Green Carbon Dioxide E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

PROMISING NEW APPROACHES TO RECYCLE CARBON DIOXIDE AND REDUCE EMISSIONS

With this book as their guide, readers will learn a variety of new approaches and methods to recycle and reuse carbon dioxide (CO₂) in order to produce green fuels and chemicals and, at the same time, minimize CO₂ emissions. The authors demonstrate how to convert CO₂ into a broad range of essential products by using alternative green energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydro-power as well as sustainable energy sources. Readers will discover that CO₂ can be a driving force for the sustainable future of both the chemical industry and the energy and fuels industry.

Green Carbon Dioxide features a team of expert authors, offering perspectives on the latest breakthroughs in CO₂ recycling from Asia, Europe, and North America. The book begins with an introduction to the production of CO₂-based fuels and chemicals. Next, it covers such topics as:

• Transformation of CO₂ to useable products through free-radical-induced reactions
• Hydrogenation of CO₂ to liquid fuels
• Direct synthesis of organic carbonates from CO₂ and alcohols using heterogeneous oxide catalysts
• Electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂ in methanol medium
• Fuel production from photocatalytic reduction of CO₂ with water using TiO₂-based nanocomposites
• Use of CO₂ in enhanced oil recovery and carbon capture and sequestration

More than 1,000 references enable readers to explore individual topics in greater depth.

Green Carbon Dioxide offers engineers, chemists, and managers in the chemical and energy and fuel industries a remarkable new perspective, demonstrating how CO₂ can play a significant role in the development of a sustainable Earth.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgments

Contributors

Chapter 1: Perspectives and State of the Art in Producing Solar Fuels and Chemicals from CO2

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Solar Fuels and Chemicals From CO2

1.3 Toward Artificial Leaves

1.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 2: Transformation of Carbon Dioxide to Useable Products Through Free Radical-Induced Reactions

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Chemical Reduction of CO2

2.3 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 3: Synthesis of Useful Compounds from CO2

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Photochemical Reduction

3.3 Electrochemical Reduction

3.4 Electrocatalytic Reduction

3.5 CO2 Hydrogenation

3.6 CO2 Reforming

3.7 Prospects in CO2 Reduction

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4: Hydrogenation of Carbon Dioxide to Liquid Fuels

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Methanation of Carbon Dioxide

4.3 Methanol and Higher Alcohol Synthesis by CO2 Hydrogenation

4.4 Hydrocarbons Through Modified Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

4.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Direct Synthesis of Organic Carbonates from CO2 and Alcohols Using Heterogeneous Oxide Catalysts

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Ceria-Based Catalysts

5.3 Zirconia-Based Catalysts

5.4 Other Metal Oxide Catalysts

5.5 Conclusions and Outlook

References

Chapter 6: High-Solar-Efficiency Utilization of CO2: the STEP (Solar Thermal Electrochemical Production) of Energetic Molecules

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Solar Thermal Electrochemical Production of Energetic Molecules: an Overview

6.3 Demonstrated STEP Processes

6.4 STEP Constraints

6.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7: Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Methanol Medium

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Methanol Medium

7.3 Mechanisms of CO2 Reduction in Nonaqueous Protic (CH3OH) Medium

7.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 8: Synthetic Fuel Production from the Catalytic Thermochemical Conversion of Carbon Dioxide

8.1 Introduction

8.2 General Aspects of CO2 Reforming

8.3 Catalyst Selection for CO2 Reforming Reaction

8.4 Reactor Technology for Dry Reforming

8.5 Conversion of Synthesis Gas to Synthetic Fuels

8.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9: Fuel Production from Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 with Water Using TiO2-Based Nanocomposites

9.1 Introduction

9.2 CO2 Photoreduction: Principles and Challenges

9.3 TO2-Based Photocatalysts for CO2 Photoreduction: Material Innovations

9.4 Photocatalysis Experiments

9.5 CO2 Photoreduction Activity

9.6 Reaction Mechanism and Factors Influencing Catalytic Activity

9.7 Conclusions and Future Research Recommendations

References

Chapter 10: Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 to Hydrocarbons Using Carbon-Based AgBr Nanocomposites Under Visible Light

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Reduction for CO2

10.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction

10.4 AgBr Nanocomposites

10.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 11: Use of Carbon Dioxide in Enhanced Oil Recovery and Carbon Capture and Sequestration

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery

11.3 Carbon Capture and Sequestration

11.4 Future Tasks

11.5 Summary

References

Index

Copyright © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Green carbon dioxide : advances in CO2 utilization / edited by Gabriele Centi, Siglinda Perathoner.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-59088-1 (cloth)

1. Carbon dioxide–Industrial applications. 2. Carbon dioxide mitigation. I. Centi, G. (Gabriele), 1955- editor of compilation. II. Perathoner, Siglinda, 1958- editor of compilation.

TP244.C1G735 2014

665.8′9–dc23

2013034528

Preface

Mitigating climate change, preserving the environment, using renewable energy, and replacing fossil fuels are among the grand challenges facing our society that need new breakthrough solutions to be successfully addressed. The (re)use of carbon dioxide () to produce fuels and chemicals is the common factor in these grand challenges as an effective solution to contribute to their realization. Reusing not only addresses the balance of in the Earth's atmosphere with the related negative effects on the quality of life and the environment, but represents a valuable C-source to substitute for fossil fuels. By using renewable energy sources for the conversion of , it is possible to introduce renewable energy into the production chain in a more efficient approach with respect to alternative possibilities. The products derived from the conversion of effectively integrate into the current energy and material infrastructure, thus allowing a smooth and sustainable transition to a new economy without the very large investments required to change infrastructure. As a longer-term visionary idea, it is possible to create a -economy in which it will be possible to achieve full-circle recycling of using renewable energy sources, analogous to how plants convert to sugar and , using sunlight as a source of energy through photosynthesis. Capture and conversion of to chemical feedstocks could thus provide a new route to a circular economy.

There is thus a new vision of at the industrial, societal, and scientific levels. Carbon dioxide is no longer considered a problem and even a waste to be reused, but a key element and driving factor for the sustainable future of the chemical industry. There are different routes by which can be converted to feedstocks for the chemical industry by the use of renewable energy sources, which also can be differentiated in terms of the timescale of their implementation. is a raw material for the production of base chemicals (such as light olefins), advanced materials (such as -based polymers), and fuels (often called solar fuels).

There are many opportunities and needs for fundamental R&D to realize this new economy, but it is necessary to have clear indications of the key problems to be addressed, the different possible alternative routes with their related pro/cons, and their impact on industry and society. The scope of this book is to provide to managers, engineers, and chemists, working at both R&D and decision-making levels, an overview of the status and perspectives of advanced routes for the utilization of . The book is also well-suited to prepare advanced teaching courses at the Masters or Ph.D. level, even though it is not a tutorial book. Over a thousand references provide the reader with a solid basis for deeper understanding of the topics discussed.

It is worthwhile to mention that this book reports perspectives from different countries around the world, from Europe to the US and Asia. is becoming, in fact, a primary topic of interest in all the countries of the world, although with different priorities, which are reflected here.

Chapter 1 introduces the topic with a perspective on producing solar fuels and chemicals from after having introduced the role of (re)use as an enabling element for a low-carbon economy and the efficient introduction of renewable energy into the production chain. Two examples are discussed in a more detail: (i) the production of light olefins from and (ii) the conversion of to fuels using sunlight. The final part discusses outlook for the development of artificial leaf-type solar cells, with an example of a first attempt at a photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) solar cell to go in this direction.

Chapter 2, after introducing some background aspects of characteristics and the photocatalytic chemistry on titania, focuses the discussion on the analysis of photo- and electrochemical pathways for conversion, discussing in detail the role of free radical-induced reactions related especially to the mechanism of methane (and other products) formation from during both photo- and electro-induced processes.

Chapter 3 also provides a critical analysis of the possible reduction pathways for synthesis of useful compounds from , with a focus especially on photo- and electrocatalytic routes. This chapter not only offers the readers a general overview of recent progress in the synthesis of useful compounds from but provides new insights in understanding the structure-component-activity relationships. It highlights how new nanostructured functional materials play an important role in photo- and electrocatalytic conversion of , with a series of examples showing how rather interesting results could be obtained by tuning the catalysts' characteristics.

Chapter 4 focuses the discussion on the analysis of the reaction mechanisms of heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of to produce products such as methane, methanol, and higher hydrocarbons. In methanation, is the key intermediate for methanation. In methanol synthesis, two possible pathways are discussed in detail: (i) direct hydrogenation of via formate and (ii) the reduction of to CO with subsequent hydrogenation to methanol. Depending upon the partial pressure of CO and , either the hydrogenation of species or the formation of can be rate-limiting for methanol formation. The mechanism of formation of higher alcohols may proceed through the reaction of CO insertion with hydrocarbon intermediates or through a direct nondissociative hydrogenation of . In the hydrogenation of through a modified Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS) process, the different effects of carbon dioxide on Co- and Fe-based catalysts are analyzed, showing also how the nature of the catalyst itself changes, switching from CO to feed. This chapter thus gives valuable insights on how to design new catalysts for these reactions.

Chapter 5 analyzes in detail the recent developments in the metal oxide catalysts for the direct synthesis of organic carbonates such as dimethyl carbonate (DMC) from alcohol and . Ceria, zirconia, and related materials can catalyze the reaction with high selectivity under the conditions of the reaction without additives. Surface monodentate monoalkyl carbonate species are important intermediates. The yield is generally very low because of the equilibrium limitation. Combination of the reaction with organic dehydrating agents such as nitriles has been applied in order to overcome the equilibrium control. About 50% maximum methanol-based yield of DMC can be obtained when benzonitrile is used as a dehydrating agent. This chapter also analyzes future challenges for the design of catalysts and for the use of dehydrating agents to suppress the catalyst deactivation and the side reactions involving the dehydrating agents and the hydrated products.

Chapter 6 discusses in detail the theory and application of the STEP (solar thermal electrochemical production) process for the utilization of via electrosynthesis of energetic molecules at solar energy efficiency greater than any photovoltaic conversion efficiency. In STEP the efficient formation of metals, fuels, and chlorine and carbon capture is driven by solar thermal-heated endothermic electrolyses of concentrated reactants occurring at a voltage below that of the room temperature energy stored in the products. As one example, is reduced to either fuels or storable carbon at solar efficiency over 50% due to a synergy of efficient solar thermal absorption and electrochemical conversion at high temperature and reactant concentration. Other examples include STEP iron production, which prevents the emission of occurring in conventional iron production, STEP hydrogen via efficient solar water splitting, and STEP production of chlorine, sodium, and magnesium.

Chapter 7 analyzes the electrochemical reduction of in organic solvents used as the electrolyte medium, with a focus on understanding the effects of various parameters on electrolytic conversion of : Electrode materials, current density, potential, and temperature are examined, with methanol as electrolyte. A methanol-based electrolyte shows many advantages in the electrocatalytic reduction of over other aqueous and nonaqueous solvents. is completely miscible with methanol, and its solubility in methanol is five times higher than in water. The concentration of can be increased as liquid is made in a methanol electrolyte by increasing the electrolytic pressure. The faradaic efficiency of reduction products mainly depends on nature of the electrolyte. The strategy for achieving selective formation of hydrocarbons is also discussed.

Chapter 8 analyzes the conversion of to synthetic fuels via a thermochemical process, particularly the reforming of with hydrocarbons to form syngas. Aspects discussed include catalyst selection, possible operation, and potential application. In addition, research approaches for the conversion of syngas to methanol, DME, and alkane fuel (which is commonly known as gas-to-liquid or GTL) are also analyzed.

Chapter 9 discusses in detail the photocatalytic reduction of with water on -based nanocomposite photocatalysts. In particular, it is shown how the rate of conversion can be improved by several means: (i) incorporation of metal or metal ion species such as copper to enhance electron trapping and transfer to the catalyst surface; (ii) application of a large-surface-area support, such as mesoporous silica, to enhance better dispersion of nanoparticles and increase reactive surface sites; (iii) doping with nonmetal ions such as iodine in the lattice of to improve the visible light response and charge carrier separation; and (iv) pretreatment of the catalyst in a reducing environment like helium to create surface defects to enhance adsorption and activation. Combinations of these different strategies may result in synergistic effects and much higher conversion efficiency. The final section also provides recommendations for future studies.

Recent updates on the photocatalytic mechanism of reduction, with focus on novel carbon-based AgBr nanocomposites, are discussed in Chapter 10. Aspects analyzed include the efficiency of photocatalytic reduction of and stability under visible light ( 420 nm). Carbon-based AgBr nanocomposites were successfully prepared by a deposition-precipitation method in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). The photocatalytic reduction of on carbon-based AgBr nanocomposites irradiated by visible light gives as main products methane, methanol, ethanol, and CO. The photocatalytic efficiency for reduction is compared with that of AgBr supported on different materials such as carbon materials, , and zeolites.

While Chapters 1–10 look mainly in a medium-long term R&D perspective, it is necessary to have practical solutions also for the short term, because the climate changes associated with the increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have already started to become an issue in several countries, with an intensification of extreme weather events. Chapter 11 thus is focused on a topic different from those discussed in the other chapters. It provides an analysis of the state of the art in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) and their role in providing a stable energy supply and reduction in emissions. EOR increases oil production by using , thus achieving both a stable energy supply and reduction simultaneously. In contrast, CCS reduces emissions even for non-oil producers. This chapter provides the background, fundamental mechanisms, and challenges associated with EOR and CCS, and shows that there are still several issues that need to be resolved, including recovery or storage efficiency, the cost of capture, transport, and injection, and the leakage risk. More research is required on fundamental mechanisms of the dynamics of EOR and CCS to allow significant improvements in the efficiency and safety of these techniques.

This book thus provides an overview on the topics of (re)use from different perspectives, with strong focus on aspects related to industrial perspectives, catalyst design, and reaction mechanisms. Most of the contributions are related to photo- and electrocatalytic conversion of , because these are considered the new directions for achieving a sustainable use of , and the basis for realizing over the long term artificial leaf-type (artificial photosynthesis) devices.

The editors are very grateful to all the authors for their authoritative participation in this book. A special thanks goes to Dr. Maria D. Salazar-Villalpando, formerly of the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL-DoE, US), who originally initiated this book, inviting all authors to contribute the different chapters.

The Editors

G. Centi and S. Perathoner

May, 2013

Acknowledgments

The Editors and all the authors contributing to the book wish to express their sincere thanks to Maria D. Salazar-Villalpando, who started this editorial project.

Contributors

Mudar Abou Asi School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

S. Assabumrungrat Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand

Gabriele Centi Department of Electronic Engineering, Industrial Chemistry and Engineering, CASPE/INSTM and ERIC, University of Messina, Messina, Italy

Burtron H. Davis University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

G.R. Dey Radiation and Photochemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India

K. Faungnawakij National Nanotechnology Center (NANOTEC), Pathumthani, Thailand

Muthu K. Gnanamani University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

Chun He School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou, China

Shuichiro Hirai Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering (Research Center for Carbon Recycling and Energy), Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Masayoshi Honda Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan

Boxun Hu Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT

Yanling Huang School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Gary Jacobs University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

Satoshi Kaneco Department of Chemistry for Materials, Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan

Hideyuki Katsumata Department of Chemistry for Materials, Graduate School of Engineering, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan

M. Kumaravel Department of Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, PSG College of Technology, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

N. Laosiripojana The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

Ying Li Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Stuart Licht Department of Chemistry, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA

Wenping Ma University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

M. Murugananthan Department of Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, PSG College of Technology, Peelamedu, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

Yoshinao Nakagawa Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan

V. R. Rao Pendyala University of Kentucky, Center for Applied Energy Research, Lexington, Kentucky, USA

Siglinda Perathoner Department of Electronic Engineering, Industrial Chemistry and Engineering, CASPE/INSTM and ERIC, University of Messina, Italy

Dong Shu Base of Production, Education & Research on Energy Storage and Power Battery of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Chemistry and Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China

Steven L. Suib Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Connecticut, USA

Tohru Suzuki Environmental Preservation Center, Mie University, Tsu, Mie, Japan

Keiichi Tomishige Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan

Shohji Tsushima Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering (Research Center for Carbon Recycling and Energy) Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Suguru Uemura Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering (Research Center for Carbon Recycling and Energy) Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Ya Xiong School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou, China

Zuocheng Xu School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Jingling Yang School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Qiong Zhang School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Linfei Zhu School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

Chapter 1

Perspectives and State of the Art in Producing Solar Fuels and Chemicals from CO2

Gabriele Centi and Siglinda Perathoner

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 GHG Impact Values of Pathways of CO2 Chemical Recycling

1.1.2 CO2 Recycling and Energy Vectors

1.2 Solar Fuels and Chemicals From CO2

1.2.1 Routes for Converting CO2 to Fuels

1.2.2 H2 Production Using Renewable Energy

1.2.3 Converting CO2 to Base Chemicals

1.2.4 Routes to Solar Fuels

1.3 Toward Artificial Leaves

1.3.1 PEC Cells for CO2 Conversion

1.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

1.1 Introduction

The last United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP17/CMP7, Durban, Dec. 2011) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report under preparation [1], two of the actual reference points regarding the strategies for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, are still dedicating minor attention to the question of reusing CO2. We discuss here how reusing CO2 is a key element in strategies for a sustainable development as well as a nonnegligible mitigation option for addressing the issue of climate change. There is a somewhat rigid separation between the discussion on the reduction of the emissions of GHG, based mainly on the introduction of renewable or alternative sources of energy and on the increase of efficiency in the use/production of energy, and the strategies for cutting current GHG emissions, based essentially only on the carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) option. The use of carbon dioxide as a valuable raw material is considered a minor/negligible contribution for the issue of climate change and thus not a priority to address.

The World Energy Outlook 2010 [2] report prepared by the International Energy Agency (IEA) has discussed different options and scenarios for GHG emissions, proposing a reduction of CO2 emissions in the 2.3–4.0 Gt·y-1 range within one decade (by the year 2021) and in the 10.8–15.4 Gt·y-1 range in two decades (by the year 2031) with respect to the business-as-usual scenario. About 20% of this reduction would derive from CCS. According to this estimation, about 400–800 Mt·y-1 of CO2 in a decade and about 2100–3000 Mt·y-1 of CO2 in two decades will be captured. The McKinsey report [3] estimated the global potential of CCS at 3.6 Gt·y-1 and the potential in Europe at 0.4 Gt·y-1—around 20% of the total European abatement potential in 2030.

With these large volumes of CO2 as raw material at zero or even negative cost (the reuse of CO2 avoids the costs of sequestration and transport, up to about 40–50% of the CCS cost, depending on the distance of the sequestration site from the place of emission of CO2) soon becoming available, there are clear opportunities for the utilization of CO2. In addition to direct use, many possibilities exist for its conversion to other chemicals, in addition to already-existing industrial processes.

A number of recent articles, reviews, and books have addressed the different options for converting CO2 [4–15]. Scientific and industrial initiatives toward the chemical utilization of CO2 have increased substantially over the last few years [6a], and there is increasing attention to the use of CO2 to produce

Advanced materials (for example, a pilot plant opened at Bayers Chempark in Leverkusen, Germany in February 2011 to produce high-quality plastics—polyurethanes— based on CO

2

[16]);

Fine chemicals [5, 10, 11, 14] (for example, DNV is developing the large-scale electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formate salts and formic acid [17]);

Fuels [6, 9, 15] (for example, Carbon Recycling International started in September 2011 in Svartsengi, Iceland, a plant for producing 5Mt·y

-1

of methanol from CO using H produced electrolytically from renewable energy sources—geothermal, wind, etc. [18]).