Global Waste Management E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 614

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025

Beschreibung

Global Waste Management raises awareness among readers about industrial application-based problems by encouraging self-evaluation and verification processes related to waste creation and its minimization. While other books discuss the “Do’s and Don’ts” of waste-related issues, our aim is to inspire readers to brainstorm solutions by providing appropriate data integrated with human values.

This outstanding new volume highlights the relationship between human activities and their effects on ecology and the environment in the form of waste, including e-waste, industrial waste, radioactive waste (generated during medical treatment and diagnosis, the refining of radioactive materials, operations of nuclear power plants, and through weapons of mass destruction), and micro- and macro-plastic waste. Specifically targeting higher education levels—those teaching, studying, or conducting research on waste generated through various sources—this volume covers the outcomes of waste generation and its management. It draws on the experiences, practices, teachings, and leadership of academia, industry experts, process plant engineers, and researchers.

This book is a collective effort to provide essential information on values and ethics, case studies, and the implementation of regulations from national and international governing bodies related to waste and the environment. It offers plausible solutions for the significant amounts of waste generated annually by the sectors mentioned.

Leseprobe

Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Global Waste Management

Edited by

Pradeep Kumar

and

Brajesh Kumar

This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-394-31838-4

Front cover images supplied by Wikimedia CommonsCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

In the era of tremendous amounts of waste all around the globe, it is imperative to practice waste minimization techniques along with their management on an individual and mass scale to promote sustainable development and a healthy environment everywhere. The present book highlights a grave issue in the generation of enormous amounts of waste in our dayto-day lives, adversely affecting living beings’ health globally, which is not a good sign for future generations. It is the responsibility of the present generation to tackle the issue in the present time to make a bright future based on a minimal or zero waste policy in an absolute sense. This book provides not only a glimpse of recent developments but also future aspects of waste management for diverse segments of waste.

This book covers a total of five sections comprising 15 chapters on various categories, such as global waste scenario, electronic waste (e-waste), radioactive waste, industrial waste, and plastic waste. These chapters are all about managing different types of waste, such as sources, classification, collection, handling, treatment, recycling, and disposal. A total of 37 authors including editors, from different parts of the world, shared and contributed their knowledge after rigorous discussions and research in waste management.

Section 1 presents the waste scenario at the global level, with the first two chapters authored by the editors of this book, Pradeep Kumar and Brajesh Kumar. The first chapter indicates the efficient usage of waste for sustainable development by summarizing utilization methods and related circular economy. In contrast, Chapter 2 articulates various types of waste as a challenge (in terms of the rate of generation of waste) and plausible business opportunities in brevity that promote sustainable development.

Section 2 includes 4 chapters providing a piece of sequential information regarding electronic waste (e-waste) in detail, including broad classification, types, selection criteria, the journey of electronic devices to e-waste, characterization, the necessity of management of e-waste by applying available rules and regulations with associated challenges, description of treatment methods, and after that its impact on the environment in terms of life cycle assessment and end of life management strategies. Some case studies have also been incorporated to understand the nature and handling of e-waste.

Section 3 describes the radioactive waste and its intensity and also covers 4 chapters with information on its historical background, types, and- classification. This section is quite different from other sections because it provides a unique perspective on treating radioactive waste by using microwave technology (chapter 9) and different aspects of reactor design for efficient utilization of spent nuclear fuel (chapter 10).

Section 4 addresses the issue of industrial waste and contains 2 chapters mainly focused on the nature of industrial solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes. Chapter 11 briefly describes industrial solid waste (ISW) in terms of factors affecting the waste generation rate, classification, impacts, challenges, collection and treatment methods, management, recycling, valorization, and handling rules and regulations. In contrast, chapter 12 highlights the classification of liquid and gaseous waste along with their characterization methods, impacts on the environment and living beings, disposal, limitations, and related laws and regulations in a concise form.

Section 5 explains the severity of plastic waste and covers 3 chapters about the types and classification of plastic waste, its collection, and threats to the environment and all living creatures who live on the surface and underwater. These chapters also discuss the treatment, recycling, and emerging technologies related to plastic waste. Further, this section describes life cycle assessment, circular economy, industrial aspects, government policies, and significant case studies.

Dr. Pradeep Kumar dedicated this book to their first teachers, their parents, Mr. Parshu Ram and Mrs. Kamini; and his wife Mrs. Sangeeta; daughter, Miss Varnika; son, Master Atharv, and beloved Miss Mishika and Miss Anvika. The editor also thanks his younger brothers, Mr. Vijay and Mr. Anshuman, and sister, Mrs. Priyanka.

Dr. Brajesh Kumar humbly dedicates this book to his beloved father, Mr. L. P. Kehari, who left his heavenly abode recently during COVID-19 in his loving and affectionate memory with profound regards. He also has deep gratitude for his mother, Mrs. Rajrani (the source of inspiration); younger brothers, Dr. Pramesh and Mr. Sachin; spouse, Mrs. Disha; and his son, Master Siddhartha.

We hope that this book will work as expedient for the readers, students, engineers, industry personnel, research scholars, and teachers from different backgrounds who are directly and indirectly involved or interested in the area of managing waste. This book can help teach undergraduate as well as postgraduate students. The industrial sector can also find related information about different wastes at a place and benefit from their industrial growth and participation for a sustainable, clean, and safe future.

Conclusively, we thank all authors for contributing their knowledge in the chapters for the present book. We are also thankful for the reviewers’ roles, which were crucial to making every chapter a substantial and lucrative informative pathway for the beneficiaries. Lastly, we are grateful to Mr. Martin Scrivener, President of Scrivener Publishing, USA, for providing such a platform, and a special thanks to Mr. Phillip Carmical, Co-owner and publisher of Scrivener Publishing, USA, for his amicable and incredible cooperation throughout the journey of the publication of this book.

Pradeep Kumar&

Brajesh Kumar

Section 1GLOBAL WASTE SCENARIO

1Waste Utilization for Sustainable Development

Pradeep Kumar

Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Engineering & Technology Lucknow (IET Lucknow), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

“Be part of the solution. Not part of the pollution.”

– Unknown

Abstract

Unwanted and unusable things are termed as waste. The accumulation of waste creates unhealthy and unhygienic conditions in the environment. A prime concern for waste is to manage and utilize it. How to utilize waste is a hot question that must be answered through research or innovative ideas. Many examples are present in nature which are perfect for waste utilization, such as carbon dioxide as a waste respirator being utilized by flora and fauna. Similarly, waste produced by living bodies such as urine and excreta is utilized by soil for enrichment. Industrial development, population growth, and rapid urbanization are the key factors promoting waste generation rates in every corner of the globe. The government, scientists, researchers, and academicians are concerned about environmental pollution due to waste. Apart from implementing laws and regulations, the utilization of waste should be the prime focus for sustainable development.

Keywords: Waste utilization, sustainable development, environment, pollution, zero waste index

1.1 Introduction

Waste utilization is an “end-to-end” process. This means that any material or product formed or produced has a certain lifespan, and whatever is left or undesirable at the end of that product’s use becomes waste. The product becomes waste when it is no useful, resulting in an unused end product. This unused end product creates problems such as space (land area) consumption, degradation, economic losses, and environmental issues. Environmental issues include biodiversity and ecological loss, as well as air, soil, and water pollution. Additionally, resource exploitation, and excessive use of land for landfilling or dumping grounds are the key issues that need to be resolved [1]. The increase in world population growth leads to a higher demand for energy, food, clothing, and shelter. The current world population is around 7.3 billion. With the current growth rate, the global population is expected to reach approximately 11 billion by the end of the 21st century [2]. Rapid urbanization causes the inflow of a growing population from small towns and villages into cities. By the end of this century, it is expected that 80% of the growing population will live in cities. The demand for consumer goods, electricity, energy, items of clothing, construction materials for homes and buildings, food, and agriculture requirements will increase manifold, further draining the planet’s already exhausted natural resources. Apart from the depletion of natural resources, the rate and amount of waste generation have also been increasing manifold. The migration of people to cities led to an increase in urban population. The population explosion in cities generates a large amount and variety of waste that municipal corporations cannot easily handle. The variety of waste includes municipal, factory, farming, hospital, building, mining, plastic, hazardous, and radioactive waste [3]. These wastes are broadly categorized into solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. Managing this waste is essential and a basic human need. It is considered a “basic human right,” alongside providing clean water, shelter, food, energy, transport, and communications. Ensuring proper sanitation and solid waste management is crucial for society and the economy. Despite its significance, waste management often receives less public and political attention compared to other essential services, posing challenges for society and the government. When the government overlooks trash management, it attracts public, political, and media scrutiny, as seen in the 2008 waste crisis in Campania, Italy. People living near landfills, incinerators, and waste management plants protest against government policies due to unsuccessful attempts to solve the waste management crisis. The media worldwide showed pictures of streets filled with uncollected waste, choked drainage channels, ad hoc dumping grounds occupied by waste, and long queues of lorries waiting to unload waste anywhere. This brought an awful situation to the country [4]. The management and handling of waste depend on the economy of the city or country and people’s awareness of waste management. Waste handling varies depending on the city or nation. For instance, in developed nations, the systems and procedures are more intricate and use advanced infrastructure and technologies. In developing nations, procedures are typically more straightforward and informal. Waste is typically disposed of on the outskirts of emerging towns. Figure 1.1 shows waste dumped on the roadside within a city. It clearly shows the variety of waste such as: bagasse, plastic waste (polythene bags, thermocol sheet, plastic bottles), food stuffs, foams, clothing articles and many more. The unhealthy practices of dumping wastes in the cities have resulted in several outbreak of epidemics with high death tolls [3], such as the epidemic in Surat, India, in 1994 [5].

An important question arises in both developing and developed countries: how to effectively utilize and manage the variety of waste. To answer this question, researchers, governments, and the general public must see waste as a potential resource for utilization and energy recovery. Researchers are evaluating the economic benefits of waste [4]. The waste-to-product approach to research is receiving increased attention in poorer nations [6], and people and government are focusing on waste utilization.

Figure 1.1 Dumping of variety of waste on the roadside.

1.2 Waste Utilization

The utilization of the unused end products (waste) is called waste utilization. Utilization means adopting methodologies to use waste in ways that provide economic benefits, environmental remedies, and reduce the burden on landfills. The goal of waste utilization is to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerators and find sustainable ways to extract value from resources. The conventional approach to waste management is shown in Figure 1.2, which clearly illustrates the top-to-bottom approach used for waste management.

Figure 1.2 denotes the conventional approach to waste management, which involves reducing raw material at the source, by using “reuse or recycle materials.” The reuse/recycle approach helps reduce the already produced volume of waste, thus lessening the burden on landfills. In most developing countries, like those on Africa or Asia, this top-to-bottom approach has been unsuccessful since segregation and collection of waste is a problem at the source is problematic due to a lack of waste management awareness. The general public is not very much aware of waste management practices. Additionally, landfills are considered the cheapest, easiest, and most viable waste disposal option [7]. The world’s largest landfill by area is the Apex Regional Landfill of Las Vegas, United States, covering 2,200 acres, whereas the largest dumping site by the amount of waste dumped per day is the Guatemala City Dump in Guatemala. In Guatemala City Dump, 500 tons of waste are dumped every day [8]. One major problem with landfills is the emission of methane, which has a high global warming potential. This emission can be controlled by combusting waste material in incinerators to generate and utilize energy. Various methodologies have been adopted to utilize waste.

Figure 1.2 Top-to-bottom approach of waste management.

1.2.1 Methods of Waste Utilization

The first and foremost important thing is to reduce waste, but that is not enough, we must move from waste management in a linear economy to waste utilization in a circular economy. The process of linear economy is described in Figure 1.3: take raw material from the nature, manufacture the product, sell it to the consumers, and after the end life of the product’s life, discard it back to nature.

Figure 1.3 Linear economy.

As discussed in Section 1.1, discarding material as waste to the nature is not sustainable. For a sustainable process, global waste management practices should adopt zero waste practices by implementing waste utilization. Various formal methodologies have been adopted for waste utilization and can be broadly categorized as:

Waste Utilization through Energy Conservation

Recycling:

The reuse of waste material for the manufacture of new products is known as recycling. Recycling can be used in such a way that either a certain ratio of waste raw material is mixed with new raw material to produce new material, or entirely waste material can be used as raw material for production. Recycling conserves natural resources, reduces energy consumption, and helps lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling of waste material has some limitations; initially, it involves the collection, sorting, and processing of waste materials such as paper, plastic, glass, and organic and inorganic waste, which requires a large workforce either manually or mechanically.

Waste-to-Energy (WTE):

This method involves converting non-recyclable waste into energy, usually through incineration. The heat generated during incineration is used to produce electricity or heat, reducing the demand for fossil fuels and minimizing the volume of waste that needs to be landfilled. It is estimated that 340 kWh of electricity can be generated from 1 ton of waste as originally received, and 400 kWh from the same amount of dewatered waste put into the furnace

[9]

.

Anaerobic Digestion:

In the absence of oxygen, this process breaks down organic waste to produce digestate rich in nutrients and biogas, which includes methane and carbon dioxide. The conversion of biomass to biogas provides a sustainable and renewable energy source. Over 7,000 MW of electricity is produced from biogas plants annually

[10]

. Biomass conversion to biogas provides a sustainable pathway to a circular economy. It provides the environmental benefit of reducing carbon gas emission and provides economic benefits to biomass producers such as farmers. It is also an effective, ingeniously active and beneficial waste utilization process.

Waste-to-Wealth

Composting:

Composting is a suitable method for organic waste, including food scraps, garden waste, and other biodegradable materials. The decomposition process produces nutrient-rich compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer in agriculture and gardening.

Upcycling:

Upcycling is the creative reuse of waste resources to create new goods that are better or more valuable than the originals. It encourages innovation and reduces the need for raw materials.

Reuse/Recycle/Regeneration:

The most effective way to manage waste is to reduce its generation in the first place (origin). This can be achieved through better product design, promoting reusable products, and encouraging conscious consumption.

E-Waste Recycling:

With the increasing use of electronic devices, recycling electronic waste (e-waste) is crucial to recover valuable metals and reduce environmental pollution.

Waste as a Raw Material for Another Process

Upcycling:

Upcycling is the process of ingeniously repurposing discarded resources to create new goods that are more valuable or superior to the originals. It encourages innovation and reduces the need for raw materials.

Figure 1.4 Waste utilization cycle: from fresh raw material to circular economy.

Figure 1.4 describes the process flow sheet, starting from fresh raw material to the generation of the waste and its utilization.

1.3 Circular Economy

Figure 1.4 also depicts how waste utilization is linked to the circular economy. The circular economy has become a boon for economic development at the local level as well as for society as a whole. It brings employment to locals, strengthens their earnings, and also reduces the exploitation of nature for raw materials. Geissdoerfer et al.[1] defined the circular economy as “a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling.” Figure 1.5 describes the circular economy; it starts with raw material taken from the waste and brings it back into the closed-loop cycle. The motto of the circular economy is the maximum possible use of the product, maximizing the utilization of these products while in use. Thereafter, at the end of the product’s life, it should be recovered and regenerated for the upcycling process, i.e., the whole process becomes zero-waste discharge process.

Figure 1.5 Circular economy.

The philosophy of the zero-waste discharge process is that the process could be systematically designed in such a way that the generation of waste is eliminated. The design of the product and the material should ensure energy conservation and resource without discarding anything into the environment. The zero-waste practice can be measured through the “Zero Waste Index (ZWI).” The ZWI measures how much virgin raw material can be reduced by substituting it with raw material recovered from waste management. The recovery of the same amount of material from waste management would eventually save energy, eliminate greenhouse gas emissions, and reduce the water consumption required for processing the same amount of virgin material. The ZWI can be measured through the following equation [7]:

(1.1)

where,

MSW

pq

= amount of waste stream p

p = it may be paper, plastic, metal, etc.

q = the process by which waste is managed (amount of waste avoided, recycled, treated, etc.)

SF

pq

= Substitution factor for the amount of waste stream

p

and managed by system

q

MSW

p

= Total amount of municipal solid waste managed.

It was estimated that an average person would save approximately $17 annually by substituting virgin material with recovered material. Singapore is the most economically benefited country regarding substituting the demand for virgin materials, saving approximately $194, followed by Kuwait ($135), Austria ($127), Germany ($117), and Switzerland ($110) [7]. The United Nations Environmental Programme for Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) also decided the food waste indicator (FWI). The formula for this is [11]:

(1.2)

Whereas,

(1.3)

(1.4)

The United Nations Environmental Programme targets to reduce global food waste by half by 2030 at all levels, i.e., at production, retailer, supply chain, and post-harvest. The FWI will help to understand the waste amount globally.

1.4 Waste Utilization in Practice

This section highlights the various waste utilization practices adopted globally in different sectors.

(a) Coal Fly Ash (CF)

Coal is used as a major source of energy generation. Thermal power plants use coal to produce electricity to meet energy demands. The major drawback of this process is that a large amount of CF is generated. Additionally, coal is a non-renewable source of energy. Table 1.1 highlights the production of CF as a waste and its utilization.

Table 1.1 Coal fly ash production and utilization [12].

Country

CF production (million tons per year)

CF utilization (%)

India

112

38

China

100

45

USA

75

65

Germany

40

85

UK

15

50

Australia

13.1

45

Canada

6

75

France

3

85

Denmark

2

100

Italy

2

100

Netherland

2

100

Japan

11.1

96.3

Russian Federation

26.7

18.0

CFA is an economical source of aluminosilicates and can be utilized in various ways, such as for road construction materials, polymer composites, construction materials, as zeolites, as carbon nanotubes, as aerogels, and as geopolymers [13].

(b) Baggasse: After extracting juice from the sugarcane, what remains is the bagasse. The generation of bagasse is approximately 100 million metric tons per year globally. India is the second-largest producer of sugarcane. The production of sugarcane in India in 2020 was approximately 25 million metric tons. A huge amount of bagasse was generated from the sugar industries. Earlier, this could be used for combustion purposes, but it produced air pollution and a large amount of ash. Nowadays, people are getting economic benefits by utilizing this waste to fabricate biodegradable plates, bowl, and trays, providing an alternative to the single use plastics.

1.5 Conclusion

Waste is inevitable, but it can be reduced and utilized in the best possible manner. To reduce waste, the first and foremost important thing is to understand the waste, its characterization, and the process from which it was generated. The next stage is to formally implement the best waste management methods to reduce waste at its source. Informal practices of waste management should be avoided by raising awareness in society and inspiring people to manage and utilize waste in such a way that zero waste discharge practices can be maintained. The practices of waste-to-wealth, waste utilization through energy conservation, and upcycling process should be adopted by society and industrial processes. The concept of circular economy, which includes reuse, recycling, and upcycling processes, should be encouraged by the government and policymakers for society and industrial processes to achieve zero-waste discharge. The concept of ZWI for every sector of waste management should be adopted by industries and encouraged by policymakers. In the end, we can understand that waste is a problem, but we also have the solutions; the only thing is to make it a best practice for its utilization. Every waste has value and every waste has potential; the only thing is to utilize it.

References

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Note

Email

:

[email protected]

2Waste: Challenges and Opportunities

Brajesh Kumar

Department of Chemical Engineering, NIT Srinagar, India

“We may never reach the ZERO in Zero Waste, but that’s no reason to take ZERO action.”

- Anne-Marie Bonneau

Abstract

Waste is recognized as an unavoidable byproduct of various essential or non-essential human activities. Non-essential human activity is completely dependent on human consciousness, but waste related to essential human activities should be managed in such a manner that it can be beneficial to humans as well as environment. Waste that is utilized to raise its value from negligible to something can also generate a better option to contribute to the economic growth of any country. The present chapter focuses on the different types of waste associated with its generation, segregation, collection, reuse, recycling, disposal, and management. It provides a brief review of the various types of waste and the factors affecting the rate of waste generation, highlighting formidable challenges and associated business opportunities for both low- and high-income countries around the globe.

Keywords: Waste, challenge, opportunity, environment, world bank, global

2.1 Introduction

Waste is material generated by human activities after the initial use of a fresh product, which is unavoidable. After the end of any product’s life, the first approach should be to reuse it in any form and to recycle it to produce a valuable alternative [1]. At the primary stage, the economic value of the waste is negligible, but it can become a resource by using technologies that can enhance its value and convert this byproduct into something valuable. In short, it is dependent on the fact that one person’s waste (refused for reuse in any way) can be useful for another person and can become a source of income in an efficient way. The waste is generated in three main categories: solid, liquid, and gaseous. We all are also aware that solid waste is more convenient to handle compared to liquid and gaseous waste due to their complex nature. Moreover, there are many other types of waste, such as municipal waste, agricultural waste, domestic waste, electronic waste, rubber waste, leather waste, wood waste, metal waste, industrial waste, paper waste, bio-waste, glass waste, medical waste, oil waste, food waste, plastic waste, chemical waste, etc. Therefore, the management of such toxic wastes is a critical task for waste-handling organizations, especially in mid- or low-income countries. Apart from household waste, rapid industrial growth and increasing healthcare facilities are accumulating huge quantities of industrial hazardous waste and toxic medical waste, which are entering the waste stream and creating serious human health complications and severe threats to the environment. Technologies are an essential part of recovering energy after recycling and reutilizing municipal solid waste before end treatment, which can be better option to reduce the adverse environmental factors [2].

According to the 2018 World Bank report [3], approximately 2 billion tons of municipal solid waste is generated worldwide, of which 30–35% waste is not treated properly and is unsafe for human beings and the environment, requiring urgent attention and action. It is estimated that each person generates waste in the range of 0.11–4.54 kg per day. More than 30% of global waste is generated by high-income countries due to their high living standards and capacity to purchase more than their actual requirements. By the year 2050, the amount of global municipal waste is expected to increase up to 3–3.5 billion tons because by this time, the world’s population will have doubled. In low-economic growth countries, the rate of waste generation is low at the initial stage but it is expected to increase more than three times by 2050 [3]. Over 90% of waste in these low-income countries is mismanaged, which is the main cause of harmful emissions and the potential risk of poor atmospheric health in the surrounding areas. According to the report’s estimation, approximately one-third of solid waste is openly dumped or burnt without proper essential treatment due to low budgets or poor economic scenarios.

The 2018 report provided data on the percent share of waste generation region-wise annually for year 2016 and projected data for the year 2050, which are given below in the form of pie charts (Figures 2.1(a, b)) [3].

Figure 2.1 Data of waste generation in millions of tons per year for (a) 2016 and (b) projected for 2050, according to the 2018 World Bank report [3].

Technology is not the only solution for waste management and cannot be considered ultimate solution because waste management is easier in high-income countries due to the proper segregation of dry and wet solid waste, while low-income countries do not have an adequate mindset regarding this. Waste collection strategies should be optimized and implemented effectively [4]. The waste collection rate is better in high-income countries than in upper-middle-income, lower-middle-income, and low-income countries. Food and green waste contribute the highest share of total waste compared to other types of waste in any income group of countries. Composting and landfills are prevalent methods for the disposal of untreatable waste. Local governments, with the support of the local public, can enhance the collection of waste in a proper manner in mid- and low-income countries, similar to high income-countries, because local governments spend approximately 50% of their municipal budget on waste management, while the rest budget is covered by the central government and private agencies interested in waste handling businesses. On the other hand, liquid and gaseous waste cannot be handled like solid waste because liquid waste is thrown into water bodies directly, and gaseous waste is merged with the air without proper treatment. Both types of waste generate water and air pollution, which are hazardous for the health of human beings as well as the Earth. However, some techniques are used to handle such wastes, but they are inadequate efforts in this regard. In view of this, minimizing such types of waste is the only solution to protect the environment and achieve a sustainable and safe future [5].

The subsequent sections will briefly present an overview of waste as both a challenge and an opportunity. Challenges are associated with the factors that influence the rate of waste generation, while opportunities are related to business ideas for producing recycled materials and reusing waste in different ways.

2.2 Waste as a Challenge

Waste of any type creates a crucial challenge for its treatment and management by both government and private agencies. This challenge is largely dependent on the rate of waste generation, which should be minimized. The subsequent section will elaborate on the factors that should be considered for effective waste management.

2.2.1 Factors Affecting the Generation Rate of Waste

Several factors are responsible for the higher rate of waste generation globally. Without a significant understanding of these factors, effective waste management and the development of feasible global strategies for a sustainable future are not possible. A discussion of some important factors that pose challenges to waste management is provided below:

Overpopulation:

The quantity of waste generated is an important parameter that is directly proportional to the population size and density in a specific area. A higher population in dense urban areas leads to a higher rate of waste generation due to increased production and overconsumption associated with numerous human activities. Therefore, overpopulation should be controlled in a manner that minimizes the exploitation of resources (especially natural resources) and ensures their efficient utilization.

Industrial Practices:

Industrial practices and commercial activities play a significant role in waste generation due to manufacturing processes, commercial operations, and construction activities, which create more waste in terms of packaging materials, construction debris, and industrial by-products. The unavailability or underutilization of sewage treatment plants or effluent treatment plants can lead more waste and severe damage, resulting in various types of environmental pollution such as water, soil, and air pollution.

Economic Development:

Certainly, economic development in any country can result in a higher waste generation rate because affluent societies have different consumption patterns, such as the use of disposable products and more packaging materials. Therefore, managing such a rate of waste generation creates a significant challenge for waste management agencies worldwide.

Seasonal and Tourist Activities:

Areas that are popular tourist destinations during specific seasons are more prone to creating large amounts of waste. The rate of waste generation is quite high at peak season due to increased consumption, hospitality services, and repetitive recreational or repair activities at tourist spots.

Legislative and Policy Frameworks:

Policies and their implementation can directly affect the rate of waste generation. Implementing policies at the legislative level can be beneficial to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste on both individual and mass scales. Policies are not only meant to be only on paper; rather, they should be strictly practiced at every level, from schools to office work culture.

Lifestyle:

Lifestyle changes in urban areas affects the rate of waste generation, resulting in higher amounts of waste, as many people from rural areas have moved to cities in recent decades. A transition can clearly be seen nowadays, with more consumer-driven lifestyles replacing traditional and sustainable practices for handling waste. For instance, a large part of population worldwide depends on high plastic usage, which is a well-known fact. Plastic takes longer period to decompose and creates a serious threat to the earth and water bodies. Poor lifestyle patterns, where waste handling is approached casually or not considered at all in daily practices, cannot lead to a safe and clean environment for human beings.

Education and Awareness:

Undoubtedly, related education and public awareness through campaigns are essential for minimizing waste on a large scale. Different educational courses and practical applications in waste management should be implemented at the school, college, and university levels to promote behavioral changes that reduce waste.

Technological Advancement:

New technology and innovation can substantially affect the rate of waste generation. For example, environmentally friendly materials for manufacturing, sustainable packaging, and waste-to-energy technologies can reduce waste generation and improve waste resource recovery.

Infrastructure:

Waste management infrastructure should be developed worldwide, including separate segregation and collection systems for wet and dry wastes. Additionally, the recycling facilities and disposal sites can also affect the overall rate of waste generation. Firm initiatives for such waste-handling infrastructure should be prioritized by everyone, including individuals, societies, governments, academia, and industries, in the right direction to implement regulations and practices related to waste.

Other Factors:

There are many other factors that may be connected to rate of waste generation beyond the aforementioned factors, such as public attitude towards waste management, frequency of waste collection, population characteristics, the extent of salvage, junk, scrap, and recycling of waste, and geographical locations.

2.3 Waste as Opportunity

Apart from being a challenge, waste can generate wealth by promoting a circular economy and some profitable businesses. The various types of waste and associated products with wide opportunities are mentioned as follows:

2.3.1 Paper Waste

Approximately 26% of the total waste in landfills comes from paper waste. Paper production causes deforestation, which uses an enormous amount of water and energy which results in air pollution and other types of waste. Approximately 42% of all global wood is used to manufacture paper, which is quite a large percentage, even as people try to go paperless, but it seems to be a tedious task. Waste paper can be recycled and used as raw material for a variety of products such as tissue papers, cardboard boxes, paper plants, egg cartons, newspaper, magazine, etc. The demand for these products is quite high in metropolitan cities worldwide for household and office purposes, where the rate of consumption of both fresh and scrap paper is high. It is a well-known fact that setting up scrap paper usage is cheap and profitable for small-scale businesses [6].

2.3.2 Plastic Waste

Plastic waste is recognized as the worst type of waste, posing a long-lasting threat to the environment as it takes decades to decompose. The production of plastic materials has more than doubled in the last two or three decades, which is not a good sign for a clean and environmentally friendly future. For this reason, it is also referred to as plastic pollution. However, conversely, plastic waste can be harnessed into good business options for useful products through reuse or recycling, such as trash bags, polythenes, cans, plastic bottles, buckets, traffic cones, upcycled plastic wallet, recycled kitchenware, packaging materials, film, sheeting, carpeting, countertops, recycled plastic flowerpots, shampoo bottles, upcycled plastic toys, etc. In addition to these products, plastic waste can be used to produce valuable fuels through thermocatalysis, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, and other catalytic processes [7].

2.3.3 Rubber Waste

Recycling rubber products like tires can help the waste management process and avoid harmful impacts on the ecosystem [8]. As automobile production has increased in recent decades, the demand for rubber tires has also increased phenomenally. The rubber recycling market is primarily dependent on rubber tires, which contribute a large amount of rubber waste. This waste can be used to prepare different items such as civil engineering equipments, patio umbrellas, bumpers, fitness flooring, animal mats, trash cans, rubber bands, shoes, bottle openers, rubber chairs, yoga mats, etc. Moreover, rubber powder is quite popular and useful nowadays in different sectors of industry.

2.3.4 Glass Waste

Glass waste decomposition takes more time than plastic but is less hazardous than plastic and more useful than plastic waste. Recycling glass waste is a multi-step procedure that includes collection, sorting, cleaning, crushing, and melting. The product obtained from glass waste should be high quality and meet guidelines of regulations. Glass waste can also be utilized as glass powder in precast concrete products [9]. As a result, we can obtain a range of products and applications, such as packaging, tableware, building construction and infrastructure, interior design and furniture, parts of electrical and electronics devices, automotive and transport, medical appliances, radiation protectors, fiber optic cables, and various renewable options.

2.3.5 Scrap Metal Waste

The growth in scrap metal waste is quite high and increasing continuously, and it can be obtained from industries and residential use. Scrap metals are rich in valuable elements like iron and aluminum. In deep eutectic solvents, the recovery of metals ions is quite common by using this type of waste [10]. Given the scenario, numerous business opportunities can be explored to produce a wide range of products, such as automobile parts, electrical and electronic appliances, computers, aeronautical and aerospace equipment, including airplanes and rockets, aluminum doors and window frames, bicycles, bed frames and mattress springs, elevators, cast iron sinks and bathtubs, locks and doorknobs, pipes, cooking pots and pans, roofing, ships, telephone wires, tools, toys, structural steel building frames, railway manufacturing parts, industrial cuttings and machinery.

2.3.6 Construction Waste

Industries involved in the construction business create a lot of waste, starting from bricks, stones, and floor tiles to metals. Construction waste also includes wood waste, metal, concrete, and other building materials. Segregating and collecting these materials in construction waste is a very tough task. Selling these materials to various industries to produce new products creates new job opportunities and related employment. An interesting fact about this type of waste is that some of it can be reformed for the same materials. Recycling this waste is a better option than landfilling.

2.3.7 Food Waste

Food waste and yard waste can also be utilized to make compost for organic farming to grow vegetables and fruits. Therefore, food waste is also known as organic waste. Compost prepared from organic waste is rich in nutrients and very beneficial for increasing soil health, which improves fertility in agricultural fields, landscapes, and gardens. Optimum conditions (organic material, amount of water and air) are required to grow microorganisms that can disintegrate food waste into compost. This business idea is interesting and easy to establish within the permissible laws of state and federal governments. This business can provide a great opportunity to produce compost on a large scale economically.

2.3.8 Electronic Waste

The new generation is largely dependent on electronic items for their daily needs, such as computers, mobiles, televisions, tablets, etc. Due to technological advancements in this industry, these items become outdated in a very short time. Consequently, it is not easy to handle this type of waste. However, many industries are now focused on refurbishing these items with some upgradation. It can also be a lucrative business if handled adequately according to demand and supply in the global market. Instead of making new material, electronic waste can be efficiently utilized in a way that does not adversely affect the environment, as it contains very toxic components (e.g., heavy metals, flame retardants, etc.), and their disposal should be done within permissible guidelines. Battery wastes can also be considered in this category, as it is a more hazardous type of electronic waste [11].

2.3.9 Wood Waste

The percentage of wood waste is continuously increasing day by day due to several factors worldwide and includes 15–20% of the total global waste stream. The wood waste recycling business is a good opportunity in terms of making furniture, paper manufacturing, panel board production, wood panels, energy production, engineering wood products, wood chips for animal bedding, etc. Utilizing wood waste in any manner will reduce landfilling and promote the conservation of fresh wood reserve.

2.3.10 Medical Waste

Medical waste includes sharp objects, pharmaceutical materials, laboratory waste, and other contaminated items. Therefore, medical waste is the most critical type of waste and should be disposed of strictly because it poses a serious threat to the health of living beings and adversely affects the environment. Recycling this type of waste can be managed after proper disinfection to create some valuable items like reusable medical items, plastic products, and reused metals. Some medical waste cannot be recycled because of lack of technology and, therefore, they should be managed according to standard procedures and guidelines by highly trained medical professionals in this field.

2.3.11 Waste to Energy

If waste is utilized in such a manner that it can produce energy in terms of heat and electricity, efficient technologies need to be established by professionals. The waste is burned at high temperatures in waste-to-energy plants to produce heat, which can then be converted by special equipment into electricity and other uses. Waste-to-energy is quite popular nowadays in areas with a high quantity of waste that can be converted to energy through efficient business models [12].