Graphene Optoelectronics E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
This first book on emerging applications for this innovative material gives an up-to-date account of the many opportunities graphene offers high-end optoelectronics. The text focuses on potential as well as already realized applications, discussing metallic and passive components, such as transparent conductors and smart windows, as well as high-frequency devices, spintronics, photonics, and terahertz devices. Also included are sections on the fundamental properties, synthesis, and characterization of graphene. With its unique coverage, this book will be welcomed by materials scientists, solid-state chemists and solid-state physicists alike.
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Seitenzahl: 508
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014
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Table of Contents
Cover
Related Titles
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Electronic Transport and Optical Properties of Graphene
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Experimental Facts
1.3 Models for Transport in Graphene
1.4 DC Conductivity
1.5 AC Conductivity for Very Weak Scattering and Thermal Fluctuations
1.6 Plasmons
1.7 Discussion
References
Chapter 2: Synthesis and Modification of Graphene
2.1 Synthesis of Graphene
2.2 Modification and Functionalization of Graphene
2.3 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
References
Chapter 3: Graphene for the Elaboration of Nanocomposite Films for Optoelectronic Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Synthesis and Optical Characterization of Few-layered Graphene Oxide (FGO)
3.3 Graphene as Seed Layer for Synthesis of DLC Free-Standing Films for Ultrahigh-Intensity Laser-Based Electron/Proton Acceleration Applications
3.4 ZnO/Graphene Nanorod Composites for LED Application
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Metallic and Passive Components
4.1 Introduction
4.2 History of Graphene
4.3 Applications
References
Chapter 5: High-Frequency Devices
5.1 Graphene Transistor
5.2 Functional Circuits
5.3 Self-Aligned Electrode
5.4 Dielectrophoresis
References
Chapter 6: Bandgap Engineering in Graphene
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bandgap Engineering in Bilayer and Multilayer Graphene
6.3 Bandgap Engineering in Graphene Nanoribbon
6.4 Bandgap Engineering by Strain
6.5 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Graphene Spintronics: Spin Generation and Manipulation in Graphene
7.1 Background and Challenges
7.2 Spin Generation in Graphene
7.3 Spin Manipulation in Graphene
7.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Magnetism and Spintronics in Graphenes: Spin Hall Effect and Edge-Derived Spin Phenomena
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Magnetism and Spintronic Phenomena Arising from Pore Edge Spins in Graphene Nanomeshes
8.3 Recent Advances in Experiments of Spin-Based Phenomena in Graphenes
8.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9: Graphene: Manipulate Terahertz Waves
9.1 Introduction
9.2 THz Properties of Graphene
9.3 Proof-of-Concept Graphene Devices
9.4 Advanced THz Wave Manipulation: Graphene Plasmons and Metamaterials
9.5 Conclusions and Perspective
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Chemical and Biosensors Based on Graphene Materials
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Graphene-Based Electronic Sensors
10.3 Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors
10.4 Graphene-Based Optical Sensors
10.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Electronic Transport and Optical Properties of Graphene
List of Illustrations
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.7
Figure Scheme 3.1
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.19
Figure 4.20
Figure 4.21
Figure 4.22
Figure 4.23
Figure 4.24
Figure 4.25
Figure 4.26
Figure 4.27
Figure 4.28
Figure 4.29
Figure 4.30
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.14
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.27
Figure 5.28
Figure 5.29
Figure 5.30
Figure 5.31
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.11
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
Figure 10.8
Figure 10.9
List of Tables
Table 1.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
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Edited by A. Rashid binMohd Yusoff
Graphene Optoelectronicss
Synthesis, Characterization, Properties, and Applications
Editors
Prof. A. Rashid bin Mohd Yusoff
Kyung Hee University
Information Display
Dongdaemoon-ku
130-701 Seoul
South Korea
Cover
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List of Contributors
Jintao Bai
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Zhaoqiang Bai
National University of Singapore
Department of Physics
Science Drive 3
Singapore 117542
Singapore
Mimouna Baitoul
University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah
Faculty of Sciences, Dhar el Mahraz
Laboratory of Solid State Physics
Group of Polymer and Nanomaterials
Avenue Mohamed bel arbi Alaoui
P.O Box 1796
Atlas, Fez 30,000
Morocco
Jeong-Woo Choi
Sogang University
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Seoul
35 Baekbeom-ro(Sinsu-dong)
Mapo-gu, Seoul 121-742
Korea
Yi Cui
National Center for Nanoscience and Technology
Laboratory of Nanodevices
Beiyotoao Zhongguancun
Beijing, 100190
P.R China
Haiming Fan
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Yuan P. Feng
National University of Singapore
Department of Physics
Science Drive 3
Singapore 117542
Singapore
Jing Guo
University of Florida
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Gainesville
1064 Center Drive
FL 32611
USA
Bao-Hang Han
National Center for Nanoscience and Technology
Laboratory of Nanodevices
Beiyotoao Zhongguancun
Beijing, 100190
P.R China
Junji Haruyama
Aoyama Gakuin University
Faculty of Science and Engineering
5-10-1 Fuchinobe
Sagamihara
Kanagawa, 252-5258
Japan
Antonio Hill
Universität Augsburg
Institute of Physics
Augsburg D-86135
Germany
Mohammed Khenfouch
University of South Africa
UNESCO Africa Chair in Nanosciences-Nanotechnology
College of Graduate Studies
Preller street
Muckleneuk ridge, P.O. Box 392
Pretoria-South 0003
Africa
and
University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah
Faculty of Sciences, Dhar el Mahraz
Laboratory of Solid State Physics
Group of Polymer and Nanomaterials
Avenue Mohamed bel arbi Alaoui
P.O Box 1796
Atlas, Fez 30,000
Morocco
and
Nanosciences African Network (NANOAFNET)
iThemba LABS-National Research Foundation
Old Faure Road
P.O Box 722, Somerset West
Western Cape Province 7129
South Africa
Seong C. Jun
Yunsei University
School of Mechanical Engineering
Seongsanno
Seodaemun-gu
Seoul, 120-749
Korea
Tae-Hyung Kim
Rutgers
The State University of New Jersey
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Taylor Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854
USA
and
Rutgers
The State University of New Jersey
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology
Taylor Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854
USA
Kai-Tak Lam
University of Florida
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Gainesville
1064 Center Drive
FL 32611
USA
Ki-Bum Lee
Rutgers
The State University of New Jersey
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Taylor Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854
USA
and
Rutgers
The State University of New Jersey
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology
Taylor Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854
USA
Jiayuan Li
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Malik Maaza
University of South Africa
UNESCO Africa Chair in Nanosciences-Nanotechnology
College of Graduate Studies
Preller street
Muckleneuk ridge, P.O. Box 392
Pretoria-South 0003
Africa
and
Nanosciences African Network (NANOAFNET)
iThemba LABS-National Research Foundation
Old Faure Road
P.O Box 722, Somerset West
Western Cape Province 7129
South Africa
Mei Qi
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Zhaoyu Ren
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Lei Shen
National University of Singapore
Department of Physics
Science Drive 3
Singapore 117542
Singapore
Andreas Sinner
Universität Augsburg
Institute of Physics
Augsburg D-86135
Germany
Mohd Asri bin Mat Teridi
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI)
Bangi
Selangor, 43600
Malaysia
Qingyun Wu
National University of Singapore
Department of Physics
Science Drive 3
Singapore 117542
Singapore
Xinlong Xu
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Perry T. Yin
Rutgers
The State University of New Jersey
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Taylor Road
Piscataway
NJ 08854
USA
A. Rashid bin Mohd Yusoff
Kyung Hee University
Department of Information Display
Advanced Display Research Center
Dongdaemoon-gu
Seoul 130-701
South Korea
Minggang Zeng
National University of Singapore
Department of Physics
Science Drive 3
Singapore 117542
Singapore
Ding Zhou
National Center for Nanoscience and Technology
Laboratory of Nanodevices
Beiyotoao Zhongguancun
Beijing, 100190
P.R China
Yixuan Zhou
Northwest University
State Key Lab Incubation Base of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
International Cooperation Center of Photoelectric Technology and Functional Materials
and Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology
No 229 Taibai North Road
Xi'an, 710069
P.R China
Klaus Ziegler
Universität Augsburg
Institute of Physics
Augsburg D-86135
Germany
Preface
Back in the 1920s, graphene was recognized as a carbon sheet one atom thick and consisting of a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice. It is now considered as the thinnest material in the world. It can also be considered as the basic unit for other carbon materials. The first report by A. K. Geim and his coworkers utilizing a simple micromechanical cleavage to extract graphene has received huge attention and earned them the Nobel Prize in physics in the year 2010. Since their first report, graphene has created a surge in research activities due to its high current density, ballistic transport, chemical inertness, high thermal conductivity, optical transmittance, and super hydrophobicity at the nanometer scale. In this sense, this book aims to present an overview of recent advances in research in the field of graphene, specifically in the areas of synthesis, characterization, properties, and applications, including high-frequency devices, sensors, spintronics, bandgap engineering, and photonics. Researchers from various fields, including physics, chemistry, materials, chemistry, biology, and engineering, have prepared their contributed chapters based on their research expertise in these wide fields.
The book is organized into 10 chapters. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the fundamental properties of graphene, including transport theory in the absence of an external magnetic field. The electronic properties of mono and bilayer graphene are strongly related to the existence of a quasiparticle spectrum that consists of two bands that touch each other at two Dirac nodes. Moreover, Chapter 1 also discusses the diffusion in graphene, which implies a characteristic metallic behavior in mono and bilayer graphene as well as the AC conductivity. In the end, Chapter 1 deals with the behavior of plasmons in graphene which is similar to that of plasmons in a conventional two-dimensional electron gas.
Chapter 2 deals with the synthesis techniques of graphene that have been employed, with “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches. The top-down approach consists of mechanical cleavage, liquid-phase exfoliation, oxidation–reduction, and exfoliation of graphite intercalation compounds. This technique can be considered as a kind of exfoliation technique that produces graphene from graphite through breaking of the weak van der Waals force. On the other hand, the bottom-up approach consists of chemical vapor deposition (CVD), epitaxial growth, and chemical synthesis. Traditional CVD methods usually require high temperatures of about 1000 °C; however, in the case of graphene the CVD method has been modified to achieve high-speed, low-temperature deposition using plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), without the need of any special surface preparation or catalyst deposition. Finally, the modification and functionalization of graphene is also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 3 deals with optical characterization of freestanding, diamond-like carbon and zinc oxide nanorod–graphene nanocomposite. The freestanding carbon is deposited by means of pulsed lased deposition, and Raman, ultraviolet–visible–near infrared, infrared, and photoluminescence spectroscopic techniques are used in these investigations. Finally, Chapter 3 also discusses possible LED applications based on zinc oxide nanorod–graphene nanocomposites.
Chapter 4 deals with graphene metallic and passive components. The chapter starts with a brief history of grapheme, followed by an extensive review on various applications such as transparent and flexible electrodes, liquid crystal displays, flexible smart windows and bistable displays, light emitting devices, and touch panel devices. Because of its promising features such as high charge mobility, transparency, mechanical strength, and flexibility, graphene plays a vital role as the transparent electrode in many electronic devices. In Chapter 4, the question as to why graphene can be a potential candidate to replace the commonly used transparent electrode indium tin oxide (ITO) is answered. In the end, Chapter 4 also deals with photovoltaic devices that have received huge attention in terms of anode and cathode buffer layers.
Chapter 5 deals with large-scale graphene growth, which offers a viable route toward high-frequency devices. Although a major issue is to synthesize and fabricate high-frequency devices with high carrier mobility, this chapter discusses the current efforts to understand and control the growth mechanism and fabrication of the devices. Graphene transistor, graphene functional circuit, and self-aligned electrode are also discussed comprehensively in this chapter. Finally, graphene dielectrophoresis, which handles the phenomenology of the particles subjected to an electric and a magnetic field, is also discussed.
Chapter 6 deals with bandgap engineering of graphene, which can be divided into three categories, namely surface bonding, isoelectronic codoping, and alternating electrical/chemical environment. The surface bonding usually lifts the top σ valence bands over the π valence states, and consequently opens an sp3 bandgap of graphene. By breaking the equivalence of the sublattices, isolectronic codoping and alternating chemical environment would effectively open the π–π* bandgap of graphene. In Chapter 6, bandgap engineering in bilayer and multilayer graphene, as well as in graphene nanoribbons, is discussed. Finally, bandgap engineering by strain is also dealt with in this chapter.
Chapter 7 deals with spintronics in graphene. In spintronics, there are three major parts: generation, detection, and manipulation, among which spin generation is the most important one. It can be considered as the basis of the other two. Thus, Chapter 7 mostly discusses spin generation and manipulation in graphene. Driving spin into graphene is also discussed by various methods, including magnetic field, tunneling, and heat. Finally, Chapter 7 ends with the functionalization of spin current by spin logics.
Chapter 8 deals with magnetism and spin phenomenon arising from pore edge spins in graphene nanomeshes. It discusses ferromagnetism, non-lithographic fabrication of graphene nanomeshes with zigzag pore edges, and defect-dependent, spin-related phenomena in magnetoresistance measurement. At the end of the chapter, recent advances in spin-based phenomena (SHE) are also discussed.
Chapter 9 deals with the manipulation terahertz waves in graphene. Basically, there are several terahertz properties and applications of grapheme, such as unique terahertz response, terahertz lasers, terahertz device concepts, and the reconfigurable terahertz optoelectronics. In this chapter, extensive discussions on the static terahertz properties and new concepts to manipulate terahertz waves, ranging from electrooptic and magnetooptic to all-optic modulation based on the intrinsic terahertz properties, are given. Finally, advanced terahertz wave manipulation and the concept of plasmons and metamaterials with graphene are discussed.
Chapter 10 deals with chemical and biological sensors. Chemical and biosensors are becoming an indispensable part of our society with wide usage across various fields, including biomedical, chemical processing, clinical, environmental, food, military, pharmaceutical, and security applications. In general, sensors are composed of two fundamental constituents: (i) a recognition element that is designed to be sensitive to a particular stimulus, and (ii) a transduction element that is responsible for generating a signal whose magnitude can then be used to determine the concentration of the analyte. This chapter discusses the latest developments in the application of graphene-based materials to chemical and biosensors. It starts with electronic and electrochemical sensors, which also include biosensors, and ends with a discussion based on optical sensors.
This book contains materials from various sources including the authors' previously published articles, their latest experiments, and their lecture notes. All materials in this book have been organized, reviewed, and now presented in a consistent and more readable way because they have been reviewed very thoroughly and reformulated where necessary. It has been a great pleasure contributing to and at the same time editing this book on the device physics of graphene. For me, this book was a labor of love, and the adventure involved in compiling the content along a unifying theme was a great enriching experience and sufficient reward in and of itself. I hope that all readers will similarly find great enrichment and understanding as they explore the pages of this book. Finally, I would like to thank my lovely wife Sharifah Nurilyana and my family for their support and understanding. Special thanks also are due to my students, colleagues, and, last but not least, my director, Jin Jang, for fruitful discussions and help.
A. Rashid bin Mohd Yusoff
1Electronic Transport and Optical Properties of Graphene
Klaus Ziegler, Antonio Hill and Andreas Sinner
Universität Augsburg, Institute of Physics, Augsburg, D-86135, Germany
1.1 Introduction
The enormous list of publications on transport measurements in graphene starts with the seminal papers by the groups from Manchester and Columbia [1]a. Already these studies indicated a very robust transport behavior, which is characterized by a “V”-shaped conductivity with respect to charge density and a minimal conductivity at the charge neutrality point . In the presence of a magnetic field, there are Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations for the longitudinal conductivity and quantum Hall plateaux for the Hall conductivity at a sufficiently strong magnetic field. These properties have been confirmed subsequentlyby various experimental groups in more detailed studies and measurements under various conditions and for different types of samples. Many of those results are collected and discussed in a number of extensive reviews [2–4].
Optical properties of graphene for light with frequency are (directly) related to the optical (or AC) conductivity . The imaginary part of the dielectric constant is related to the real part of the AC conductivity and, therefore, to the optical reflectivity and transmittance [5].
The aim of this chapter is to explain how the transport properties are related to fundamental physical principles, and we will focus on transport in the absence of a magnetic field. Transport in metals is based on the assumption that the charge carriers are Fermionic quasiparticles. The quasiparticles scatter on each other and on the impurities or defects of the underlying lattice structure. This represents a complex dynamical system which can be treated in practice only under some simplifying assumptions. First, we consider only independent quasiparticles of the system and average over all possible scattering effects. For the latter, we introduce a static distribution by assuming that the relevant scattering processes happen only on time scales that are large in comparison with the tunneling process of the quasiparticle in the lattice. In other words, the probability for the quasiparticle to move from site to site during the time is , where is the hopping Hamiltonian. Second, if we assume that describes diffusion, we can obtain the mean-square displacement with respect to from the diffusion equation
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