Graphene E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has been a great sensation due to its unique structure and unusual properties, and it has only taken
6 years for a Noble Prize to be awarded for the field of graphene research. This monograph gives a well-balanced overview on all areas of
scientific interest surrounding this fascinating nanocarbon. In one handy volume it offers comprehensive coverage of the topic, including
chemical, materials science, nanoscience, physics, engineering, life science, and potential applications. Other graphene-like, inorganic layered materials are also discussed.
Edited by two highly honored scientists, this is an invaluable companion for inorganic, organic, and physical chemists, materials scientists,
and physicists.
From the Contents:
* Synthesis, Characterization, and Selected Properties of Graphene
* Understanding Graphene via Raman Scattering
* Physics of Quanta and Quantum Fields in Graphene
* Graphene and Graphene-Oxide-Based Materials for Electrochemical Energy Systems
* Heterogeneous Catalysis by Metal Nanoparticles supported on Graphene
* Graphenes in Supramolecular Gels and in Biological Systems
and many more
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Seitenzahl: 745
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013
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Table of Contents
Related Titles
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
List of Contributors
Chapter 1: Synthesis, Characterization, and Selected Properties of Graphene
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Synthesis of Single-Layer and Few-Layered Graphenes
1.3 Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons
1.4 Selected Properties
1.5 Inorganic Graphene Analogs
References
Chapter 2: Understanding Graphene via Raman Scattering
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Atomic Structure and Electronic Structure of Graphene
2.3 Phonons and Raman Modes in Graphene
2.4 Layer Dependence of Raman Spectra
2.5 Phonon Renormalization Due to Electron and Hole Doping of Graphene
2.6 Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene Edges and Graphene Nanoribbons
2.7 Effect of Disorder on the Raman Spectrum of Graphene
2.8 Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene under Strain
2.9 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of Raman Modes in Graphene as Nanometrological Tools
2.10 Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene Layers
2.11 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3: Physics of Quanta and Quantum Fields in Graphene
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Dirac Theory in 3 + 1 Dimensions: A Review
3.3 Band Structure of Graphene: Massless Chiral Dirac Electrons in 2 + 1 Dimensions
3.4 Anomaly – A Brief Introduction
3.5 Graphene and 2 + 1-Dimensional Parity Anomaly
3.6 Zitterbewegung
3.7 Klein Paradox
3.8 Relativistic-Type Effects and Vacuum Collapse in Graphene in Crossed Electric and Magnetic Fields
3.9 Prediction of Spin-1 Quanta from Resonating Valence Bond Correlations
3.10 Majorana Zero Mode from Two-Channel Kondo Effect in Graphene
3.11 Lattice Deformation as Gauge Fields
3.12 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 4: Magnetism of Nanographene
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theoretical Background of Magnetism in Nanographene and Graphene Edges
4.3 Experimental Approach to Magnetism of Nanographene
4.4 Magnetic Phenomena Arising in the Interaction with Guest Molecules in Nanographene-Based Nanoporous Carbon
4.5 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 5: Physics of Electrical Noise in Graphene
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Flicker Noise or “1/f” Noise in Electrical Conductivity of Graphene
5.3 Noise in Quantum Transport in Graphene at Low Temperature
5.4 Quantum-Confined Graphene
5.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 6: Suspended Graphene Devices for Nanoelectromechanics and for the Study of Quantum Hall Effect
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene
6.3 Fabrication of Suspended Graphene Devices
6.4 Nanoelectromechanics Using Suspended Graphene Devices
6.5 Using Suspended Graphene NEMS Devices to Measure Thermal Expansion of Graphene
6.6 High-Mobility Suspended Graphene Devices to Study Quantum Hall Effect
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 7: Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Patterned Nanoribbons: A Detailed Computational Study
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Experimental Results
7.3 Theory of GNRs
7.4 Hydrogenation at the Edges
7.5 Novel Properties
7.6 Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 8: Stone–Wales Defects in Graphene and Related Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Computational Methods
8.3 Graphene: Stone–Wales (SW) Defects
8.4 C1−x(BN)x/2: C–BN Interfaces
8.5 Two-Dimensional MoS2 and MoSe2
8.6 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Graphene and Graphene-Oxide-Based Materials for Electrochemical Energy Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Graphene-Based Materials for Fuel Cells
9.3 Graphene-Based Supercapacitors
9.4 Graphene in Batteries
9.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 10: Heterogeneous Catalysis by Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Graphene
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Synthesis of Graphene and Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Graphene
10.3 Pd/Graphene Heterogeneous Catalysts for Carbon–Carbon Cross-Coupling Reactions
10.4 CO Oxidation by Transition-Metal/Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles Supported on Graphene
10.5 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 11: Graphenes in Supramolecular Gels and in Biological Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Toward the Gelation of GO
11.3 Polymer-Assisted Formation of Multifunctional Graphene Gels
11.4 Graphene Aerogels
11.5 Hydrogel and Organogel as the Host for the Incorporation of Graphene
11.6 Biological Applications Involving Graphene
11.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
References
Chapter 12: Biomedical Applications of Graphene: Opportunities and Challenges
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Summary of Physical and Chemical Properties of Graphene
12.3 Cellular Uptake, Biodistribution, and Clearance
12.4 Toxicity of Graphene
12.5 Mitigation of Toxicity by Surface Modifications
12.6 In vivo Toxicity
12.7 Potential Application Areas: Opportunities
12.8 Conclusions
References
Index
Related Titles
Martin, N., Nierengarten, J.-F. (eds.)
Supramolecular Chemistry of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes
2012
ISBN: 978-3-527-32789-8
Jorio, A., Dresselhaus, M. S., Saito, R., Dresselhaus, G.
Raman Spectroscopy in Graphene Related Systems
2011
ISBN: 978-3-527-40811-5
Kumar, C. S. S. R. (ed.)
Carbon Nanomaterials
Series: Nanomaterials for the Life Sciences (Volume 9)
2011
ISBN: 978-3-527-32169-8
Saito, Y. (ed.)
Carbon Nanotube and Related Field Emitters
Fundamentals and Applications
2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-32734-8
Krüger, A.
Carbon Materials and Nanotechnology
2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-31803-2
Guldi, D. M., Martín, N. (eds.)
Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures
Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization, and Applications
2010
ISBN: 978-3-527-32406-4
The Editor
Prof. Dr. C. N. R. Rao
Chemistry of Materials Unit
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre
Jakkur P.O.
Bangalore 560 064
India
Prof. Dr. A. K. Sood
Indian Institute of Science
Department of Physics
Bangalore 560 012
India
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© 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
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Print ISBN: 978-3-527-33258-8
ePDF ISBN: 978-3-527-65115-3
ePub ISBN: 978-3-527-65114-6
mobi ISBN: 978-3-527-65113-9
oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-65112-2
Preface
Graphene is a fascinating subject of recent origin, its first isolation being made possible through micromechanical cleavage of a graphite crystal. Since its discovery, graphene has caused great sensation because of its unusual electronic properties, and scientists from all over the world have been working on the varied facets of graphene. Thus, there has been much effort to synthesize both single-layer and few-layer graphenes by a number of methods. A variety of properties and phenomena have been investigated, and many of the studies have been directed toward understanding the physical and chemical properties of graphene. Raman spectroscopy has been particularly useful in unraveling various aspects of graphene. A graphene field-effect transistor, a basic building block of nanodevices, is a single-element laboratory to study electron–phonon interactions using Raman scattering. The low-frequency electrical noise or the flicker noise in graphene devices defines the figure of merit of a device and has contrasting behavior for single- and bilayer-graphene devices. Magnetic properties have been of equal interest with the indication that graphene may be ferromagnetic at room temperature, exhibiting magnetoresistance. Graphene nanoribbons have attracted attention because of their unique electronic structure and properties. Graphene also provides a playground for exploring many quantum field related phenomena such as Klein tunneling, antilocalization, zitterbewegung, vacuum collapse by Lorenz boost and so on. Suspended graphene devices have been used to study nanoscale electromechanics and quantum Hall effect.
A variety of applications of graphene have come to the fore. Its use in supercapacitors and batteries has been explored. Other properties of graphene, which are noteworthy, are those that enable its use in nanoelectronics, field emission and catalysis. Biological aspects of graphene have been investigated by a number of workers, with emphasis on its toxicity and its possible use for drug delivery.
In this book, we have tried to cover many of the salient aspects of graphene, which are of current interest. Although the book mostly deals with graphene, we have included some material on graphene-like inorganic layered materials. It is possible, however, that some topics have been left out owing to constraints on the size of the book and possible errors in judgement. We trust that the book will be useful to students, teachers, and practitioners, and serves as an introduction to those who want to take part in the exciting developments of this subject.
June 2012
C.N.R. Rao
A.K. Sood
List of Contributors
Chapter 1
Synthesis, Characterization, and Selected Properties of Graphene
C. N. R. Rao, Urmimala Maitra and H. S. S. Ramakrishna Matte
1.1 Introduction
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene are two of the most studied materials today. Two-dimensional graphene has specially attracted a lot of attention because of its unique electrical properties such as very high carrier mobility [14], the quantum Hall effect at room temperature [2, 5], and ambipolar electric field effect along with ballistic conduction of charge carriers [1]. Some other properties of graphene that are equally interesting include its unexpectedly high absorption of white light [6], high elasticity [7], unusual magnetic properties [8, 9], high surface area [10], gas adsorption [11], and charge-transfer interactions with molecules [12, 13]. We discuss some of these aspects in this chapter. While graphene normally refers to a single layer of sp2 bonded carbon atoms, there are important investigations on bi- and few-layered graphenes (FGs) as well. In the very first experimental study on graphene by Novoselov et al. [1, 2] in 2004, graphene was prepared by micromechanical cleavage from graphite flakes. Since then, there has been much progress in the synthesis of graphene and a number of methods have been devised to prepare high-quality single-layer graphenes (SLGs) and FGs, some of which are described in this chapter.
Characterization of graphene forms an important part of graphene research and involves measurements based on various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Characterization involves determination of the number of layers and the purity of sample in terms of absence or presence of defects. Optical contrast of graphene layers on different substrates is the most simple and effective method for the identification of the number of layers. This method is based on the contrast arising from the interference of the reflected light beams at the air-to-graphene, graphene-to-dielectric, and (in the case of thin dielectric films) dielectric-to-substrate interfaces [14]. SLG, bilayer-, and multiple-layer graphenes (<10 layers) on Si substrate with a 285 nm SiO2 are differentiated using contrast spectra, generated from the reflection light of a white-light source (Figure 1.1a) [15]. A total color difference (TCD) method, based on a combination of the reflection spectrum calculation and the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) color space is also used to quantitatively investigate the effect of light source and substrate on the optical imaging of graphene for determining the thickness of the flakes. It is found that 72 nm thick Al2O3 film is much better at characterizing graphene than SiO2 and Si3N4 films [16].
Figure 1.1 (a) Optical image of graphene with one, two, three, and four layers; (b) Raman image plotted by the intensity of G-band; (c) Raman spectra as a function of the number of layers; (d) zoom-in view of the Raman 2D-band; and (e) the cross section of the Raman image, which corresponds to the dashed lines in (b).
(Source: Reprinted with permission from Ref. [15].)
Contrast in scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images is another way to determine the number of layers. The secondary electron intensity from the sample operating at low electron acceleration voltage has a linear relationship with the number of graphene layers (Figure 1.2a) [17]. A quantitative estimation of the layer thicknesses is obtained using attenuated secondary electrons emitted from the substrate with an in-column low-energy electron detector [18]. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can be directly used to observe the number of layers on viewing the edges of the sample, each layers corresponding to a dark line. Gass et al. [19] observed individual atoms in graphene by high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) in the aberration-corrected mode at an operation voltage of 100 kV. Direct visualization of defects in the graphene lattice, such as the Stone–Wales defect, has been possible by aberration-corrected TEM with monochromator (Figure 1.2b) [20]. Electron diffraction can be used for differentiating the single layer from multiple layers of graphene. In SLG, there is only the zero-order Laue zone in the reciprocal space, and the intensities of diffraction peaks do not therefore, change much with the incidence angle. In contrast, bilayer graphene exhibits changes in total intensity with different incidence angles. Thus, the weak monotonic variation in diffraction intensities with tilt angle is a reliable way to identify monolayer graphene [21]. The relative intensities of the electron diffraction pattern from the {2110} and {1100} planes can be used to determine the number of layers. If I{1100}/I{2110} is >1, it is reported as SLG, and if the ratio is <1, it is multilayer graphene [22]. Thickness of graphene layers can be directly probed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) in tapping mode. On the basis of the interlayer distance in graphite of 3.5 Å [3], the thickness of a graphene flake or the number of layers is determined as shown in [3]. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) also provides high-resolution images of graphene.
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