primary function.

Chapter 15

TABLE 15.1 The nervous system compared with the endocrine system.

TABLE 15.2 Major hormones relevant to human reproduction.

TABLE 15.3 Hypothalamus hormones and their impact on the anterior pituitary...

Chapter 16

TABLE 16.1 Non‐specific or innate defence mechanisms.

TABLE 16.2 Symptoms of the inflammatory response.

TABLE 16.3 Acquired immunity.

TABLE 16.4 Immunoglobulins.

TABLE 16.5 The adaptive system – T cells.

TABLE 16.6 Role of specialised natural killer cells throughout pregnancy.

TABLE 16.7 Neonatal sepsis.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

FIGURE 1.1 Anatomical position: anterior and posterior views of the body....

FIGURE 1.2 Anatomical positions.

FIGURE 1.3 Anatomical planes.

FIGURE 1.4 The cavities of the body.

FIGURE 1.5 The determinants of health.

Chapter 2

FIGURE 2.1 Structure of a cell.

FIGURE 2.2 Diagram showing simple diffusion.

FIGURE 2.3 Figure showing the different types of passive transport mechanism...

FIGURE 2.4 Showing the types of endocytosis.

FIGURE 2.5 Prophase.

FIGURE 2.6 Metaphase.

FIGURE 2.7 Anaphase.

FIGURE 2.8 Telophase.

FIGURE 2.9 A diagrammatic representation of meiosis, reproductive cell divis...

Chapter 3

FIGURE 3.1 The female reproductive organs (sagittal plane view).

FIGURE 3.2 The vulva (external genitalia).

FIGURE 3.3 Muscles of the pelvic floor.

FIGURE 3.4 Vagina, uterus, ovaries and supporting structures.

FIGURE 3.5 Phases of the menstrual cycle.

FIGURE 3.6 A typical 28‐day menstrual cycle.

FIGURE 3.7 Sagittal view of the breast.

Chapter 4

FIGURE 4.1 The time periods and stages of development of the fetal organ sys...

FIGURE 4.2 The stages of fetal growth. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) E...

FIGURE 4.3 Cleavage; the single cell of the zygote divides into two blastome...

FIGURE 4.4 The change from morula to blastocyst. Webster, S and de Wreede, R...

FIGURE 4.5 Development of twins. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embryol...

FIGURE 4.6 Formation of the notochord. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) E...

FIGURE 4.7 Formation of the neural groove. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (201...

FIGURE 4.8 Formation of the neural tube. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016)...

FIGURE 4.9 Somites develop during weeks 4 and 5. Webster, S and de Wreede, R...

FIGURE 4.10 Development of the primitive heart; the bulbus cordis at the cra...

FIGURE 4.11 Folding in preparation for the establishment of the four chamber...

FIGURE 4.12 The atrial septum develops but maintains a flap between the two ...

FIGURE 4.13 The embryonic circulatory system. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (...

FIGURE 4.14 The beginnings of the respiratory system. Webster, S and de Wree...

FIGURE 4.15 The three sections of the gut. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (201...

FIGURE 4.16 The growth and development of the midgut. Webster, S and de Wree...

FIGURE 4.17 Development of the female external genitalia. Webster, S and de ...

FIGURE 4.18 Development of the male external genitalia. Webster, S and de Wr...

FIGURE 4.19 Division of the neural tube folds, and the forebrain and hindbra...

FIGURE 4.20 The beginning of ossification of the long bones. Webster, S and ...

FIGURE 4.21 Secondary ossification. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embr...

FIGURE 4.22 Position of the growth plates in the ossified bone. Webster, S a...

FIGURE 4.23 Occult spina bifida. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embryol...

FIGURE 4.24 Long muscle fibres have several nuclei. Webster, S and de Wreede...

FIGURE 4.25 A synovial joint. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embryology...

FIGURE 4.26 The embryo at four weeks, demonstrating the position of the phar...

FIGURE 4.27 Formation of the nose. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embry...

FIGURE 4.28 Cleft lip. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016) Embryology at a G...

FIGURE 4.29 The bones of the middle ear. Webster, S and de Wreede, R. (2016)...

FIGURE 4.30 The optic vesicle folds inwards to form the optic cup, and the l...

Chapter 5

FIGURE 5.1 The cell nucleus.

FIGURE 5.2 A portion of the double helix.

FIGURE 5.3 DNA from a double helix to chromosome.

FIGURE 5.4 The chromosomes of a human male – a karyotype. Chromosomes only t...

FIGURE 5.5 A telomere.

FIGURE 5.6 The cell cycle.

FIGURE 5.7 Mitosis.

FIGURE 5.8 Gene crossover.

FIGURE 5.9 The separation of DNA and the production of further DNA.

FIGURE 5.10 DNA and RNA. Peate and Nair (2015);

FIGURE 5.11 Movement of ribosomes along mRNA and a brief summary of protein ...

FIGURE 5.12 Non‐disjunction of chromosome 21.

FIGURE 5.13 An example of Robertsonian translocation.

FIGURE 5.14 Autosomal dominant conditions.

FIGURE 5.15 Autosomal recessive conditions.

FIGURE 5.16 X linked dominant inheritance: When the faulty X chromosome is d...

FIGURE 5.17 X linked dominant inheritance: When the faulty X chromosome is d...

FIGURE 5.18 X‐linked recessive condition.

Chapter 6

FIGURE 6.1 Epithelial tissue is classified by shape and depth.

FIGURE 6.2 Skeletal muscle.

FIGURE 6.3 Cardiac muscle.

FIGURE 6.4 Smooth muscle.

Chapter 7

FIGURE 7.1 Chorionic villi.

FIGURE 7.2 Blood flow around the chorionic villi.

FIGURE 7.3 Site of implantation at week 3.

FIGURE 7.4 The placenta at term. (a) Maternal surface. (b) Fetal surface.

FIGURE 7.5 The chorioamnion membrane.

Chapter 8

FIGURE 8.1 The axial (blue) and the appendicular skeleton (brown).

FIGURE 8.2 The spinal column and its normal curvature.

FIGURE 8.3 Postural changes in pregnancy.

FIGURE 8.4 The lumbar vertebra (right lateral view).

FIGURE 8.5 Superior view of a lumbar vertebra, showing processes and the ver...

FIGURE 8.6 Lateral view of the hip bone of the pelvis.

FIGURE 8.7 Anterior view of the female pelvis.

FIGURE 8.8 Structural difference between male (right) and female (left) pelv...

FIGURE 8.9 Types of bones.

FIGURE 8.10 The anatomy of a long bone.

FIGURE 8.11 Compact and spongy bone.

FIGURE 8.12 Cellular structure of muscle cells and attachment point of muscl...

FIGURE 8.13 Microscopic structure of a muscle fibre.

FIGURE 8.14 Anterior view of muscles.

FIGURE 8.15 Posterior view of muscles.

FIGURE 8.16 Muscles of the abdomen (anterior view).

FIGURE 8.17 Physical activity guidelines for adults and older adults

FIGURE 8.18 Physical activity for pregnant women.

FIGURE 8.19 Guidance for PA during the year after birth.

Chapter 9

FIGURE 9.1 The circulatory system.

FIGURE 9.2 An artery and vein.

FIGURE 9.3 Layers of a blood vessel.

FIGURE 9.4 Blood cells.

FIGURE 9.5 Red blood cells.

FIGURE 9.6 Haemoglobin molecule.

Chapter 10

FIGURE 10.1 The thoracic cavity.

FIGURE 10.2 The heart wall.

FIGURE 10.3 The chambers of the heart.

FIGURE 10.4 The coronary arteries.

FIGURE 10.5 The conduction system of the heart.

FIGURE 10.6 The cardioregulatory centre.

FIGURE 10.7 The cardiac cycle.

FIGURE 10.8 Phases of the cardiac cycle.

Chapter 11

FIGURE 11.1 Diagram of the digestive system.

FIGURE 11.2 Structure of the gastrointestinal tract.

FIGURE 11.3 The oral cavity.

FIGURE 11.4 Tooth structure.

FIGURE 11.5 Salivary glands.

FIGURE 11.6 Swallowing.

FIGURE 11.7 Peristalsis in the oesophagus.

FIGURE 11.8 The stomach.

FIGURE 11.9 Gastric glands and cells.

FIGURE 11.10 Phases of gastric secretion.

FIGURE 11.11 The small intestine.

FIGURE 11.12 The cells within the villi of the small intestine.

FIGURE 11.13 The large intestine.

FIGURE 11.14 The liver, gallbladder and pancreas.

FIGURE 11.15 Liver lobule.

Chapter 12

FIGURE 12.1 The renal system.

FIGURE 12.2 External layers of the kidney.

FIGURE 12.3 The nephron.

FIGURE 12.4 The kidney: internal structures.

FIGURE 12.5 The pathway of urine formation.

FIGURE 12.6 Electrolytes of intracellular and extracellular compartments....

FIGURE 12.7 Layers of the urinary bladder.

Chapter 13

FIGURE 13.1 The respiratory system.

FIGURE 13.2 The anatomical structure of the upper respiratory tract.

FIGURE 13.3 Anatomy of the larynx.

FIGURE 13.4 The anatomical structure of the lower respiratory tract.

FIGURE 13.5 The positional relationship of the trachea to the oesophagus....

FIGURE 13.6 The external anatomy of the lungs. (a) Lateral view of right lu...

FIGURE 13.7 The structure of a lobule of the lung.

FIGURE 13.8 The structure of the alveolus.

FIGURE 13.9 Changes in chest size, intercostal muscles, diaphragm and rib c...

FIGURE 13.10 Lung volumes and capacities.

FIGURE 13.11 External respiration.

FIGURE 13.12 Internal respiration.

FIGURE 13.13 Summary of internal and external respiration.

FIGURE 13.14 The oxygen‐haemoglobin dissociation curve.

FIGURE 13.15 Structures involved in the control of respiration. (a) Sagitta...

Chapter 14

FIGURE 14.1 The organisation of the nervous system.

FIGURE 14.2 A neuron.

FIGURE 14.3 A neuroglia.

FIGURE 14.4 The brain and associated structures.

FIGURE 14.5 The lobes of the cerebrum and the cerebellum.

FIGURE 14.6 Functions associated with the cerebral cortex. fatmasniper/Adob...

FIGURE 14.7 Meninges.

FIGURE 14.8 Anterior and lateral view of the ventricles.

FIGURE 14.9 Circle of Willis.

FIGURE 14.10 Function and organisation of the cranial nerves.

FIGURE 14.11 Spinal cord.

FIGURE 14.12 The spinal nerves.

FIGURE 14.13 Dermatomes.

FIGURE 14.14 Sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nerv...

Chapter 15

FIGURE 15.1 The endocrine system in women. LH: Luteinising hormone; FSH: Fol...

FIGURE 15.2 The hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

FIGURE 15.3 Different hormone levels during pregnancy and during breastfeedi...

FIGURE 15.4 The prolactin receptor theory.

FIGURE 15.5 Diagram of Ferguson's reflex.

FIGURE 15.6 Breastfeeding – the structure of the breast.

FIGURE 15.7 Breastfeeding – the role of oxytocin and prolactin.

FIGURE 15.8 The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.

Chapter 16

FIGURE 16.1 Layers of the skin.

FIGURE 16.2 Phagocytosis.

FIGURE 16.3 Components of the lymphatic system.

FIGURE 16.4 Haematopoiesis.

FIGURE 16.5 Position of the thymus gland (adolescent).

FIGURE 16.6 The spleen.

FIGURE 16.7 Structure a lymph node.

FIGURE 16.8 Innate and adaptive immune cells. designua/Adobe Stock Photos

FIGURE 16.9 Macrophages.

FIGURE 16.10 Dendritic cells.

FIGURE 16.11 A neutrophil.

FIGURE 16.12 Eosinophil.

FIGURE 16.13 Basophil.

FIGURE 16.14 Mast cells.

FIGURE 16.15 Monocyte.

FIGURE 16.16 Lymphocyte.

FIGURE 16.17 Model of an antibody.

FIGURE 16.18 Antigen‐presenting cell.

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Dedication Page

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements

Begin Reading

Multiple Choice Answers

Index

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology

EDITED BY

Ian Peate, OBE FRCN EN(G) RGN DipN(Lond) RNT BEd (Hons) MA(Lond) LLM

Editor in Chief, British Journal of Nursing; Consultant Editor, Journal of Paramedic Practice;Consultant Editor, International Journal for Advancing Practice; Visiting Professor, Northumbria University;Visiting Professor, St Georges University of London and Kingston University London;Professorial Fellow, Roehampton University; Visiting Senior Clinical Fellow, University of Hertfordshire.

AND

Claire Leader, MA PGCAP BSc (Hons) RN RM FHEA

Faculty Director of Inter-professional Education and Assistant Professor in Nursing and Midwifery at Northumbria University.Editorial Board Member for the British Journal of Midwifery.

This edition first published 2024© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Peate, Ian, editor. | Leader, Claire, editor.Title: Fundamentals of maternal anatomy and physiology / edited by Ian Peate, Claire Leader.Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley‐Blackwell, 2024. | Includes index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023057848 (print) | LCCN 2023057849 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119864714 (paperback) | ISBN 9781119864721 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119864738 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Reproductive Physiological Phenomena | Pregnancy–physiology | Maternal‐Fetal Exchange–physiologyClassification: LCC RG525 (print) | LCC RG525 (ebook) | NLM WQ 205 | DDC  618.2–dc23/eng/20240124LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023057848LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023057849

Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © magicmine/Adobe Stock Photos

This text is dedicated my brother, Alan David Peate

Contributors

Alison Anderson BSc (Hons) PGCE MA Ed RM MScPractice Development Midwife and Specialist BAC Midwife, South Tees NHS Foundation Trust, Middlesbrough, UK; Convenor, Virtual International Day of the Midwife CommitteeAlison enjoyed 13 years as a secondary science teacher, specialising in biology, before retraining as a midwife through Teesside University and Darlington Memorial Hospital. Alison began her career as a midwife at South Tees NHS Foundation Trust where she became the Specialist Birth After Caesarean Midwife and then Practice Development Midwife. Alison's passions are the humanisation of childbirth and psychological safety in maternity. Alison also has a great interest in global midwifery and is convenor for the Virtual International Day of the Midwife committee and annual 24‐hour virtual conference.

Jenny Brewster RM RN BSc Health Studies (OU) PGCe Higher Professional Education (Oxford Brookes University) MEd (OU)Senior Lecturer in Midwifery, University of West London, UKJenny started her training as a nurse at King's College Hospital, London, in 1978 and worked on a male medical ward before moving to St Peter's hospital in Chertsey, where she completed her midwifery training. Having worked in the high‐risk environment for several years, she then moved to work in a low‐risk midwifery unit before being appointed as a practice development midwife at Wexham Park Hospital in Slough. This led to meeting the teaching team from the University of West London, where Jenny has now been a midwifery lecturer for 13 years. Jenny has written for leading midwifery textbooks. One of her main interests is teaching obstetric emergencies, and especially the support and resuscitation of the newborn baby.

Suzanne Britt RM FHEA ADM BA (Hons) BMedSci Midwifery (Hons) MSc Midwifery Studies PGCHEPostgraduate Researcher, University of Nottingham, UKAfter a teaching career in modern foreign languages, Sue qualified as a midwife in 2002. She has worked in all areas of midwifery practice, beginning her career at Chesterfield Royal Hospital before moving to Sherwood Forest Hospital in 2008 for a community midwifery post. In 2011, she completed her Master's degree and started a secondment as a research midwife at Nottingham University Hospital. In 2013, she moved into midwifery education, working as an Assistant Professor of Midwifery at the University of Nottingham, where she received global and local recognition for teaching. She has delivered on all areas of the curriculum, leading modules on public health, perinatal mental health, and contemporary midwifery care. Her interest and knowledge around the musculoskeletal system spans her personal and professional life, and she has qualifications in both fitness and nutrition. In 2022, she left her teaching role to start a full‐time PhD at the University of Nottingham, focusing on healthcare professional response to domestic abuse.

Mel Cameron‐Radford MSc BSc (Hons) RM PMAMaternity Investigator, Healthcare Safety Investigation Branch (HSIB)/Maternity and Newborn Safety Investigations Programme, UKMel began her midwifery career at the Royal Victoria Infirmary at Newcastle Upon Tyne Hospitals after graduating from Northumbria University, obtaining a first‐class honours degree. She worked as a rotational midwife, intrapartum core team midwife, clinical skills facilitator and later a delivery suite coordinator at the tertiary referral centre. She trained and was appointed as a supervisor of midwives and a professional midwifery advocate. Mel worked as a lead for maternity at NHS England's North East and Cumbria Clinical Network. She studied part time to obtain her MSc in practice development. Mel worked as a lead for the implementation of continuity of carer and Better Births at Newcastle. She joined the Health Care Safety Investigation Branch in 2020 as a maternity investigator. Her key interests are advocacy, intrapartum care, maternal medicine, personalised care and choice.

James Castleman MA MD MRCOGConsultant in Maternal and Fetal Medicine, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Foundation Trust, UKJames is a consultant obstetrician at Birmingham Women's and Children's Hospital, UK. He graduated with distinction from the University of Cambridge and completed foundation training in the East of England before moving home to the midlands for his obstetrics and gynaecology clinical and research training. James has subspecialty accreditation in maternal and fetal medicine from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. He has a monthly prenatal genomics clinic alongside a clinical geneticist and is part of the regional multidisciplinary team providing this service. His other interests include fetal therapy and obstetric cardiology, as well as maintaining a passion for delivering high quality intrapartum care alongside midwifery colleagues.

Claire Ford PGCap PhD FHEA PGDip RN BScAssistant Professor, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK; Co‐creator and Leader for Skills for Practice WebsiteClaire joined the teaching team at Northumbria University in 2013, having spent time working within perioperative care and completing a postgraduate diploma in midwifery. She studied for her BSc (Hons) and PG Dip at Northumbria University and won academic awards for both and the Heath Award in 2009. As an assistant professor, she teaches a range of national/international healthcare programmes and is also a joint programme leader for the MSc Nursing Programme. She has a passion for pain management, clinical skills, women's health, gynaecology, perioperative care, simulation and immersive technologies. She has published many articles and is actively involved in several research projects examining the use of media and technology to facilitate deep learning. She is the co‐founder of the ‘Skills for Practice’ website, which was shortlisted for the Student Nursing Times Awards 2016 – Teaching Innovation of the Year.

Angela Frankland RM MSc FHEASenior Lecturer in Midwifery, Kingston University, London, UKAngela trained as a nurse in 1985 at Kings College Hospital London. After qualifying, she worked as a staff nurse in paediatrics, a neonatal unit and as a nurse educator, where her passion for clinical education started. Since qualifying as midwife in 1990, she has worked various midwifery roles within the NHS, including rotational clinical posts, labour ward coordinator, working in a high‐risk midwifery team and then as Practice Development Midwife, before moving in 2018 to Kingston University as a Senior Lecturer in Midwifery.

Clare Gordon RM SCPHN SN BSc (Hons) MSc (S'ton) MSc (UWL) PG Cert Academic Practice FHEASenior Lecturer in Midwifery; Programme Leader, Berkshire, Midwifery; University of West London, Reading, UKClare began her midwifery career in at the North Hampshire Hospital, becoming a qualified midwife in 2005. She practised as a registered midwife at Frimley Park Hospital, where she gained a wide range of experience before setting up a specialist weight management clinic for pregnant women. She also undertook the Specialist Community Public Health Nurse School Nurse training and was awarded an MSc in Public Health Practice from University of Southampton in 2010. She has always enjoyed learning and educating others and joined the midwifery team at the University of West London in 2013. She has subsequently been awarded an MSc with distinction in professional practice with healthcare education. She is a senior midwifery lecturer and programme lead with a specialist interest in public health, the normality of pregnancy and birth and the foundations for safe midwifery practice.

Rosalind Haddrill PhD MA BSc (Hons) PGCE RM SFHEALecturer in Midwifery, Edinburgh Napier University, UKRoz trained in Sheffield and qualified as a midwife in 2005, after previous careers as a landscape architect and lecturer. She worked clinically in a variety of midwifery roles until 2019 and has worked as a midwifery lecturer since 2010 in a number of British universities. Her PhD explored delayed access to antenatal care. Her areas of interest include women's perceptions of maternity care, gestational diabetes, postnatal care and infant feeding. Roz is currently programme leader for the Masters in Midwifery programme at Edinburgh Napier University.

Iñaki Mansilla MSc Midwifery (UWL) PGCE RM (Hons) RGN (adult)Senior Midwifery Lecturer/Practitioner, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UKIñaki is a dual registrant for nursing and midwifery. With almost 15 years of experience as a dedicated midwife, he embraces the transformative journey of childbirth, nurturing and empowering women and birthing people. His journey began in Spain in 1999, undertaking adult nursing training, then moved to the UK in 2006 to undertake the BSc (Hons) shortened in midwifery. Along the way, he acquired diverse skills, including complementary therapies, mentorship and advanced management of ankyloglossia. His commitment to improving birthing experiences led him to do his MSc ‘Why some women changed their place of birth, from the hospital to home, when they were offered an assessment at home in early labour’, a study that is currently being prepared for publication. In 2020, Iñaki became a Senior Midwifery Lecturer at the University of Hertfordshire, sharing his knowledge and inspiring future midwives. He is passionate on his role as a champion for equality, diversity, and inclusion in midwifery. Recognised for his exceptional dedication, Iñaki has been nominated several times for the vice‐chancellor's award as Academic and Teaching Staff Member of the Year. In 2022, he won Student's Choice Award.

Claire Leader MA PGCAP BSc (Hons) RN RM FHEAFaculty Director of Interprofessional Education and Assistant Professor, Adult Nursing, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UKClaire Leader qualified as a registered nurse from York University in 1998 after which she moved to Leeds, working in the areas of cardiothoracic surgery and emergency nursing. In 2003 she commenced her midwifery education at Huddersfield University where she was awarded a first‐class BSc (hons). She worked initially at Sheffield Teaching hospitals, she later moved to the North East, where she commenced her role as a staff midwife, before moving into the area of research as a research nurse and midwife. She was awarded a distinction for the MA in Sociology and Social Research at Newcastle University in 2012. Claire moved to Northumbria University in 2018 and is now Assistant Professor for pre‐registration Adult Nursing and Midwifery programmes, while also studying for her PhD in the area of wellbeing for nurses and midwives.

Sarah Malone MBBS MRCOG FRANZCOG CertClinRes DDU (O&G)Consultant Obstetrician, Royal Women's Hospital, Parkville, AustraliaSarah Malone is an obstetrician with specialist training in maternal and fetal medicine. She began her medical career in North East England and after spending a year working in Auckland, New Zealand, was inspired to complete training in obstetrics and gynaecology in Melbourne, Australia. Sarah undertook additional subspecialty training in maternal and fetal medicine, which included time spent working in Fetal Medicine in Birmingham, UK. Sarah is experienced in the management of complex pregnancy with particular emphasis in diagnostic ultrasound, fetal anomalies, multiple pregnancy and genetics.

Rebecca Murray RM MRes PGCert LTHE FHEA BSc (Hons)Lecturer (Education) Midwifery, Queen's University Belfast, UKRebecca studied biomedical science at Queen's University Belfast, before commencing her midwifery training. She graduated from Queen's University Belfast in 2012 with a BSc (Hons) in midwifery science and moved to London to work as a research midwife, alongside clinical midwifery roles. Rebecca completed an MRes Clinical Research at King's College London in 2017 and began her midwifery education career at London Southbank University and later University of Hertfordshire. Rebecca is an NMC registered teacher and a Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Rebecca has interests in clinical simulation, medicines management and intrapartum care.

Dr Kate Nash RGN RM BSc (Hons) MSc Practice Educator/Lecturer DClinPracLead Midwife for Education, University of Winchester, UKKate began her nursing career at the Royal Free Hospital in 1991 and later trained as a midwife in 2000 at the University of Hertfordshire. Kate is an experienced clinician and professional midwifery advocate having held varied roles and responsibilities within midwifery in London, the Midlands and South East of England. Kate has worked within midwifery education since 2012 and is a passionate advocate for the safe personalised care of women, birthing people, babies and families. Kate is committed to enabling the development of attitudes, skills and knowledge to ensure this.

Ian Peate OBE FRCNIan began his nursing career at Central Middlesex Hospital, becoming an enrolled nurse practising in an intensive care unit. He later undertook three years of student nurse training at Central Middlesex and Northwick Park hospitals, becoming a staff nurse and then a charge nurse. He has worked in nurse education since 1989. His key areas of interest are nursing practice and theory. Ian has published widely. He is editor in chief of the British Journal of Nursing, founding consultant editor of the Journal of Paramedic Practice and consultant editor International Journal for Advancing Practice. Ian was awarded an OBE for his services to nursing and nurse education and was granted a fellowship from the Royal College of Nursing. Ian is visiting professor at Northumbria University, St George's University of London and Kingston University London, professorial fellow Roehampton University and visiting senior clinical fellow at the University of Hertfordshire.

Elizabeth Routledge MBChB MRCP(UK) BSc(Hons)Consultant Physician in Acute Medicine, Forth Valley Royal Hospital, Larbert, UKBeth undertook undergraduate studies at the University of Durham and the University of Glasgow, and went on to complete her postgraduate medical training in the west of Scotland. As a specialist trainee in acute medicine, she developed a subspecialty interest in obstetric medicine, and completed training at Glasgow Royal Infirmary and the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital. She teaches widely in the area of obstetric medicine to medical trainees across Scotland, and has published in this area. She is a standing contributor to the Scottish Government's maternal medicine policy work. She has been a member of the Royal College of Physicians since 2016.

Antonio Sierra RN (Huelva, Spain) RM (London) MSc (London) PGCME (Beds) HEE/ICA Pre‐doctoral Programme (UEA)National Midwifery International Recruitment Adviser, NHS England; Consultant Midwife, West Hertfordshire Hospitals NHS Trust; Visiting Lecturer, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UKAntonio has been working in healthcare for nearly 20 years. He worked as a stroke nurse in South Wales before relocating to England, where he practised as a midwife in all areas of midwifery services before developing a passion for intrapartum care and clinical education. After working in several hospitals and leading on service development and quality improvement projects across Berkshire, London and Hertfordshire, he was appointed consultant midwife with a focus on midwifery practice and personalisation of care & choice. He is currently leading on international recruitment of midwives for NHS England. His key areas of interest are childbirth research for vulnerable groups, particularly matters affecting the LGBTQ+ community and global majority, as well as leadership and culture in the workplace, alongside clinical and pastoral support for staff.

Ashleigh WardConsultant Nurse Cancer and Palliative Care and Chair Research and Development Committee, Falkirk Community Hospital, UK; Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow UKAshleigh’s career focuses on cancer and palliative care. She is a Consultant Nurse and also the Chair of the Research and Development Committee.As well as her current role Ashleigh holds the position of Honorary Clinical Senior Lecturer at the School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing at the University of Glasgow. This role allows her to contribute to the academic community, sharing her expertise and knowledge with the next generation of healthcare professionals.Ashleigh’s contributions, aimed at improving palliative and end‐of‐life care, have been recognised in numerous publications and reports.

Preface

Understanding maternal anatomy and physiology is essential for any midwifery student who strives to offer women and their families safe and effective care. The Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology introduces you to the remarkable processes of human reproduction, pregnancy and childbirth. The Fundamentals of Maternal Anatomy and Physiology is a comprehensive exploration of the intricacies and marvels of the female reproductive system and the physiological changes that occur during pregnancy.

Understanding the anatomy and physiology of the maternal body is fundamental to providing quality care to pregnant individuals. Whether you are a student entering the field of midwifery, a healthcare professional specialising in maternal care or simply someone with a keen interest in the wonder of life, this book will serve as your invaluable guide.

There are 16 chapters in the book. In the first chapter, we begin by introducing the reader to the terminology that is used when discussing anatomy and physiology. Chapter 2 offers insight at the cellular level before moving on to the reproductive system and embarking on a fascinating journey through the female reproductive system. We start by delving into the anatomy and physiology of the body systems, unravelling their complex structures and functions. We explore the intricate processes of ovulation, fertilisation and implantation, laying down the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the subsequent stages of anatomy and physiology and how this is related to pregnancy.

We investigate the physiological changes that occur in the maternal body during pregnancy. From the moment of conception, the body undergoes a series of remarkable adaptations to support the growing fetus. We examine the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, endocrine system, immune system and other vital components, discussing and describing the intricate interplay between these systems and the unique demands of pregnancy.

This book pays particular attention to the concept of maternal‐fetal exchange – how nutrients, oxygen and waste products are transported between the maternal and fetal circulations via the placenta. We explore the development and functions of the placenta, shedding light on its role in nourishing and protecting the growing fetus.

Throughout the chapters, we emphasise the clinical relevance of maternal anatomy and physiology. Real‐life case studies, clinical scenarios and illustrative diagrams enhance the learning experience, allowing readers to apply their knowledge to practical situations. We also highlight common medical conditions and complications that can arise during pregnancy, providing insight into their underlying anatomical and physiological mechanisms.

It is important to note that this book is not meant to replace hands‐on clinical experience or professional guidance. Rather, it serves as a companion to enhance your understanding and appreciation of maternal anatomy and physiology. Each chapter is meticulously crafted to present the information in a clear, concise and engaging manner for students, academics and healthcare professionals alike.

The contributors, academics and practitioners, are experts in the field of midwifery and maternal health, who have contributed their extensive knowledge and expertise to make this book a reality. Their dedication and passion shine through these pages and we hope their insights will inspire and empower readers on their journey towards the provision of excellence in maternal care.

We invite you to immerse yourself in the world of maternal anatomy and physiology, as we describe and discuss the complexities of the female reproductive system and the adaptations the body makes to enable new life to flourish. Our wish is that this book becomes a source of inspiration, knowledge and empowerment, guiding you towards providing exceptional care to pregnant individuals and their families and fostering the wellbeing of mother and child.

Finally, a note on language. Inclusive language in health and care is crucial for promoting equality, respecting diversity and ensuring that everyone feels represented and valued. It involves using language that is inclusive of all individuals, regardless of their gender identity, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, disability or other characteristics. By employing inclusive language, we can foster a more inclusive and accessible environment for readers, patients and professionals alike.

When discussing gender and sex, one of the significant challenges is the complexity and fluidity of the terminology that is and that can be used. The concept of gender is multifaceted and may vary across cultures, communities and individuals. Understanding and navigating this terminology requires sensitivity, open‐mindedness and a willingness to learn and adapt to evolving perspectives. It is recognised that not all birthing people will identify with their biological sex and a ‘gender additive’ approach to language has been advocated in the context of contemporary maternity services. This acknowledges that women may be negatively impacted by reproductive health inequalities. The terms ‘woman’ and ‘women’ are used in this book, together with a range of terms to identify and describe those people to whom we have the privilege to offer maternal care.

Ian Peate, London

Claire Leader, Northumbria

Acknowledgements

Ian thanks his partner Jussi for his continued support. Claire would like to thank her husband Gavin for all the support and encouragement over the years. We would like to thank the amazing contributors who gave of their time to help the text come to fruition. We are grateful to the team at Wiley who were receptive and encouraged us to take this project forward.

CHAPTER 1Learning the Language: Terminology

Clare Gordon and Ian Peate

AIM

This chapter aims to provide insight and understanding of the terminology used in the provision of care related to anatomy, physiology and pregnancy.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

Discuss the terms anatomy and physiology.

Further understand prefixes and suffixes used in anatomy and physiology.

Understand directional terms.

Describe the anatomical planes, anatomical regions of the body and the body cavities.

Test Your Prior Knowledge

What do you understand by the term ‘pathology’?

What is the difference between a sign and a symptom?

How is the root word altered by a prefix or a suffix?

What are the contents of the thoracic cavity?

Introduction

Science, particularly terms used in the provision of health care, is replete with Latin and Greek terminologies. Latin names are used for all parts of the body; Greek terms are also common, as the Greeks are said by many to be the founders of modern medicine. Midwives and other healthcare staff use anatomical, physiological and pathophysiological concepts as they offer care and treatment for those who are experiencing some type of health condition or disease.

Red Flag Alert: Jargon

Like any country with its own language, the field of midwifery also has its own terminology or jargon. This is important so communication between healthcare professionals can take place quickly and efficiently without the need for too much explanation. It is a specific language that is not just used by midwives but also by nurses, paramedics, doctors and other people who are actively involved in the healthcare arena (e.g. pharmacists, physiologists and dentists). Its correct use can have a significant impact on ensuring the best care experience for patients.

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy discusses the study of the structure and location of body parts, while physiology is the study of the function body parts; both are interlinked. Understanding where the parts of the body are located can help you to understand how they function. As an example, McGuiness (2010) explains that, when thinking of the various functions of the heart and the four chambers, together with the valves, this is the anatomy; visualising these many structures can assist in understanding how blood flows through the heart and how the heart beats; this is related to its function and, as such, its physiology.

Anatomy

The Body Map

Learning anatomical terminology is like learning a new language. As your learning develops and you understand more and add different terms to your vocabulary, this can help you to talk confidently about the body. The anatomical directional terms and body planes present a universally recognised language of anatomy. When undertaking the study of anatomy and physiology, it is essential that you use key or directional terminology so you are able to give precise descriptions as you or others refer to the precise location of a body part or structure.

Reflective Learning Activity

When you are next on placement, identify how many times during a shift you hear the various clinicians describe and discuss anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology of a person. Note the terminology being used and how, between the team, there is a clearer understanding among the team when using one language – anatomical and physiological terminology.

All parts of the body are described in relation to other body parts. A standardised body position, known as the anatomical position, is used in anatomical terminology (Figure 1.1). An anatomical position is established from an imaginary central line that runs down the centre or mid‐line of the body. When in this position, the body is erect and faces forwards, with the arms to the side, palms face forwards with the thumbs to the side, the feet are slightly apart with the toes pointing forwards.

Orange Flag Alert: Speaking with Patients

While you are encouraged to use the correct anatomical and physiological terminology when conversing with other colleagues, caution must be exercised when speaking in front of and with women and their families. Midwives may inadvertently use words and jargon that are strange to women and their families; they may not realise that the meaning is not clear. While there are some concepts that are familiar and obvious to midwives, they may be alien to the women they offer care to. Try first to establish what the person knows and understands before launching into a discussion that begins at a level that is either too complex or too simple for them. Too often, our healthcare environments fail to recognise the needs of people with different levels of understanding about their health, and this can mean that people may fail to receive the right care at the right time. Use of jargon can instil fear, cause confusion and result in poor care.

The standard body ‘map’ or anatomical position (just like a map) is that of the body standing upright (orientated with the north at the top), with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward (Figure 1.1). Humans are usually bilaterally symmetrical. This position is used to describe body parts and positions of people irrespective of whether they are lying down, lying on their side or facing down.

As well as understanding the anatomy and the physiology (the structure and function), understanding directional terms and the position of the various structures is also required. Table 1.1 lists common anatomical descriptive terms with which you will need to become acquainted; Figure 1.2 depicts anatomical positions.

FIGURE 1.1 Anatomical position: anterior and posterior views of the body.

Source: Peate Applied Pathophysiology 4e Page 3 Fig 1.1 / John Wiley & Sons.

TABLE 1.1Anatomical descriptive terms.

Anatomical term

Relationship to the body

Anterior

Front surface of the body or structure

Posterior

Back surface of the body or structure

Deep

Further from the surface

Superficial

Close to the surface

Internal

Nearer the inside

External

Nearer the outside

Lateral

Away from the mid‐line

Median

Midline of the body

Medial

In the direction of the mid‐line

Superior

Located above or towards the upper part

Inferior

Located below or towards the lower part

Proximal

Nearest to the point of reference

Distal

Furthest away from the point of reference

Prone

Lying face down in a horizontal position

Supine

Lying face up in a horizontal position

FIGURE 1.2 Anatomical positions.

Source: Peate Applied Pathophysiology 4e Page 4 Fig 1.2 / John Wiley & Sons.

Snapshot 1.1

You are working in a community setting at a general practitioner surgery and Joanna is attending her 36‐week appointment.

Prearrival Information

Joanna is 36 weeks pregnant and this is her second pregnancy.

Patient Assessment

General appearance: Joanna looks tired and uncomfortable, and you notice some visible oedema to her face, hands and feet.

Systematic Approach

On examination:

Blood pressure: systolic 210 mmHg, diastolic 98 mmHg (210/98).

Urinalysis findings: clarity – cloudy, odour inoffensive, proteinuria 3+.

Physical examination: visual check and abdominal palpation.

On visual examination: abdomen appears normal, presence of linea nigra noted, several small striae (stretch marks) noted to the lower left quadrant. Visible oedema 3+ noted to hands, feet, lower legs and face.

On palpation: symphysis–fundal height measures 37 cm, longitudinal lie, cephalic presentation, well flexed, left occipitoanterior, 4/5ths palpable.

Auscultation of fetal heart with Sonicaid at 155 beats per minute with accelerations noted with fetal movement. No decelerations noted.

Fetal movements noted by Joanna as normal pattern for her baby.

Plan of Care

Refer to day assessment unit (or as per trust protocol) for further investigation and monitoring.

Reflective Learning Activity

Look through the information provided in Snapshot 1.1 and highlight all the information that is associated with anatomy, physiology and pathophysiology. Find and highlight the anatomical and physiological terms and determine their meaning.

Anatomical Planes of the Body

A plane is an imaginary two‐dimensional surface that passes through the body. There are three planes that are generally referred to in anatomy and healthcare (Figure 1.3):

Sagittal

Frontal

Transverse.

These are also words that you will also become familiar with in midwifery when referring to landmarks on the fetal skull.

The sagittal plane, the vertical plane, is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into the right and left sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is known as the midsagittal or median plane. If it divides the body into right and left sides, then it is called a parasagittal plane.

The frontal plane is the plane dividing the body or an organ into an anterior portion and a posterior portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane (the word corona is Latin for crown).

The transverse plane divides the body or organ horizontally into the upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions.

FIGURE 1.3 Anatomical planes.

Source: Peate Applied Pathophysiology 4e Page 4 Fig 1.2 / John Wiley & Sons.

Anatomical Regions of the Body

The body is divided up into regions, like a map. The anatomical regions of the body refer to a particular area/region of the body, which helps to compartmentalise. The body is divided into:

The head and neck

The trunk (thorax and abdomen)

The upper limbs (arms)

The lower limbs (legs).

See Tables 1.2–1.5 for a representation of the correct terminology for each region.

Body Cavities

Body cavities are spaces within the body that contain the internal organs (Figure 1.4). The cavity can be filled with air or with organs. Minor body cavities include the oral cavity (mouth), the nasal cavity, the orbital cavity (eye), middle ear cavity and the synovial cavities (these are spaces within synovial joints). There are two main cavities in the body):

The

dorsal cavity

is located in the posterior region of the body.

The

ventral body

cavity occupies the anterior region of the trunk.

The dorsal cavity is subdivided into two cavities:

The

cranial cavity

encloses the brain and is protected by the cranium (skull).

The

vertebral/spinal cavity

contains the spinal cord and is protected by the vertebrae.

TABLE 1.2Anatomical regions of the head and neck.

Anatomical phrase

Area of body related to

Cephalic

Head

Cervical

Neck

Cranial

Skull

Frontal

Forehead

Occipital

Back of head

Ophthalmic

Eyes

Oral

Mouth

Nasal

Nose

TABLE 1.3Anatomical regions of the trunk (thorax and abdomen).

Anatomical phrase

Area body related to

Axillary

Armpit

Costal

Ribs

Mammary

Breast

Pectoral

Chest

Vertebral

Backbone

Abdominal

Abdomen

Gluteal

Buttocks

Inguinal

Groin

Lumbar

Lower back

Pelvic

Pelvis/lower part of abdomen

Umbilical

Navel

Perineal

Between anus and external genitalia

Pubic

Pubis

TABLE 1.4Anatomical regions of the upper limbs.

Anatomical phrase

Area of body related to

Brachial

Upper arm

Carpal

Wrist

Cubital

Elbow

Forearm

Lower arm

Palmar

Palm

Digital

Fingers (also relates to toes)

TABLE 1.5Anatomical regions of the lower limbs (legs).

Anatomical phrase

Area body related to

Femoral

Thigh

Patellar

Front of knee

Pedal

Foot

Plantar

Sole of foot

Popliteal

Hollow behind knee

Digital

Toes (also relates to fingers)

FIGURE 1.4 The cavities of the body.

Source: Peate Applied Pathophysiology 4e Page 8 Fig 1.4 / John Wiley & Sons.

The ventral cavity is subdivided into:

The

thoracic cavity

is surrounded by the ribs and muscles and the intercostal muscles. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, trachea, oesophagus and thymus. Separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm muscle.

The

abdominopelvic cavity

:

The

abdominal cavity

contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine and most of the large intestine. The abdominal cavity is protected by the muscles of the abdominal wall and partly by the diaphragm and ribcage.

The

abdominopelvic cavity