Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials Develop sustainable nanomaterial applications with this cutting-edge introduction Nanomaterials are one of the most important areas of scientific and industrial development, with impacts in virtually every area touched by materials science. Their unique properties have particularly widespread applications in biomedical and environmental research, where they contribute to sustainable and cost-effective processes. The synthesis of nanomaterials, however, can itself be costly and environmentally damaging; green or sustainable synthesis of nanomaterials is an essential development if the full potential of these transformative materials is to be realized. Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials: Biological and Environmental Applications presents a cutting-edge overview of green synthesis processes and their applications. It takes a comparative approach in order to emphasize the advantages of green-synthesized nanomaterials over their chemically synthesized counterparts. The result is a vital contribution to biomedical and environmental research and product development. Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials: Biological and Environmental Applications readers will also find: * The latest research compiled by a team of established scholars * Detailed discussion of applications in fields including anticancer and antibacterial research and environmental remediation, among many others * Coverage of topics including magnetotactic bacteria, green nanomaterials in the textile industry, and many others Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials: Biological and Environmental Applications is ideal for researchers and scientists in chemistry, biology, materials science, or nanotechnology, as well as for technologists in any industry that can benefit from green-synthesized nanomaterials.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Introduction to Advanced and Sustainable Green Nanomaterial
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Synthesis Methods of Nanomaterials
1.3 Green Synthesis
1.4 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles from Plants
1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.6 Environmental and Health Concerns
1.7 Application
1.8 Future Scope
1.9 Ongoing Challenges
1.10 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
2 Medicinal Plant‐Mediated Nanomaterials
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles
2.3 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
2.4 Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
2.5 Synthesis of Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles
2.6 Synthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
2.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
3 Microorganism‐Based Synthesis of Nanomaterials and Their Applications
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microorganism
3.3 Development of Microorganism‐Based Synthesis of Nanomaterial
3.4 Mechanism of Microorganism‐Based Synthesis of Nanomaterial
3.5 Application of Microorganism‐Based Synthesized Nanomaterial
3.6 Conclusion and Perspective
Abbreviations
References
4 Biopolymer‐Based Nanomaterials and Their Applications
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of Biopolymers
4.3 Synthesis Methods of Biopolymers
4.4 Characterization Methods of Biopolymers
4.5 Nanotechnology‐Based Applications of Biopolymers
4.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
5 Photoinduced Synthesis of Nanoparticles
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Methods of Synthesis
5.3 Photochemical Synthesis of Nanomaterials
5.4 Photochemical Synthesis of UO
2
Nanoparticles in Aqueous Solutions
5.5 Photochemical Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles
5.6 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
6 Green Nanomaterials in Textile Industry
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Nanomaterials Consistent with Textiles
6.3 Techniques Related to Textile Functionalization
6.4 Utilization of Nanotechnology in Textile Industry
6.5 Nanomaterials with Different Functional Textiles
6.6 Conclusion
Conflict of Interest
References
7 Drug‐delivery, Antimicrobial, Anticancerous Applications of Green Synthesized Nanomaterials
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Gold Nanoparticles
7.3 Silver Nanoparticles
7.4 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
7.5 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
7.6 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
7.7 Carbon Based Nanomaterials
7.8 Conclusion and Future Directions
Acknowledgment
Conflicts of Interest
References
8 How Eco‐friendly Nanomaterials are Effective for the Sustainability of the Environment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Eco‐friendly Nanomaterials
8.3 Green Nanomaterial for Removal of Water Contamination
8.4 Green Nanomaterial for Removal of Soil Pollution
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Magnetotactic Bacteria‐Synthesized Nanoparticles and Their Applications
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Characteristics of Magnetosomes (MNPs)—Biogenic NPs and Their Physico‐Chemical Properties
9.3 Synthesis of Magnetosomes
9.4 MNPs Relative to Chemically Synthesized NPs
9.5 Applications of Magnetosomes
9.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective
References
10 Biofabrication of Nanoparticles in Wound‐Healing Materials
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Nanoparticles
10.3 Nanocomposites or Composite Nanoparticles
10.4 Coatings and Scaffolds
10.5 Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles
10.6 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
11 Cellulosic Nanomaterials for Remediation of Greenhouse Effect
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Cellulosic Nanomaterials in Automotive Application
11.3 Cellulosic Nanomaterials in the Application of Thermal Insulation
11.4 Cellulosic Nanomaterial for Gas Capture and Separation
11.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
Abbreviations
References
12 Ecofriendly Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Application of Ecofriendly Nanomaterials
12.3 Inorganic Nanoparticles
12.4 Synthesis of Green Nanomaterials
12.5 Nanocellulose Nanomaterials for Water Treatment
12.6 Graphene‐CNT Hybrid/Graphene Hybrids (GO and Biopolymer)
12.7 Green Nanocomposite
12.8 Ecofriendly Nanomaterials from Agricultural Wastes
12.9 Conclusion
Financial Support
Abbreviations
References
13 Bio‐nanomaterials from Agricultural Waste and Its Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Lignin
13.3 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL)
13.4 Vegetable/Fruit Waste
13.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Abbreviations
References
14 Peptide‐Assisted Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Their Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles by Using Peptides as Template
14.3 Characterization of Peptide‐MNP Hybrids
14.4 Biological and Environmental Applications of Peptide Nanoparticles
14.5 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
15 Pharmacotherapy Approach of Peptide‐Assisted Nanoparticle
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Peptide‐NP Conjugation
15.3 Targeted Drug Delivery
15.4 Pathogenic Protein Interaction Inhibition
15.5 Molecular Imaging
15.6 Liquid Biopsy
15.7 Summary and Outlook
Abbreviations
References
16 Unleashing the Potential of Green‐Synthesized Nanoparticles for Effective Biomedical Application
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Synthesis and Characterization of NPs
16.3 GNPs as Anti‐Carcinogens
16.4 Green NPs as Anti‐Microbials
16.5 Applications of Green NPs in Another Drug Delivery
16.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Different types of water pollutants and their origin.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Different medicinal plants used for gold nanoparticle synthesis....
Table 2.2 Different medicinal plants used for silver nanoparticle synthesis...
Table 2.3 Different medicinal plants used for ZnO‐nanoparticle synthesis.
Table 2.4 Different medicinal plants used for TiO
2
nanoparticle synthesis....
Table 2.5 Different medicinal plant used for iron oxide nanoparticle synthe...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Microorganisms‐based synthesis for inorganic nanomaterials.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Describes the common biopolymer synthesis method and application....
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Applications of photoinduced nanoparticles.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Few recently synthesized green nanomaterials and their applicatio...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Zone of inhibition (ZOI) of green synthesized AuNPs.
Table 7.2 Anticancer activity of green synthesized AuNPs.
Table 7.3 Zone of inhibition of green synthesized ZnO NPs.
Table 7.4 Anticancer activity of green synthesized ZnO NPs.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Some eco‐friendly nanomaterials and their applications in water t...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Some extra applications of magnetosomes cited in the literature....
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 List of some wound‐healing dressing examples.
Table 10.2 Properties of some nanomaterials designed for wound‐healing bFGF...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Nanocellulose composite performance for automotive application....
Table 11.2 Nanocellulose composite performance for insulation application....
Table 11.3 Nanocellulose composite performance for gas capture and separati...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Vegetable/fruit waste conversion to energy: Matrix and their cha...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 NPs and green chemistry.
Table 16.2 Anti‐microbial activity by GNPs.
Table 16.3 Applications of GNPs in another drug delivery.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sustainable nanomaterials.
Figure 1.2 Types of nanomaterials.
Figure 1.3 Classification based on dimensions of nanomaterials.
Figure 1.4 Carbon‐based nanomaterials.
Figure 1.5 Synthesis methods of nanomaterials.
Figure 1.6 Advantages of green synthesis.
Figure 1.7 Applications of sustainable nanomaterials.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Flowchart showing different methods for nanomaterial synthesis.
Figure 2.2 Bioactive compound present in
H. foetidum
.
Figure 2.3 Curcumin found in
C. pseudomontana
.
Figure 2.4 Structure of delta‐9‐tetrahydrocannabinol.
Figure 2.5 Reduction of Ag
+
to Ag by bioactive compound.
Figure 2.6 Reduction of Ag
+
to Ag by bioactive compound.
Figure 2.7 Formation of ZnO‐NP from bioactive compound.
Figure 2.8 Synthesis of ZnO‐NPs from bioactive compound and stabilization.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of biosynthesis pathways for BNC product...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Classification of biopolymers.
Figure 4.2 Characterization methods used for biopolymers.
Figure 4.3 Different biomedical applications of biopolymers.
Figure 4.4 Biopolymers in drug delivery applications.
Figure 4.5 Biopolymers in medical implants.
Figure 4.6 Biopolymers in food packaging applications.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Radiolysis of water.
Figure 5.2 Photochemical reaction in photo‐excitation of acetone.
Figure 5.3 Formation of UO
2
nanoparticles.
Figure 5.4 Reaction in presence of oxygen.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Textile treatment through Pad dry cure method.
Scheme 6.1 Synthesis and coloration of G‐AgNPs onto PET fabric.
Scheme 6.2 Preparation of diphosphate malonate‐silver nanoparticle (DPHM‐AgN...
Figure 6.2 Mechanism of hydrophobicity by nanoparticles on the surface of te...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Synthetic route of eco‐friendly nanomaterials.
Figure 8.2 Synthetic route of eco‐friendly biochar for sustainable developme...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram of magnetotactic bacteria.
Figure 9.2 Scheme of the postulated magnetite biomineralization pathway. The...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Phases of wound healing along with mediators/cells involved in w...
Figure 10.2 Schematic correlation diagram between the clinical outlook, micr...
Figure 10.3 Schematic representation of classification of nanomaterials.
Figure 10.4 Flow diagram of the preparation of solution and electrospinning ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Nanocelluloses as promising materials for remediation of GHGs.
Figure 11.2 Schematic of the possible role of nanocellulose during the foami...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Classification of nanomaterials (carbon based, metal based and m...
Figure 12.2 Applications of nanomaterials in bioremediation.
Figure 12.3 Showing different agriculture wastes with silica content.
Figure 12.4 Showing different applications of silica nanoparticles derived f...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Representation of extracting lignin.
Figure 13.2 Representation of (a) lignin precursors and (b) softwood lignin ...
Figure 13.3 (a) Metal nanoparticles growth over the EFB bio‐ matrix (b) imag...
Figure 13.4 Ion‐exchange mechanism showing (a) reduction and (b) growth proc...
Figure 13.5 Constituents of CNSL.
Figure 13.6 Surfactants based on monosulfonated cardanol.
Figure 13.7 Synthesis of CNSL‐based epoxy coatings.
Figure 13.8 Salt spray on cured epoxy coatings with different ratios at diff...
Figure 13.9 Scheme represents the metal cardanol formaldehyde‐based coating....
Figure 13.10 Contact angles of the coatings showing superhydrophobicity with...
Figure 13.11 Vegetable/fruit waste matrices for environmental restoration an...
Figure 13.12 Various methods for NPs synthesis and their possible applicatio...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Depicts the formation of self‐assembled nanostructures of peptid...
Figure 14.2 Demonstration of peptide‐assisted photoinduced synthesis of meta...
Figure 14.3 Depicts biomedical applications of peptide nanoparticles for ant...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Finding synthetic bioactive peptides and fusing them with nanopa...
Figure 15.2 (a) Differentiation of interactions between monovalent and multi...
Figure 15.3 (a) Molecular simulations showing how the stability of the helic...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Approaches for NPs synthesis.
Figure 16.2 Schematic diagram for breast cancer treatment by nano‐based drug...
Figure 16.3 Detection of cancer by green AuNPs.
Figure 16.4 Possible mechanism of anti‐cancer activity of CuO nanoparticles ...
Figure 16.5 Schematic diagram of anti‐microbial activity of GNPs [96] synthe...
Figure 16.6 Schematic diagram depicting the possible mechanism of anti‐mycob...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials
Biological and Environmental Applications
Edited by
Archana Chakravarty
Jamia Millia Islamia; Central UniversityNew DelhiIndia
Preeti Singh
Institute of Chemical TechnologyMumbaiIndia
Saiqa Ikram
Jamia Millia Islamia; Central UniversityNew DelhiIndia
R.N. Yadava
Purnea University Bihar,BiharIndia
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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ISBN: HB: 9781119900900, ePDF: 9781119900917, epub: 9781119900924, oBook: 9781119900931
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List of Contributors
Rohana AbuFaculty of Chemical and ProcessEngineering TechnologyUniversiti Malaysia Pahang Al‐SultanAbdullah. Persiaran Tun KalilYaakob, Gambang Kuantan, PahangMalaysia
Khairatun Najwa Mohd AminFaculty of Chemical and ProcessEngineering TechnologyUniversiti Malaysia Pahang Al‐SultanAbdullah. Persiaran Tun KalilYaakob, Gambang Kuantan, PahangMalaysia
Isha AroraDepartment of ChemistryAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Deepak Kumar BhartiyaDepartment of ZoologyGovernment Degree CollegeDhadha Bujurg‐HataKushinagar, UPIndia
Archana ChakravartyDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DelhiIndia
Aayushi ChanderiyaDepartment of ChemistryDr. Harisingh Gour UniversitySagar, MPIndia
Amrish ChandraAmity Institute of PharmacyAmity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Vinita ChaturvediBiochemistry DivisionCentral Drug Research InstituteCSIR Lucknow, UPIndia
Ritu Rani ChaudharyDepartment of ChemistryB.S.A. CollegeMathura, UPIndia
Shivani ChaudharyDepartment of ChemistryDr. Bhimrao Ambedkar UniversityAgra, UPIndia
Neeru DabasDepartment of ChemistryAmity School of Applied ScienceAmity UniversityGurugram, HRIndia
Ratnesh DasDepartment of ChemistryDr. Harisingh Gour CentralUniversitySagar, MPIndia
Rimon Ranjit DasDepartment of PhysicsAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Nowsheenah FarooqBioinorganic LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Is FatimahDepartment of ChemistryFaculty of Mathematics andNatural SciencesUniversitas Islam IndonesiaYogyakartaIndonesia
Manoj GadewarDepartment of PharmacologySchool of Medical and AlliedSciences, KR Mangalam UniversityGurgaon, HRIndia
Seema GargDepartment of ChemistryAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Mithun Kumar GhoshDepartment of ChemistryGovernment College HattaDamohIndia
Juhi GuptaBioinorganic Research LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Athar Adil HashmiBioinorganic LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Afkar Rabbani Hidayatullah HipeniFaculty of Chemical and ProcessEngineering TechnologyUniversiti Malaysia Pahang Al‐SultanAbdullah. Persiaran Tun KalilYaakob, Gambang Kuantan, PahangMalaysia
MA Motalib HossainInstitute of Sustainable EnergyUniversiti Tenaga NasionalKajang, SelangorMalaysia
Gautam JaiswarDepartment of ChemistryDr. Bhimrao AmbedkarUniversityAgra, UPIndia
Sarabjeet KaurSurface Chemistry and Catalysis:Characterisation and ApplicationTeam (COK‐KAT), Leuven(Arenberg)LeuvenBelgium
Nishat KhanDepartment of ChemistryAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Manoj KumarDepartment of ChemistryGovernment Degree CollegeDhadha Bujurg‐HataKushinagar, UPIndia
Vikas KumarDepartment of ChemistryGovernment College KhimlasaSagar, MPIndia
Shivani A. KumarDepartment of PhysicsAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
Indu KumariCT Group of InstitutionsJalandhar, PBIndia
Surbhi MalikDepartment of PhysicsAmity Institute of AppliedSciences, Amity UniversityNoida, UPIndia
B.R. MaliniDepartment of ChemistryAkshara First Grade CollegeBengaluru, KAIndia
Sharifah Fathiyah Sy MohamadFaculty of Chemical and ProcessEngineering TechnologyUniversiti Malaysia Pahang Al‐SultanAbdullah. Persiaran Tun KalilYaakob, Gambang Kuantan, PahangMalaysia
Baranya MuruganNanotechnology & CatalysisResearch CentreUniversity of MalayaKuala LumpurMalaysia
Sivasubramanian MurugappanDepartment of BiomedicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadSangareddy, TSIndia
M. MutthurajuDepartment of ChemistrySai Vidya Institute of TechnologyAffiliated to VisvesvarayaTechnological UniversityBengaluru, KAIndia
Nahid NishatInorganic Materials Research LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Sikandar PaswanDepartment of ChemistryBaba Raghav Das PG CollegeDeoria, UPIndia
Monika PebamDepartment of BiomedicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadSangareddy, TSIndia
G.K. PrashanthResearch and Development CentreDepartment of ChemistrySir M. Visvesvaraya Instituteof Technology, Affiliated toVisvesvaraya TechnologicalUniversityBengaluru, KAIndia
Benni F. RamadhoniNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Srilatha RaoDepartment of ChemistryNitte Meenakshi Institute ofTechnologyAffiliated to VisvesvarayaTechnological UniversityBengaluru, KAIndia
Aravind Kumar RenganDepartment of BiomedicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadSangareddy, TSIndia
Annisa RifathinNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Atish RoyDepartment of ChemistryDr. Harisingh Gour UniversitySagar, MPIndia
Suresh SagadevanNanotechnology & CatalysisResearch CentreUniversity of MalayaKuala LumpurMalaysia
Department of ChemistryFaculty of Mathematics andNatural SciencesUniversitas Islam IndonesiaYogyakartaIndonesia
Yulianti SamporaNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Sri Amruthaa SankaranarayananDepartment of BiomedicalEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyHyderabadSangareddy, TSIndia
Athanasia Amanda SeptevaniNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Melati SeptiyantiNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
ShailyInorganic Materials Research LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Adnan ShahzaibInorganic Materials Research LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Preeti SharmaDepartment of Natural SciencesUniversity of MarylandEastern ShorePrincess Anne, MDUSA
K. ShwethaDepartment of ChemistryNitte Meenakshi Institute ofTechnologyBengaluru, KAIndia
A.S. SowmyashreeDepartment of ChemistryNitte Meenakshi Institute of TechnologyBengaluru, KAIndia
SudiyarmantoNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Abu TahaBioinorganic LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
David Natanael VicarneltorNational Research andInnovation AgencyTangerang SelatanIndonesia
Fahmina ZafarInorganic Materials Research LabDepartment of ChemistryJamia Millia IslamiaNew Delhi, DLIndia
Preface
Nanotechnology and materials science have made remarkable advances in recent years, revolutionizing several industries and creating new opportunities for research and development. Nanomaterials, with their distinct physical and chemical characteristics at the nanoscale, have drawn a lot of interest and are being investigated for a wide range of applications, from electronics and energy to medicine and environmental remediation.
However, despite these promising prospects, there is rising worry regarding the sustainability and environmental impact of the conventional synthesis techniques used to create nanomaterials. Conventional methods frequently employ hazardous chemicals, consume a lot of energy, and produce a lot of waste, which raises severe concerns about their long‐term effects and ecological imprint.
To overcome these issues and open the door to the manufacture of sustainable nanomaterials, the idea of “green synthesis” has evolved in this context. Utilizing both ecologically friendly natural resources including plants, microorganisms, and other natural resources, as well as green synthetic techniques, can be used to create nanomaterials.
This book, Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials: Biological and Environmental Applications, examines the developing area of “green synthesis of nanomaterials” and its potential biological and environmental pollution remediation applications. It explores the numerous biological sources and fabrication techniques used for the environmentally friendly production of nanomaterials, highlighting their special benefits, constraints, and possible uses.
In addition to highlighting the biological and environmental uses of the synthesized nanomaterials, the goal of this book is to provide a thorough and informative overview of the state‐of‐the‐art methods and developments in green synthesis. The chapters include a wide range of subjects, such as biosynthesis by employing plants and bacteria, as well as the use of natural substances like cellulose and peptide for the green synthesis and biofabrication of nanomaterials and their applications in biomedical as well as environmental pollution remediation.
Readers will obtain a thorough grasp of the concepts driving green synthesis, the characterization methods used for nanomaterial analysis, and the wide range of applications in the biological and environmental domains throughout every chapter of this book. The potential applications of green nanomaterials are numerous and exciting, ranging from pollutant removal to antibacterial agents and targeted medication delivery systems.
This book is a useful resource for students, scientists, engineers, and business executives alike since the contributing authors leading academics and authorities in their respective fields have contributed their wealth of knowledge and expertise. Their combined efforts have produced a thorough compilation that not only illuminates the possibilities of green synthesis but also adds to the continuing discussion about sustainable nanotechnology.
We hope that this book will act as a catalyst for additional study, encouraging scientists to delve more deeply into the field of green synthesis and promoting the creation of brand‐new, environmentally friendly nanomaterials. We may work towards a better future where scientific progress and environmental responsibility go hand in hand by harnessing the power of nature and implementing sustainable practices.
We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to everyone who helped with the writing, reviewing, and publishing of this book. We would also like to express our gratitude to the readers for their attention and participation. We can create the conditions for a sustainable and ecologically conscientious future by working together and exchanging knowledge.
1Introduction to Advanced and Sustainable Green Nanomaterial
Aayushi Chanderiya, Atish Roy, and Ratnesh Das
Department of Chemistry, Dr. Harisingh Gour University, Sagar, MP, India
Abstract
A magical period of scientific observation and science‐based regeneration is required to advance human civilization. Technological developments are brimming with deep scientific insight and depth. Today's sustainability is in the midst of a significant crisis. Energy and environmental sustainability are critical for the advancement of human civilization. Sustainable construction is the bedrock of scientific destiny and profound scientific progress. In this chapter, the authors primarily concentrated on the success of green sustainability, synthesis, nanoscience's vast implementation range, and the novel field of specialized and sustainable nanomaterials. The other pillars of this scientific endeavor are expansion efforts. Green and environmental sustainability are today's human forerunners.
Keywordssustainability; environmental sustainability; scientific progress; nanoscience; green sustainability; green engineering;
1.1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is characterized as the science of the small. It is the manipulation of materials on a microscopic scale. Atoms and molecules behave differently when they are little. These particles have distinct characteristics. It has a wide range of extraordinary and intriguing applications, and research in nanotechnology and nanoscience has exploded across various product areas. It allows for the creation and progress of materials, including medicinal usage, environmental redemption, and so on. Conventional methods may have reached their limits. However, nanotechnology is advancing in a variety of ways. As a result, nanotechnology should not be considered a singular approach that only affects specific research fields; instead, it should be viewed as an exploration of all science disciplines [1a]. Modern green methods are regarded as one of the best aspects to prevent and enhance the environment to achieve sustainable improvement. This concept has piqued the interest of scientists in adopting its principles about indicators of environmental efficiency by demonstrating the real benefit in the stages of planning, design, utilization, and sustainability in multiple vital sectors of the human being [1b, 1c, 2]. Because of their distinct size‐dependent qualities, these materials are exceptional and necessary in a wide range of human activities [3]. Nanotechnology covers a wide range of subjects, from adaptations of classical equipment physics to revolutionary tactics centered on molecular self‐assembly, from developing products with nanoscale size to determining if we can directly influence things on the atomic scale/level [4] (Figure 1.1).
Several science policy publications show significant potential and value in offering green nano methods that produce nanomaterials and products without pollutants that impair the environment or human health at the management, design, production, and methodology phases. As a result, nanotechnology may help to alleviate issues about safe, sustainable development, such as environmental, human health, and safety issues, as well as assist in a sustainable environment in terms of energy, water, food supply, raw substances, environmental issues, and so on [5].
Figure 1.1 Sustainable nanomaterials.
Advanced nanomaterials are the intelligent materials of today's human society. Advanced nanomaterials may be characterized in a variety of ways. The most extended term refers to any materials that reflect advancements above conventional materials that have been utilized for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Consider materials early in their product and technology life cycles for a better understanding description of innovative materials.
What is a sustainable nanomaterial?
Sustainability is concerned with the needs of the current and coming years' decades. Nanomaterials are at the cutting edge of nanotechnology, which is continually evolving. Because of their distinctive size‐dependent qualities, these materials are exceptional and necessary in many human activities.
Sustainable and green nanomaterial
Nanoparticles are particles with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nm [6]. Depending on the shape, nanoparticles can be 0D, 1D, 2D, or 3D [7]. The relevance of these nanoparticles became apparent when researchers discovered that particle size might alter the physiochemical characteristics of substances, such as optical qualities. The nanoparticles are divided into many categories based on their morphology, size, and form (Figures 1.2–1.4).
Figure 1.2 Types of nanomaterials.
Figure 1.3 Classification based on dimensions of nanomaterials.
Figure 1.4 Carbon‐based nanomaterials.
1.2 Synthesis Methods of Nanomaterials
Metal nanoparticles may be created in a variety of methods. There are two types of conversion methodologies: top‐down and bottom‐up. Several nanoparticle synthesis processes have been developed, and they are suitable for synthesizing nanoparticles of various sizes and shapes. The top‐down technique is destructive, breaking down large molecules into tiny parts before changing them into the desired nanoparticles. Decomposition methods such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), grinding, and physical vapor deposition are used in this procedure (PVD). Milling is used to remove nanoparticles from coconut shells, with the size of the crystallites decreasing with time. This method produced iron oxide, carbon, dichalcogenides, and cobalt (III) oxide nanoparticles.
Bottom‐up strategy method includes the gradual synthesis of nanoparticles from basic materials. It is least harmful to the environment, more practicable, and less expensive. Typically, the materials used in reduction and sedimentation techniques include green synthesis, biochemical, spin coating, sol–gel, and so on. This method has been used to create titanium dioxide, gold, and bismuth nanoparticles (Figure 1.5).
Nanoparticle synthesis might potentially utilize chemical or biological mechanisms [8]. Some chemical synthesis strategies for nanoparticles include the sol–gel method, wet chemical synthesis, hydrothermal method, thermal decomposition, microwave method, and so on [9]. In contrast, biological processes contain enzymes, bacteria, plant extracts, and fungi.
Figure 1.5 Synthesis methods of nanomaterials.
1.3 Green Synthesis
Green chemistry and its ideas and environmental efficiency metrics are frequently viewed as fundamental to creating long‐term profitability. Green chemistry principles include prevention, atom economy, less hazardous chemical synthesis, safer compound development, energy‐efficient design, employing renewable fuel sources, catalysis, and constructing for decay. Green nanomaterial synthesis is an environmentally friendly method of nanomaterial synthesis that employs nontoxic, biodegradable ingredients. This method may be used to mass‐produce nanomaterials on a considerable scale. In green synthesis, the external experimental conditions should also be ambient, such as nil or low energy requirements and pressure, which leads to an energy‐saving procedure. Nanotechnology is an essential aspect of putting the earth on a sustainable path because it combines all of the rewards of the present technology with compact goods that consume minimal energy and resources to run, produce, and integrate the possibility of recycling (Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6 Advantages of green synthesis.
1.4 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles from Plants
Bacteria, fungi, and plants all synthesize different types of nanoparticles [10]. Plants are better suited to the production of nanoparticles (NPs) than bacteria or fungi because metal ion reduction requires less incubation time. Plant tissue culture (PTC) and downstream processing approaches promise to generate metal and oxide NPs on a bigger scale. It has been shown that plants exhibit an innate ability to reduce metals via their particular metabolic pathways [11]. Stampoulis et al. [12] investigated the effects of ZnO, Cu, Si, and Ag NPs on root elongation, seed germination, and biomass production in Cucurbita pepo cultivated hydroponically. Compared to the untreated standards, test results showed that root length is reduced by 77% and by 64% when subjected to bulk Cu powder when seedlings are exposed to Cu nanoparticles.
1.5 Characterization of Nanomaterials
Nanoparticles are generally characterized by their size, morphology, and surface charge, using advanced microscopic techniques such as X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and particle size analyzer (PSA).
1.5.1 X‐ray Diffraction (XRD)
XRD is a nondestructive analytical technique that provides crucial information on the lattice pattern of a crystalline component, such as unit cell diameters, bond angles, chemical properties, and crystallographic geometry of pure and produced elements [13]. XRD is predicated on the constructive interference of X‐rays, and for the crystalline sample in question, X‐rays from a cathode rays tube (CRT), are filtered, collimated, and aimed at the material. The resulting interaction creates constructive interference based on Bragg's equation, which ties the wavelength of entering light to the diffraction angle and lattice spacing.
1.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
A SEM is a type of electron microscope that images a material by searching it with a high electron beam in a raster scan pattern [13, 14]. Electrons combine with the particles in the substance to generate signals that communicate information about the surface topography, composition, and other properties like thermal conductivity. SEM can provide extremely high‐resolution pictures of a sample surface, exposing features as small as 1–5 nm in size. SEM micrographs have a significant depth of field due to the relatively narrow electron beam, resulting in a distinctive three‐dimensional appearance beneficial for analyzing the surface structure of a material. A source's electron is accelerated in a field gradient under vacuum conditions. The beam is focused on the specimen after passing via electromagnetic lenses. The representative emits several sorts of electrons as a result of this assault.
1.5.3 Energy Dispersive X‐ray (EDX)
Energy scattering X‐ray spectroscopy is used for elemental testing or chemical characterization of a substance (Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) or EDX). X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy includes analyzing X‐rays emitted by matter in response to charged particles to examine a sample via interactions among matter and electromagnetic radiation [13, 14].
1.5.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
Thermogravimetric analysis is a method of determining the temperature of a body. TGA is a thermal analysis technique that uses a controlled environment to quantify the weight change in a substance as a function of temperature and time [14].
1.5.5 UV–Visible Spectroscopy (UV–Vis)
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), sometimes known as UV–Vis, the spectroscopy of photons in the UV–Vis range is known as ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet–visible spectrometry (UV–Vis). Electronic transitions occur when it makes use of visible light and light in the near‐UV and near‐infrared (NIR) bands in this area of the electromagnetic spectrum. UV–Vis measures the transmission or absorption of light in transparent or opaque liquids and solids.
1.5.6 Asymmetric Flow Field Fractionation (AF4)
To discover the features of NPs, new combinations of approaches are developed. Asymmetric flow field fractionation (AF4) is a liquid phase size separation technique that can be used with several downstream detectors. The particles are pushed against a semipermeable membrane by the perpendicular cross‐flow. Brownian motion is visible in the tiniest particles, which diffuse into the channel's center, where the elution is greatest. The retention time of AF4 can be used to calculate the hydrodynamic diameter. AF4 outperforms microscopy‐based approaches. The power of AF4 can be enhanced with the addition of downstream detectors. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy gives much information about each particle size in a heterogeneous mixture when AF4 couples. Metallic clusters with a diameter of less than 1 nm can be measured [15, 16].
1.5.7 Electrospray Differential Mobility Analysis (ESDMA)
Electrospray differential mobility analysis (ESDMA) is an aerodynamic sizing technique used in nanoparticle characterization that measures the ballistic distance traveled by the particle under an applied voltage to determine the aerodynamic diameter. AF4 can be used in conjunction with ESDMA for reliable analysis of complex nanoparticle synthesis products. For elemental mapping of TEM images, TEM combined with electron energy loss spectroscopy provides a high spatial resolution [17].
1.6 Environmental and Health Concerns
Pollution is an unfavorable alteration wreaking havoc on our primary materials, particularly land and water. At average amounts, soil contains elements, notably metals. The ground uses these elements as micronutrients and macronutrients. Light metals include Mg and Al, metalloids include As and Se, and heavy metals include Cd, Hg, Pb, Cr, Ag, and Sn. Substantial metals are elements with densities higher than 5.0 g/cc and distinct metal characteristics such as conductivity, flexibility, ligand selectivity, and cationic stability. In contrast, light metals are more important for health and the environment [18]. Light elements have densities of more than 5.0 g/cc and distinct metal characteristics such as conductivity, flexibility, ligand selectivity, and cationic stability. Cu, Cr, Zn, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni are valuable heavy metals required at microscopic levels in metabolism but can be fatal at higher concentrations. In terms of environmental science, NPs have a variety of environmentally friendly applications, such as components that supply clean water from polluted water sources on a huge level and in portable implementations, as well as one that senses and cleans up pollutants (waste and toxic material), identified as remediation [19, 20]. Advanced sustainable materials are now being viewed as a viable option for addressing environmental pollution from its source. Continuous attempts are being made to improve the qualities of these materials to make them more energy‐efficient, environmentally friendly, cost‐effective, durable, readily available, and recyclable. Their continued research will undoubtedly pave the way toward establishing a clean environment [21]. Nanotechnology improves everyday items' performance and efficiency, making our lives simpler. It helps maintain a balanced environment by providing better air and water and clean, sustainable energy for the long term. Nanotechnology has received a lot of interest, and large institutions, firms, and organizations are investing more in R&D. Nanotechnology has established itself as a cutting‐edge field of inquiry, with significant research being performed to bring the concept into action. It is being tested for various applications to improve the object's efficiency and performance while lowering the cost to make it affordable. Nanotechnology has a bright future because of its efficiency and environmental benefits.
1.7 Application
1.7.1 Use as Sensor
Enzymes are proteins that speed up the percentage of processes in which molecules are transformed into near products. Electrochemical biosensors with an enzyme immobilized on the transducer have been created to detect a single molecule alone. Each enzyme contains active regions that bind and react with a certain chemical. In third‐generation biosensors, the inserted enzyme continuously exchanges electrons with the electrode, providing the response signal without requiring a mediator. For a range of applications, third‐generation biosensors can detect small (e.g. H2O2[22] and O2[23]) as well as large molecules (e.g., luteolin [24], medicine [25], and food analysis [26]). Nanostructures utilized as enzyme‐binding materials act as channels in direct electrochemistry, transporting the charge from the enzyme to the electrode. These technologies use hemoglobin, laccase, cytochrome c, and horseradish peroxidase enzymes. Reliable electrical contact among enzymes and electrode surfaces is crucial for high‐performance third‐generation biosensors. The active centers of redox proteins are surrounded by a thick insulating shell, hindering electron transfer to the electrode. Metal NPs and nanopores are useful for improving direct electron transfer (DET) between the enzyme and the electrode transducer because of their good conductivity capabilities and nanoscale size. The enzyme active core is penetrated by NPs and nano‐protrusions of porous films, which operate as “wires” of electron transit, connecting protein and electrode [27] (Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7 Applications of sustainable nanomaterials.
The use of NPs, regardless of the chemical modifiers used, significantly increases the electrochemically active area and improves analyte accessibility to the electrode surface, as seen by improved sensitivity and detection limit. The increased surface available is also advantageous for immobilizing biomolecules and, as a result, for creating biosensors.
Furthermore, the nanostructure's properties can improve sensor selectivity, a significant shortcoming of electrochemical sensors. For instance, Au NPs with varied morphologies and favored crystalline faces can generate selectivity to detect chemically identical analytes. In the case of lactate dehydrogenase (LDHs), the redox‐active metal's different standard potential allows for differentiation between oxidizable molecules with one or more hydroxyl groups. Due to their recognition sites, MIPs can be considered the most appealing polymeric modifiers for increasing selectivity [28].
Nanomaterial‐based amperometric biosensors present a novel and appealing paradigm in terms of new and enhanced functionality, which may be applied to various analytical applications. Amperometric biosensors based on NPs may have several advantages in enhancing and transcending the capabilities of the present analytical methodology by allowing for quick and precise analysis.
This sector is still impressionable, and several difficulties must be discussed in the innovation of nanomaterial‐based amperometric biosensors, including (i) many sophisticated biological processes demand specific physiological environments and a specific degree of biocompatibility, and the biosensor‐integrated nanomaterial must meet this necessity; (ii) it is highly desirable to find NPs with enough binding sites for biomolecules, and; (iii) it is incredibly beneficial to find NPs with satisfactory.
Despite significant progress, this sector is still young. Many issues must be resolved in the innovation of nanomaterial‐based amperometric biosensors, such as (i) many complexes biological systems involve specific physiological environments and a certain degree of biocompatibility, and the biosensor‐integrated nanomaterial must meet this requirement; (ii) it is highly beneficial to find NPs with satisfactory binding sites for biomolecules; and (iii) the possibility of controversies. Future studies could enhance the parameters mentioned above to improve the analytical characteristics of nanomaterial‐based amperometric biosensors [29].
Many functional nanoparticles (NPs) based on nanotechnology have provided a novel solid material for very accurate on‐site analysis in electrochemical biosensors through signal enhancement. Applicable NPs (carbon nanotubes, graphene, metallic, silica NPs, nanowire, indium tin oxide, and etc.) are frequently used to fabricate highly effective electrode‐supportive matrices due to their high electrical conductivity, huge surface area, and other features. Surfaces can be functionalized with various organic groups to provide efficient immobilization (silanes, thiols, and conductive polymers). Labeling techniques are used to increase the sensitivity of electrochemical signals using a range of electroactive nano traces. These technologies may be employed to miniaturize and improve analytical performance via deposition, patterning, and electroactive conveyance in the point‐of‐care (POC) version of the electrochemical detection platform exemplified by lateral‐flow immunoassay and microfluidic devices. Despite electrochemical biosensors being suitable for high‐performance analysis in various field applications, matrix interference influencing biomolecular interaction from actual samples (blood, food, etc.) remains one of the most pressing issues that must be addressed to improve analytical performance [30].
1.7.2 Use as Medicine
In drug delivery research, the application of nanotechnology in developing nanocarriers for drug delivery generates a lot of optimism and enthusiasm. Nanoscale drug delivery methods provide several advantages, including higher intracellular absorption than other drug delivery systems [31]. For many causes, formulation scientists are fascinated by nanoscale medicine delivery technologies. The most important reason is that drug delivery techniques increase the ratio of surface atoms or compounds to total atoms or molecules. As a results, the surface area expands, facilitating the binding, adsorption, and transport of various substances such as medicines, probes, and proteins. Drug particles can also be modified to create nanoscale materials [32].
1.7.3 Used for the Removal of Toxicants from Water
Water resources have been extensively contaminated by textile industry effluents, which contain a variety of toxicants, including synthetic and semi‐synthetic colors. Consumption of this contaminated water causes a variety of toxins and can lead to severe illnesses in all forms of life. To detect and remove dye from water samples, various synthetic and naturally derived adsorbents have been created. These adsorbents have several advantages, including cost‐effectiveness, accessibility, stability, and ease of fabrication. Nanomaterials are used as adsorbents at a minimal cost. Crystal violet dyes can be removed from contaminated water using cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and a modified CNF microfiltration membrane [33]. The removal of acid yellow 25 (AY25) dye from wastewater is thought to be effective using simple, less expensive, and environmentally friendly procedures employing layered double hydroxides [34]. Cazetta et al. described magnetic‐triggered carbon produced from biomass waste as an excellent hazardous dye scavenger [35]. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibrous membranes functionalized with cyclodextrin filter reactive dyes from polluted water and make it usable [36]. Similarly, innovative carboxylated functionalized copolymer nanofibers effectively eliminate various colors from wastewater [37].
The number of active radionuclide waste in the environment increases daily, posing a severe threat to all kinds of life. Aside from energy generation, radioactive elements are broadly used in medicine, research, business, agriculture, nuclear weaponry, and other fields. Recent breakthroughs in sustainable technology and practical approaches have supplied new insights into detecting and removing these potentially hazardous contaminants from the environment. Carbonaceous nanofibers generated from bacteria can remove radionuclides [38]. Using multipurpose flexible free‐standing sodium titanate nanobelt membranes, effective sorbents, radioactive 90Sr2+, and 137Cs+ ions may be efficiently extracted from polluted water and oils [39].
1.7.4 Soil Redemption Use for the Removal of Toxicants from the Soil
The amount of research into the use of NPs in soils and groundwater remediation procedures has expanded dramatically, with encouraging outcomes. Polluted soil remediation using nanotechnologies has emerged as a promising topic with the potential to vastly improve performance over standard remediation technologies [40, 41]. Effective use for contaminants, other inorganic and organic toxins, and emerging contaminants, such as medicinal, beauty products, and hygiene products, in soil contaminants contexts.
1.7.5 In Agriculture and Food Industries
Climate change, growing populations, and the increasing demand for high‐quality food and health care necessitate the development of more reliable, environmentally friendly technology. The NPs and technologies have many uses due to their changeable form, size, content, and potential reactivity with organic chemicals. Agricultural products are used in a variety of ways in our life, including food, fuel, furniture, textiles, and feedstock. However, lack of space, diseases, and changes in agroclimatic conditions all pose significant challenges to agricultural productivity. The use of pesticides and fertilizers to increase crop productivity is shown to have serious and even life‐threatening consequences. As a result, there is a pressing need to upgrade agricultural practices and methods using next‐generation technologies. Several developing nanotechnologies have been demonstrated to have uses in agriculture to increase production. The use of nano‐agrochemicals, the development of crop protection technologies, and the proper postharvest management of agricultural goods are all things that need to be addressed. Nanotechnology promotes the least exploitation of natural resources, resulting in better and safer soil, water, and environment. Fertilizer application is very significant in increasing agricultural output. These are usually applied to the soil via surface application and subsurface placement after being mixed with water. Most of these fertilizers do not reach the plants and contribute to environmental damage. As a result, there is a requirement for creative nanotechnological solutions to improve nutrient availability to plants while also reducing the amount of fertilizer used [42]. This has led to scientific advancements in producing smart fertilizers and nanofertilizers. Materials with a size range of 1–100 nm, as well as components modified with nanoscale materials, are included in nanofertilizers. Many NPs have been examined to see how they affect plant growth and production. Because of their ability to promote plant development in vitro, NPs have also been described as natural biofertilizers. The properties of several NPs as nanofertilizers are investigated [43].
Nanotechnology has substantially contributed to the food business by enhancing many stages of food production, from the farm to the table. It has important uses in food manufacturing, processing, packaging, safety, and shelf life augmentation, as well as pathogen detection and the development of functional smart food. As a result, the technique can address the majority of customer demands, including nutrient enhancement and organoleptic qualities. Food quality, texture, and nutritional content have all improved due to technological advancements [44]. Nanostructured foodstuffs and food nanosensing devices are two of the technology's significant achievements. All nano additives used in food to assure its quality and functional properties, as well as the packaging material, are included in the former. Nanoscale food additives can potentially increase taste and shelf life while reducing microbial deterioration. Nanotechnology has the potential to completely replace food packaging materials with nanopolymers. Nanosensors help detect pollutants, poisons, and microbiological contamination, ensuring product quality, integrity, and authenticity [45] (Table 1.1).
1.7.6 Use as Photocatalyst
For centuries, fossil fuel‐based energy sources such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas have been used to supply the world's energy demands; however, overproduction and overconsumption of these fuels have resulted in a slew of acknowledged and unknown issues. In addition to a lack of knowledge regarding mineral fuel sources, including nuclear energy, there is a lack of technology and long‐term waste disposal. Fossil fuel‐based energy systems have a significant environmental impact. They are often regarded as the primary source of global warming, as well as contamination and pollution of the air, soil, and water. Many countries have been looking for alternative energy sources to replace fossil and mineral‐based fuels due to rapid economic development, population increase, environmental and health concerns, and rising demands for clean energy sources [46–48]. These alternative energy sources should really be sustainable, minimize/eliminate issues, and be affordable and accessible to many countries throughout the world. We can design light‐harvesting assemblies, devise new ways for producing fuels, and develop tools to synthesize novel functional materials for solar cells, water‐splitting units, pollution control devices, and other applications by emulating photoactive green NPs found in nature. Because of their high surface area to volume ratio, photoactive green NPs can be more reactive and potentially more destructive than bulk materials of the same composition. Prior to any photocatalytic applications, the characteristics of these NPs should be investigated.
Table 1.1 Different types of water pollutants and their origin.
Pollutant
Origin
Organic
Dyes, pesticides, pharmaceuticals drugs, industrial waste
Inorganic
Metals, metalloids, nitrates, phosphates
Microorganism
Sewage, animal excrement
1.8 Future Scope
The need for ecologically benign and stable NPs that are compatible with biological systems has encouraged scientists to investigate nanoparticle production. This chapter covers the synthesis of sustainable and advanced NPs, as well as their classification, benefits and drawbacks, and several characterization methodologies. Top‐down method, bottom‐up approach, chemical synthesis, biological method, and mechanical process are all examples of cost‐effective and easy manufacturing processes for NPs. Several characterization approaches for NPs are being developed in order to better understand their morphological, structural, optical, size, mechanical, and physiochemical characteristics. Each feature is obtained by the use of various machines and processes. The synthesis and characterization procedures used greatly impact the NPs' properties.
1.9 Ongoing Challenges
Despite nanotechnology's enormous growth and relevance, the uncertainty of a “new” technology persists, particularly because there is a scarcity of information and studies on its impact on health and the environment. This is viewed as a barrier to cross‐industry nanotechnology adoption. The use of nanoparticles in various consumer and commercial applications raises concerns about the risks that may arise if people or the environment are exposed to NPs during manufacture, use, or disposal. The environmental, health, and safety risks of NPs vary depending on their chemical composition and physical structure [49, 50]. The absence of information, as well as the potential for negative effects on the environment, human health, safety, and sustainability, remains obstacles [51]. The NP analysis approach is the main issue with NPs. New and unique NPs are gradually developed as nanotechnology advances. The materials, on the other hand, differ in shape and size, which are crucial determinants in determining toxicity. Due to a lack of knowledge and methods for quantifying NPs, existing technology makes detecting NPs in the air for environmental protection extremely difficult. The information on the chemical structure is a critical factor in determining how toxic a nonmaterial is, and minor changes in the chemical function group could drastically change its properties [52]. At all stages of nanotechnology, a full risk evaluation of the safety of human health and environmental consequences is required. The exposure risk and its probability of access, toxicological analysis, transportation risk, persistence risk, transformation risk, and recycling ability should all be considered in the risk assessment. Another element that can be exploited to anticipate environmental impacts is life cycle risk assessment. Material waste can be reduced by good experimental design prior to producing a nanotechnology‐based product [53].
1.10 Conclusion
The current chapter focuses mostly on the green synthesis of sustainable advanced materials, their characterization, applications, and future opportunities, as well as addressing ongoing issues in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is driving progress and innovation in a variety of industries, and it will continue to do so in the future. It is seen as a key enabling technology for a wide range of applications in electronics, health care, chemical products, beauty products, composites, and energy, to name a few, opening up new possibilities for the development of everyday products with improved performance, lower production costs, and less raw material intake. Despite its development, nanotechnology faces some difficulties in getting a greater impact on industry. Despite the efforts made, there is still a shortage of understanding and information regarding the safety and health hazards, as well as the impact on the environment of NPs, and it is necessary to protect all of those involved by supplying precise data.
Abbreviations
AFM
Atomic force microscopy
AY25
Acid yellow 25
CNFs
Cellulose nanofibres
CNT
Carbon nanotubes
ESDMA
Electrospray differential mobility analysis
NPs
Nanoparticles
PSA
Particle size analyzer
PTC
Plant tissue culture
SEM
Scanning electron microscopy
TEM
Transmission electron microscopy
XRD
X‐ray diffraction
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