Fungi E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 588

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Fungi: Biology and Applications, Second Edition provides a comprehensive treatment of fungi, covering biochemistry, genetics and the medical and economic significance of these organisms at introductory level. With no prior knowledge of the subject assumed, the opening chapters offer a broad overview of the basics of fungal biology, in particular the physiology and genetics of fungi and also a new chapter on the application of genomics to fungi. Later chapters move on to include more detailed coverage of topics such as antibiotic and chemical commodities from fungi, new chapters on biotechnological use of fungal enzymes and fungal proteomics, and fungal diseases of humans, antifungal agents for use in human therapy and fungal pathogens of plants.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction to Fungal Physiology

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Morphology of Yeasts and Fungi

1.3 Ultrastructure and Function of Fungal Cells

1.4 Fungal Nutrition and Cellular Biosyntheses

1.5 Fungal Metabolism

1.6 Fungal Growth and Reproduction

1.7 Conclusions

Chapter 2: Fungal Genetics

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Fungal Life Cycles

2.3 Sexual Analysis: Regulation of Mating

2.4 Unique Characteristics of Filamentous Fungi that are Advantageous for Genetic Analysis

2.5 Genetics as a Tool

2.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgement

Chapter 3: Fungal Genomics

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Genome Sequencing

3.3 Bioinformatics Tools

3.4 Comparative Genomics

3.5 Genomics and the Fungal Tree of Life

3.6 Online Fungal Genomic Resources

3.7 Conclusion

Chapter 4: Fungal Genetics: A Post-Genomic Perspective

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Genomics

4.3 Transcriptomics and Proteomics

4.4 Proteomics

4.5 Systems Biology

4.6 Conclusion

Chapter 5: Fungal Fermentations Systems and Products

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fungal Fermentation Systems

5.3 Commercial Fungal Products

5.4 Conclusion

Chapter 6: Pharmaceutical and Chemical Commodities from Fungi

6.1 Introduction to Pharmaceutical and Chemical Commodities

6.2 Fungal Metabolism

6.3 Antibiotic Production

6.4 Pharmacologically Active Products

6.5 Chemical Commodities

6.6 Yeast Extracts

6.7 Enriched Yeast

6.8 Conclusions

Chapter 7: Biotechnological Use of Fungal Enzymes

7.1 Introduction to Enzymes

7.2 Enzymes in Industry

7.3 Current Enzyme Applications

7.4 Future Direction of Industrial Enzymes

7.5 Specific Enzymes

7.6 Enzyme Production Strategies

7.7 Conclusions

Chapter 8: The Biotechnological Exploitation of Heterologous Protein Production in Fungi

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Heterologous Protein Expression in Fungi

8.3 Case Study: Hepatitis B Vaccine: A Billion Dollar Heterologous Protein from Yeast

8.4 Further Biotechnological Applications of Expression Technology

8.5 Conclusions

Chapter 9: Fungal Proteomics

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Protein Isolation and Purification

9.3 Electrophoretic Techniques

9.4 Protein Mass Spectrometry

9.5 Fungal Proteomics

9.6 Specialized Proteomics Applications in Fungal Research

9.7 Conclusion

Chapter 10: Fungal Infections of Humans

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Superficial Mycoses

10.3 Opportunistic Mycoses

10.4 Endemic Systemic Mycoses

10.5 Mycotoxicoses

10.6 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 11: Antifungal Agents for Use in Human Therapy

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Drugs Targeting the Plasma Membrane

11.3 Drugs Targeting the Cell Wall

11.4 Drugs Targeting Nucleic Acid and Protein Synthesis

11.5 Novel Therapies

11.6 Conclusions

Chapter 12: Fungal Pathogens of Plants

12.1 Fungal Pathogens of Plants

12.2 Disease Symptoms

12.3 Factors Influencing Disease Development

12.4 The Disease Cycle

12.5 Genetics of the Plant–Fungal Pathogen Interaction

12.6 Mechanisms of Fungal Plant Parasitism

12.7 Mechanisms of Host Defence

12.8 Disease Control

12.9 Disease Detection and Diagnosis

12.10 Vascular Wilt Diseases

12.11 Blights

12.12 Rots and Damping-Off Diseases

12.13 Leaf and Stem Spots, Anthracnose and Scabs

12.14 Rusts, Smuts and Powdery Mildew Diseases

12.15 Global Repercussions of Fungal Diseases of Plants

12.16 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Answers to Revision Questions

Color Plates

Index

This edition first published 2011 © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley's global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing.

Registered Office: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fungi : biology and applications / editor, Kevin Kavanagh. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-97710-1 (cloth) – ISBN 978-0-470-97709-5 (pbk.) 1. Fungi–Biotechnology. 2. Fungi. I. Kavanagh, Kevin. TP248.27.F86F875 2011 579.5–dc22 2011013563

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDF 9781119976967; ePub 9781119977698; Wiley Online Library 9781119976950; Mobi 9781119977704

List of Contributors

Professor Khaled H. Abu-Elteen, Department of Biological Science, Hashemite University, Zarqa 13133, Jordan. Dr Catherine Bachewich, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council of Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada H4P 2R2. Dr Virginia Bugeja, School of Life Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB, UK. Professor David Coleman, Microbiology Research Laboratory, Dublin Dental Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland. Dr Brendan Curran, School of Biological and Chemical Science, Queen Mary, University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, UK. Dr Fiona Doohan, Department of Plant Pathology, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Professor Sean Doyle, Department of Biology, National University of Ireland Maynooth, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland. Dr David Fitzpartick, Department of Biology, National University of Ireland Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland. Dr Mawieh Hamad, Research and Development Unit, JMS Medicals, Amman, Jordan. Dr Karina A. Horgan, Alltech Biotechnology Centre, Summerhill Road, Dunboyne, Co. Meath, Ireland. Dr Kevin Kavanagh, Department of Biology, National University of Ireland Maynooth, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland. Dr Shauna M. McKelvey, Alltech Biotechnology Centre, Summerhill Road, Dunboyne, Co. Meath, Ireland. Dr Gary Moran, Microbiology Research Laboratory, Dublin Dental Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland. Dr Richard A. Murphy, Alltech Biotechnology Centre, Summerhill Road, Dunboyne, Co. Meath, Ireland. Dr Derek Sullivan, Microbiology Research Unit, Dublin Dental School and Hospital, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland. Dr Edgar Medina Tovar, Mycology and Phytopathology Laboratory (LAMFU), Biological Sciences Department, Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia. Dr Graeme M. Walker, Biotechnology and Forensic Sciences, School of Contemporary Sciences, University of Abertay Dundee, Kydd Building, Dundee DD1 1HG, Scotland, UK. Dr Nia A. White, Biotechnology and Forensic Sciences, School of Contemporary Sciences, University of Abertay Dundee, Kydd Building, Dundee DD1 1HG, Scotland, UK. Dr Malcolm Whiteway, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council of Canada, 6100 Royalmount Avenue, Montreal, QC, Canada H4P 2R2.

1

Introduction to Fungal Physiology

Graeme M. Walker and Nia A. White

1.1 Introduction

Fungal physiology refers to the nutrition, metabolism, growth, reproduction and death of fungal cells. It also generally relates to interaction of fungi with their biotic and abiotic environment, including cellular responses to stress. The physiology of fungal cells impacts significantly on the environment, industrial processes and human health. In relation to ecological aspects, the biogeochemical cycling of carbon in nature would not be possible without the participation of fungi acting as primary decomposers of organic material. Furthermore, in agricultural operations, fungi play important roles as mutualistic symbionts, pathogens and saprophytes, where they mobilize nutrients and affect the physico-chemical environment. Fungal metabolism is also responsible for the detoxification of organic pollutants and for bioremediating heavy metals in the environment. The production of many economically important industrial commodities relies on the exploitation of yeast and fungal metabolism, and these include such diverse products as whole foods, food additives, fermented beverages, antibiotics, probiotics, pigments, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, enzymes, vitamins, organic and fatty acids and sterols. In terms of human health, some yeasts and fungi represent major opportunistic life-threatening pathogens, whilst others are life-savers, as they provide antimicrobial and chemotherapeutic agents. In modern biotechnology, several yeast species are being exploited as ideal hosts for the expression of human therapeutic proteins following recombinant DNA technology. In addition to the direct industrial exploitation of yeasts and fungi, it is important to note that these organisms, most notably the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, play increasingly significant roles as model eukaryotic cells in furthering our fundamental knowledge of biological and biomedical science. This is especially the case now that numerous fungal genomes have been completely sequenced, and the information gleaned from fungal genomics and proteomics is providing valuable insight into human genetics and heritable disorders. However, knowledge of cell physiology is essential if the functions of many of the currently unknown fungal genes are to be fully elucidated.

It is apparent, therefore, that fungi are important organisms for human society, health and well-being and that studies of fungal physiology are very pertinent to our understanding, control and exploitation of this group of microorganisms. This chapter describes some basic aspects of fungal cell physiology, focusing primarily on nutrition, growth and metabolism in unicellular yeasts and filamentous fungi.

1.2 Morphology of Yeasts and Fungi

Most fungi are filamentous, many grow as unicellular yeasts and some primitive fungi, such as the chytridomycetes, grow as individual rounded cells or dichotomous branched chains of cells with root-like rhizoids for attachment to a nutrient resource. Here, we will consider the most common growth forms: the filamentous fungi and unicellular yeasts.

1.2.1 Filamentous Fungi

The gross morphologies of macrofungi and microfungi are very diverse (see Plate 1.1). For example, we can easily recognize a variety of mushrooms and toadstools, the sexual fruiting bodies of certain macrofungi (the higher fungi Asomycotina and Basidiomycotina and related forms), during a walk through pasture or woodland. Microfungi (the moulds) are also diverse and are often observed on decaying foods and detritus, whereas many, including the coloured rusts, smuts and mildews, are common plant pathogens. Closer inspection of these visible structures, however, reveals that all are composed of aggregated long, branching threads termed hyphae (singular: hypha), organized to support spores for reproduction and dissemination. The hyphae of these aerial structures extend and branch within the supporting substratum as a network, termed a mycelium, from which the apically growing hyphae seek out, exploit and translocate available nutrients. Apically growing hyphae usually have a relatively constant diameter ranging from 1 to 30 μm or more, depending on fungal species and growth conditions. Filamentous fungi may be cultivated within the laboratory on a variety of different liquid or solid media. On agar, the radially expanding colonial growth form of the fungal mycelium is most evident, extending from an inoculum, on, within and sometimes above the substrate, forming a near spherical three-dimensional colony. This radiating, circular pattern is also visible during the growth of fairy ring fungi in grassland and as ringworm infections of the skin.

The hyphae of individual fungi may (theoretically) extend endlessly via apical growth, provided they are supported with appropriate nutrients and other environmental conditions. Eucarpic fungi, therefore, are spatially and temporally indeterminate organisms and, unlike animal, plant and other microbial individuals, have no predetermined maximum size or age. The mycelium is not, however, simply a homogeneously extending entity, but displays considerable developmental plasticity. Different interconnected regions of the fungal mycelium may grow, branch, anastomose (fuse), age, die, sporulate and display varying physiological and biochemical activities at different times or even simultaneously, depending on local micro-environmental conditions. Thus, colonies growing on relatively homogeneous media may be pigmented, exhibit different morphological sectors, produce aerial structures, grow as fast-effuse or slow-dense forms and even exhibit rhythmic growth (). As well as reproductive structures and substrate mycelium, certain higher fungi, most notably the basidiomycetes, when growing within an environment where nutrients are distributed heterogeneously, can differentiate into long string-like structures called rhizomorphs or cords. These linear organs have evolved to rapidly explore for, connect and translocate water and nutrients between patches of resource (e.g. pieces of fallen timber on the forest floor or from tree root to tree root). Accordingly, many, particularly mature, rhizomorphs contain internal vessel hyphae which possess a wide diameter, forming a channel running along the organ. The peripheral hyphae are often closely packed and melanized for insulation.