Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology, Volume 1 E-Book
190,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Handbook of Agricultural Bionanobiotechnology
- Sprache: Englisch
Handbook of AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY The book provides detailed information on the application of nanopesticides for the management of numerous agricultural pests and pathogens, as well as to foster an innovative pathway toward future sustainable agriculture and food systems. Biopesticides have been identified as a sustainable and permanent replacement to synthetic chemicals. Their application will go a long way toward preventing major challenges that confront sustainable agriculture, the actualization of global food production and food security, helping to feed an ever-increasing population that is predicted to increase to nine billion by 2050. An interdisciplinary collaboration among policymakers, private sector, researchers, civil society, farmers, consumers, and environmentalists will foster an innovative pathway toward future sustainable agriculture and food systems that could ensure resilience, food security, and a healthy environment. The book explains the application of some nanobiopesticides as ovicides that could kill eggs of insects and mites, as well as slimicides that could destroy slime-producing microorganisms, such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and slime molds. Other highlights include: a discussion on the application of nanobiopesticides for the rejuvenation of heavily contaminated environments (as well as their role in the mitigation of several abiotic stress); a demonstration of how nanobiopesticides derived from plants could be applied for effective management of pests and diseases in animal husbandry and fishery; and a collection of relevant information on patents, the commercialization of relevant plant-derived nanobiopesticides, and their social economic and industrial relevance. Audience The book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, microbial biotechnologists, farmers, policymakers, and extension workers.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 769
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Application Nanobiopesticides Derived From Plants
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Concept of Biopesticides
1.3 Uniqueness of Nanobiopesticides
1.4
In Vitro
Nanobiopesticides Assay
1.5
In Vivo
Treatment with Nanobiofungicides
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides That Could Be Applied as Fumigants
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Biopesticides
2.3 Nanobiopesticides
2.4 Synthesis of Nanobiopesticides
2.5 Different Methods Used in the Synthesis of Nanobiopesticides
2.6 Possible Nanostructures
2.7 Mechanisms of Nanobiopesticides
2.8 Possible Action of Nanobiopesticide
2.9 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticide
2.10 Environmental Sustainability of Nanobiopesticides
2.11 Conclusion
References
3 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides as Biocides
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Nanotechnology and Its Application
3.3 Nanotechnology and Biopesticides
3.4 Various Benefits of Biopesticides
3.5 Different Kinds and Applications of Biopesticides
3.6 Utilization of Nanotechnology in Agricultural Systems
3.7 Nanobiopesticides
3.8 Strategies Used in the Production of Nanomaterials on the Basis of CRFs for the Application of Biocides
3.9 Impacts of Nanobiopesticides
3.10 Conclusion
References
4 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides as Disinfectant
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Need for Biopesticides Worldwide
4.3 Structures for Possible Nanobiopesticides
4.4 Plant Interactions Between NPs
4.5 Systemic Method for NMs Selectivity: Uptake and Interaction Based on Physicochemical Properties
4.6 NP Uptake Dependent on Size
4.7 Surface Charge-Related NP Uptake
4.8 Differences in Anatomy and Application-Related NP Uptake
4.9 The Plants’ Physiochemical Reaction to NPs and the Effects on Plant Growth and Seed Germination
4.10 Modern NPs for Plant Protection Advances
4.11 NPs Reduce Abiotic Stress Reaction
4.12 NPs of Cerium (CeO NPs)
4.13 NPs of Silicon (Si NPs)
4.14 NPs of Titanium Dioxide (TiO
2
NPs)
4.15 Nanopesticides
4.16 Nanoemulsions
4.17 Polymer Nanopesticides
4.18 Nanopesticides as Solid NPs
4.19 Nanoherbicides
4.20 Nanofungicides
4.21 Nanofertilizers
4.22 Nanofertilizer Uptake, Translocation, and Action: Molecular Mechanism
4.23 System for Sensing with NPs
4.24 Pesticide Residue Detection Using NP-Based Biosensor
4.25 NPs for Detecting Plant Pathogens
4.26 Smart Plant Sensing System Based on NP
4.27 NPs for Managing the Postharvest Waste in Agriculture
4.28 Application of NP Risk and Health Hazards in Agriculture: Toxicological Impact
4.29 Required Qualifications for Selection as Nanobiopesticides
4.30 Reasons for Research
4.31 Important Considerations for Nanobiopesticides
4.32 Outlook for the Future
4.33 Conclusion
References
5 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides as Sanitizers
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nanotechnology and Nanoscience
5.3 Demand for Biopesticides Worldwide
5.4 Biopesticides in Light of Nanoparticles
5.5 Methods for Synthesis of Nanobiopesticides
5.6 Potential Human Health Issues
5.7 Morality and Potential Hazards
5.8 Sanitizers
5.9 Cleaning Strategies
5.10 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides as Sanitizers
5.11 Conclusion
References
6 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides Slimicides Against Slime-Producing Microorganisms
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biopesticides
6.3 Nanobiopesticides
6.4 Application of Nanobiopesticides
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides That Could Be Applied for the Rejuvenation of Heavily Contaminated Environments
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nanopesticides: State-of-the-Art
7.3 Nanobiopesticide
7.4
In Vitro
Nanobiopesticides Bioassay
7.5
In Vivo
Nanobiopesticide Application
7.6 Fate of Nanopesticides
7.7 Current Methods of Reducing Soil Pollution Through Biomimicry
7.8 Toxicology, a Barrier for Nanopesticides
7.9 Environmental Repercussions
7.10 Second-Generation Nanobiopesticides
7.11 Conclusion
References
8 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides for Effective Management of Pests and Diseases in Animal Husbandry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Common Pests in Animal Husbandry
8.3 Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides
8.4 Method of Application
8.5 Effects of Nanobiopesticides
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides for Mitigation of Several Biotic Stress
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Systemic Resistance Can Be Caused by Physiological Stress
9.3 Pathways for Multiple Stress Response Modulation
9.4 Species of Reactive Oxygen
9.5 Biopesticides
9.6 Microbial Biopesticides
9.7 Alleviation of Biotic Stress
9.8 Consideration and Forecasting
References
10 The Influence of Nanopesticides on the Social Economy, Its Bioeconomy Perspectives in Attaining Sustainable Development Goals
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Literature Review
10.3 Nanopesticides Categories
10.4 Formulations of Nanopesticides
10.5 Biopesticides
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Application of Nanotechnology for the Production of Biopesticides, Bioinsecticides, Bioherbicides, Mosquitoe Repellants and Biofungicides
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Nanotechnology
11.3 Formulation and Delivery of Biopesticides Using Nanotechnology
11.4 Application of Nanotechnology for Bioinsecticide Production
11.5 Application of Nanotechnology for Bioherbicide Production
11.6 Nanobiotechnology as an Emerging Approach to Combat Malaria
11.7 Application of Nanotechnology for Biofungicide Production
11.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
12 Relevance of Nanomaterials Derived From Medicinal Plants for Marine and Terrestrial Environments: Recent Advances
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Modes of Action of Nanodrugs Synthesized Using Genetically Engineered Metabolite
12.3 Nanodrugs Synthesized Using Genetically Engineered Metabolites From Plants
12.4 Nanoparticles Derived From Medicinal Plants Terrestrial Environment
References
13 Biological Activities of Nanomaterials From Biogenic Source for the Treatment of Diseases and Its Role in Regenerative and Tissue Engineering
13.1 Introduction
13.2 General Overview
13.3 Application of Nanotechnology in Tissue and Stem Cell Engineering
13.4 Biochemical and Specific Modes of Action Involved in the Application of Nanodrugs for the Management of Diseases
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides for Mitigation of Several Abiotic Stress
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Stress Speculations
14.3 Stress Patterns
14.4 Natural Stress
14.5 Organic Stress
14.6 Natural Stress
14.7 Thermodynamic Pressure
14.8 Stress on Heavy Metals
14.9 Plant Response to Abiotic Stress
14.10 Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance Mechanisms
14.11 Biotechnical Techniques to Reduce Plant Abiotic Stress
14.12 An Approach for Future Applications of Nanomaterials in Combating Plant Stress
14.13 Nanobiopesticides
14.14 Conclusion
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Benefits and downsides of biopesticides [48].
Table 3.2 The list of polymers that have capacities for the synthesis of bio...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Pesticide’s classification based on their target.
Table 4.2 The chemical composition and impact on humans, other animals, and ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Botanical pesticides and their target pests.
Table 6.2 Plant-derived nanobiopesticides.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Typical examples of nanomaterial that serve as carrier for biopest...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Mode of action of plant-based nanobiopesticides.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 The attributes of conventional chemicals and biopesticides.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Significance of nanotechnology in the production of nano-based bi...
Figure 2.2 Different categories of biopesticide. Source: Abdollahdokht
et al
Figure 2.3 An organism that secretes a protein that is poisonous to some ins...
Figure 2.4 Nanobiopesticides synthesis with the use of silver nitrate salt (...
Figure 2.5 Fundamental electrospinning setup and production of nanofiber. So...
Figure 2.6 Possible nanostructure obtained from different methods. Source: N...
Figure 2.7 Delivery mechanism of nanobiopesticides in crop for pest manageme...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Representative types of microbial biopesticides.
Figure 3.2 Physical methods for CRF preparation.
Figure 3.3 Physical methods for CRF preparation.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Different abiotic factors that influence plants.
Figure 14.2 Categorization of stresses.
Figure 14.3 Types of pressure.
Figure 14.4 A simplified depiction of the cellular responses of plants to ab...
Figure 14.5 Biotech methods for protecting plants from environmental hazards...
Figure 14.6 Probable sources of nanoparticles and its effect on plant with r...
Figure 14.7 Nanoparticles uptake, translocation and accumulation in plants a...
Figure 14.8 Application of nanobiopesticides delivery (Alvarez-Paimo, 2017)....
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
ii
iii
iv
xv
xvi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology
Volume I Nanopesticides
Edited by
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
and
Julius Kola Oloke
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-83614-8
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
The application of biopesticides is an alternative option that could ensure adequate agro-ecosystem functions and biodiversity, thereby enhancing agricultural production, the effective management of biotic and abiotic stressors, and the maintenance of animals, humans, and a healthy planet. Their effectiveness is due to their availability in larger quantities, eco-friendliness, and their ability to preserve beneficial microorganism and soil activity.
Biopesticides have been identified as a sustainable and permanent replacement to synthetic chemicals. Their application will go a long way toward preventing major challenges that confront sustainable agriculture, the actualization of global food production, and food security, helping to feed an ever-increasing population that is predicted to increase to nine billion by 2050. An interdisciplinary collaboration among policymakers, private sector, researchers, civil society, farmers, consumers, and environmentalists will foster an innovative pathway toward future sustainable agriculture and food systems that could ensure resilience, food security, and a healthy environment.
This book emphasizes the application of microencapsulation and nanoformulations technology that could enhance agricultural production while increasing stability and residual action of nanobiopesticides products, as well as improving their environmental sustainability and field application. A heavy emphasis is placed on the registration of nanobiopesticides with relevant stakeholders, plus the role of scientists and farmers, government, research institutes, industries, universities, agro-industries, and researchers. Additionally, relevant information is provided on the application of nanobiopesticides that could serve as an antibacterial antinematode, antimollusca, antimite, antirodent, and antiviral agent.
The chapters herein outline techniques for the characterization and structural elucidation of the biologically active constitutes that are found in plant materials and could be utilized in the fabrication of nanobiopesticdes. Relevant information is collected on some nanobiopesticides that could be applied as fumigants, which are used in the production of gas or vapor for effective destruction of pests in buildings or soil. Additionally, how to apply nanobiopesticides as biocides, disinfectants, and sanitizers is explained, too.
The book explains the application of some nanobiopesticides as ovicides that could kill eggs of insects and mites, as well as slimicides that could destroy slime-producing microorganisms, such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and slime molds. Other highlights include: a discussion on the application of nanobiopesticides for the rejuvenation of heavily contaminated environments (as well as their role in the mitigation of several abiotic stress); a demonstration of how nanobiopesticides derived from plants could be applied for effective management of pests and diseases in animal husbandry and fishery; and a collection of relevant information on patents, the commercialization of relevant plant-derived nanobiopesticides, and their social economic and industrial relevance.
This book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including global leaders, industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, agricultural experts, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, environmental microbiologists and microbial biotechnologists, investors, innovators, farmers, policy makers, extension workers, educators, researchers, and many in other interdisciplinary fields of science. It also serves as an educational resource manual and a project guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as for educational institutions that seek to carry out research in the field of agriculture and nanotechnology.
I offer my deepest appreciation to all the contributors who dedicated their time and efforts to make this book a success. Furthermore, I want thank my co-editors for their effort and dedication during this project. Moreover, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the suggestions, help, and support of Martin Scrivener and the Scrivener Publishing team.
Professor Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji (Ph.D, AAS affiliate, FRSB (UK) FNYA; FBSN; FNSM, MNBGN)
Director of Research and Innovation, Edo State University, Uzairue, Nigeria
December, 2023
1Application Nanobiopesticides Derived From Plants
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji1*and Abel Inobeme2
1Applied Microbiology, Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Edo University Iyamho, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria
2Department of Chemistry, Edo University Iyamho, Okpella, Edo, Nigeria
Abstract
The utilization of biopesticides for the management of agricultural pest and diseases has been carried for a long time, the incorporation of the vast knowledge gained from nanotechnology only commenced recently. The integration of nanomaterials in the development of biopesticides will, therefore, help in the mitigation of some of the challenges associated with the use of biopesticides alone, such as enhancing the overall efficiency, improved stability, effective delivery while limiting some of the negative effects. Nanotechnology has, therefore, provided the adoption of responsive, biodegradable, biocompatible, and intelligent materials for the fabrication of safe, green, and efficient pesticides. It has been indicated that the integration of nanotechnology to the existing biopesticides has the potential of ensuring the design and formulation of more reliable nanobiopesticides.
Keywords: Nanobiopesticides, nanotechnology, biodegradable, biocompatible, biopesticides
1.1 Introduction
The role of nanotechnology in various areas of human endeavors, such as agriculture, medicine, industries, biotechnology among others cannot be overemphasized. The global population is rapidly increasing and the quest for quality food is increasing continually. The place of agriculture for the feeding of this population and environmental sustainability therefore becomes paramount. On yearly basis, it is reported that 25% of agricultural crops on global scale are destroyed by pests and diseases [1]. On this premise, the control and management of pest and diseases is necessary for improving agricultural yield and ensuring food safety and security. More recently, various approaches and pesticides formulations have been employed for the management of pesticides with a view to ensuring food security. Some of these include synthetic, chemical and biological measures. Basically, pesticides are grouped into different classes on the basis of their structures, compositions and targeted organisms into rodenticides, herbicides, bactericides, insecticides, fungicides, among others. The use of chemical pesticides has also been reported to posses it inherent limitation. These substances posses high toxicity to both pests and humans [2]. On global scale it has been documented that over 200,000 persons die on annual basis as a result of poisoning emerging from the use of chemical and synthetic agents. Some of the existing chemicals that have been employed in this regards have also showed some limitations as a result of challenges with efficient delivery mechanism, poor stability within the environment, low specificity, less biodegradability, as well as the high cost of formulation. The chemicals also contaminate the environment since they all pass through it polluting soils, water bodies and the atmosphere [3]. The workers in industries where these pesticides are produced are also prone to occupational hazards due to exposure to these toxic substances. Exposure to these pesticides occurs through the intake of food and water. In order to overcome the aforementioned limitations nanotechnology has shown to have promising results and prospects [4]. At present, nanotechnology has found relevance in various sectors and fields of humans in problem solving. The incorporation of nanopesticide to the area of agriculture has the potential of increasing the production of crop and improvement the mortality of pest. The use of nanobiopesticides gained remarkable attention in their usage against pests as a result of their minute sizes (1–100 nm), enhanced stability, large surface area, ease of application and cost effectiveness [5–7].
This book presents the synthesis and applications of nanobiopesticides in management of various agricultural pests and diseases causing microorganisms. Some of the areas of application covered in this word include their utilization as antirodents, antinematodes, antimites, antimollusca, antiviral agents, biocides, fumigants, ovicides, slimicides, disinfectants as well as their applications in the mitigation of various stresses associated with abiotic factors and the rejuvenation of various environment heavily polluted by numerous emerging contaminants.
1.2 Concept of Biopesticides
Biopesticides are pesticides of biological origin that are obtained majorly from natural substances or microorganisms. They are basically classified into three major groups which are the botanical biopesticides, the microbial based biopesticides and plants derived biopesticides. Biopesticides have gotten remarkable attention as alternative to the conventional agropesticides as a result of their unique features such as specificity in targeting, relatively fewer negative effects, ease of breaking down quickly and higher efficiency. There are several substances, which have been evaluated as potential biopesticides in recent times, which include oxymatrine (an alkaloid), stilbenes found in grape cane, olive oil mill, extracts of Clitoria ternatea and stains of Talaromyces flavus. The application of biopesticides does not have side effects of concern on the environment due to its eco-friendliness. There are specific products, which have been licensed as biopesticides, although they are still being investigated for any possible health effect [8].
1.3 Uniqueness of Nanobiopesticides
According to various scientific evidences, the emergence of nanotechnology has proven to be a highly reliable tool for the formulation of novel nanocomposites suitable for curbing pest and diseases in agriculture. The nano-biopesticides have outstanding superiority over the biopesticides as well as the other traditional approaches to pest mitigation. They posses unique biodegradability, environmental friendliness, rapid action, good result, easy discharge to plants, gentle release from the vector and remarkably high efficiency. The small sizes of the nanobiopesticides also make them useful carriers [9]. More recently, various nanobiopesticides have been documented to have high efficacies against different pests, such as Bacillus sphacricus, Bacillus firmus, Trichoderma harzianum, Beauveria bassiana, and Bacillus thringicsis. These groups of pesticide have also been reported not to have negative effects on the population of microorganisms in the environment. The nanobiopesticides are prepared through various routes, with the two major being: extraction of the bioactive compound with pesticidal effect and the blending it with nanomaterials prior to inserting it into a suitable polymeric materials which act as a base support, while in the other, the active pesticidal agent produces the metallic salt with the binded nanoparticles which then hemolysis and merges into the compatible vectors including liposomes, polymer, nanosphere, nanofibers, and micelles [1].
1.4 In Vitro Nanobiopesticides Assay
Nanobiopesticides could be evaluated against specific groups of pest so as to assess their efficacies prior to their large scale applications in farmlands. The nanobiopesticides could be produce through various active pesticide based compounds together with mixing of various nanoparticles such as silver oxide, zinc oxide and oxides of aluminum. The overall toxicity of the nanobiopesticide is checked through the use of minimum inhibitory contents which employs the diffusion method based on agar well. It involves the coating of filter paper with the outer layer of nanobiopesticides as well as oral introduction to the targeted pest. Final measurement is done on the concentration of the pest that are dead and those that are alive within an interval of 40 days [2].
1.5 In Vivo Treatment with Nanobiofungicides
Nanobiofungicides can be introduced into plants in the right doses so as to ensure their protection from seasonal infections. The use of LC50 and LC90 help in the detection of the specific insects, larvae and attacks by bee. The nanobiopesticides are also used in changing environments like humidity, temperature and stresses from the environment. Under such conditions, the nanobiopesticides are applied directly as sprays in protecting the plants from attack by pests. The application of nanobiopesticides has therefore become the most efficient approach for the control of attacks by pests that transmit diseases [9].
1.6 Conclusion
There is increasing destruction of a large component of global agricultural yield due to the activities of pests. Recent studies revealed the various side effects associated with the use of chemical pesticides such neurotoxicity, Parkinson’s disease, endocrine disruption, malignancies and obesity [10–19]. The emergence of nanobiopesticides has been identified as one of the most remarkable breakthrough in the field of nanotechnology. Nanobiopesticides are ecofriendly, benign with unique biodegradation potential.
References
1. Abdollahdokht, D., Gao, Y., Faramarz, S.
et al.
, Conventional agrochemicals towards nano-biopesticides: An overview on recent advances.
Chem. Biol. Technol. Agric.
, 9, 13, 2022,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-021-00281-0
.
2. Kumar, J., Ramlal, A., Mallick, D., Mishra, V., An overview of some biopesticides and their importance in plant protection for commercial acceptance.
Plants
, 10, 1185, 2021,
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061185
.
3. Boedeker, W., Watts, M., Clausing, P.
et al.
, The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: Estimations based on a systematic review.
BMC Public Health
, 20, 1875, 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0
.
4. Chaud, M., Souto, E., Zielinska, A., Severino, P., Alves, T., Nanopesticides in agriculture: Benefits and challenge in agricultural productivity, toxicological risks to human health and environment.
Toxics
, 9, 6, 131, 2021,
https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9060131
.
5. Hyde, K.D., Xu, J., Rapior, S.
et al.
, The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially.
Fungal Divers.
, 97, 1–136, 2019,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-019-00430-9
.
6. Shekhar, S., Sharma, S., Kumar, A., Taneja, A., Sharma, B., The framework of nanopesticides: A paradigm in biodiversity.
Mater. Adv.
, 2, 6569–658, 2021.
7. Akutse, K.S., Subramanian, S., Maniania, N.K., Dubois, T., Ekesi, S., Biopesticide research and product development in Africa for sustainable agriculture and food security - experiences from the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe).
Front. Sustain. Food Syst.
, 30, 2020,
https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.563016
.
8. El-Saadony, M., Abd El-Hack, M.E., Taha, A.E., Fouda, M.M.G., Ajarem, J.S., Maodaa, S.N., Allam, A.A., Elshaer, N., Ecofriendly synthesis and insecticidal application of copper nanoparticles against the storage pest
triboliumcastaneum
.
Nanomater. (Basel)
, 10, 3, 587, 2020.
9. Melanie, M., Miranti, M., Kasmara, H., Joni, M., Nanotechnology-based bioactive antifeedant for plant protection.
Nanomater.
, 12, 630, 2022.
10. Islam, S., Thangadurai, D., Adetunji, C.O., Micheal, O., Nwankwo, W., Kadiri, O., Anani, O., Makinde, S., Adetunji, J.B., Nanostructured biomaterials for targeted drug delivery, in:
Biogenic Nanomaterials
, pp. 83–108, Apple Academic Press, FL, USA, 2022.
11. Adetunji, C.O., Olaniyan, O.T., Okeke, N.E., Production of next-generation biodiesel from high yielding strains of microorganisms: Recent advances, in:
Sustainable Green Chemical Processes and their Allied Applications
. Nanotechnology in the Life Sciences. Inamuddin, A. Asiri (Ed.), Springer, Cham, 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42284-4_2
.
12. Jhala, Y.K., Panpatte, D.G., Adetunji, C.O., Vyas, R.V., Shelat, H.N., Management of biotic and abiotic stress affecting agricultural productivity using beneficial microorganisms isolated from higher altitude Agro-ecosystems: A remedy for sustainable agriculture, in:
Microbiological Advancements for Higher Altitude Agro-Ecosystems & Sustainability
, R. Goel, R. Soni, D. Suyal (Eds.), Rhizosphere Biology. Springer, Singapore, 2020,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1902-4_7
.
13. Adetunji, C.O., Samuel, M.O., Adetunji, J.B., Oluranti, O.D., Corn silk and health benefits, in:
Medical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutics, Forensic Science and Bioinformatics
, pp. 167–178, CRC Press, FL, USA, 2022.
14. Olaniyan, O.T., Adetunji, C.O., Adetunji, J.B., Oloke, J.K., Olaleye, O.O., Hefft, D.O., Ubi, B.E., Soy-based food products consumed in Africa: A panacea to mitigate food insecurity and health challenges, in:
Fermentation and Algal Biotechnologies for the Food, Beverage and Other Bioproduct Industries
, pp. 87–103, CRC Press, FL, USA, 2022.
15. Adetunji, C.O. and Oyeyemi, O.T., Antiprotozoal activity of some medicinal plants against entamoebahistolytica, the causative agent of amoebiasis, in:
Medical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutics, Forensic Science and Bioinformatics
, pp. 341–358, CRC Press, FL, USA, 2022.
16. Adetunji, C.O., Panpatte, D.G., Jhala, Y.,
Microbial rejuvenation of polluted environment
, vol. 3, Springer Nature, Singapore, 2021.
17. Adetunji, C.O., Michael, O.S., Nwankwo, W., Anani, O.A., Adetunji, J.B., Olayinka, A.S., Akram, M., Based drugs derived from medicinal plants, in:
Green Synthesis in Nanomedicine and Human Health
, vol. 103, 2021.
18. Dauda, W.P. and Ubi, B., Nutritional and health benefits of nutraceutical beverages derived from cocoa and other caffeine products: A comprehensive review, in:
Fermentation and Algal Biotechnologies for the Food, Beverage and Other Bioproduct Industries
, pp. 105–118, CRC Press, FL, USA, 2022.
19. Adetunji, C.O., Olaniyan, O., Adetunji, J.B., Osemwegie, O., Ubi, B.E., African mushrooms as functional foods and nutraceuticals, in:
Fermentation and Algal Biotechnologies for the Food, Beverage and Other Bioproduct Industries
, pp. 233–251, CRC Press, FL, USA, 2022.
Note
*
Corresponding author
:
2Application of Plant-Based Nanobiopesticides That Could Be Applied as Fumigants
Kehinde Abraham Odelade1*, Babatunde Oluwafemi Adetuyi1, Oluwakemi Semiloore Omowumi1, Nafisat Adeola Moshood1,Dorcas Anuoluwapo Adeleke1, Grace Onuwabhagbe Odine1and Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji2
1Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Precious Cornerstone University, Ibadan, Nigeria
2Applied Microbiology, Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Edo University Iyamho, Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria
Abstract
Production of crops and farm products has reduced drastically over the years. This has been traced down to the infestation of pests and insects on the crops right on the field. Most of these pests are called plant pathogens. However, several methods have been utilized to eradicate or kill these pests or insects on the field; this is done so as to improve the production of crop. One of those methods includes the utilization of synthetic pesticides. The use of chemical pesticides was however banned in 2015, despite the fact that it shows good pesticidal activity. Chemical pesticides became illicit as a result of the negative impact they exert on both the environment and human health. Production of pesticides from natural substances or microorganisms is called biopesticides. The use biopesticides then replace chemical pesticides due to its minimal adverse effects, high efficacy and potential target specificity. Moreover, nanotechnology was integrated to the production of biopesticides, which give rise to nanobiopesticides. Nanobiopesticides are appealing for usage because of their properties, such as greater solubility, steadiness, huge surface-area-to-volume proportion, mobility, enhanced efficiency, decreased toxicity, and small size. Because of their low toxicity, they are highly recommended. These nanobiopesticides can be synthesized through various ways and can also be applied in pest management. The full knowledge of the application of plant-based nanobiopesticides as fumigant has not been fully known, but few of the applications are discussed in this study.
Keywords: Nanobiopesticides, fumigants, nanotechnology, pesticides, biopesticides, biodegradability, pests, ecofriendly
2.1 Introduction
Lack of foods has been a major concerned in the world today, as the population is growing steadily to about 7.7 billion. This occurred as a result of the natural challenges (both living and nonliving), which include pests, infections, and weeds [1]. There are over 65,000 types of pests recorded in time past. These pests are also referred to as plant pathogens and they include fungi, weeds and arthropods [2]. It has been estimated that pest poses a lot of losses on crops. These losses are estimated as thus; 10%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, and 50% losses in wheat crops, sugar, rice, pulses, oil seeds and cotton respectively. About USD 2000 billion has however been estimated to the crops loss annually which originated from pests and diseases [1]. However, this problem has paved way to a challenge in science, which is to improve the crops against pests without affecting the crop yields. Synthetic pesticides have been used to enhance the inhibition of pests for a good crop production [3] and they have been of great interest due to their large scope of usefulness in the control of insects and their potential to eliminate the presence of pests in agricultural ecosystem. Biopesticides are derived from plants and the secondary metabolites produced by plants, which include glycoalkaloids, organic acids, and alkaloids. All these have been identified as a potential origin of plant effecting pests [4–15].
Pesticides are divided into different groups and they include pesticides produced from chemical compounds, pesticides produced from biological activities (biopesticides), synthetic pesticide, pesticides synthesized from microbes, plant-incorporated pesticides, and biochemical pesticides. Figure 2.1 shows the significance of nanotechnology in the production of nano-based biopesticides [35]. Different kinds of seeds and weeds are treated and controlled through the use of chemical pesticides. They can be delivered to plants directly or indirectly. Indirect delivery is done by spraying chemicals on plants. The utilization of synthetic pesticides was, however, banned in 2015, despite the fact that it shows good pesticidal activity. Chemical pesticides became illicit as a result of the negative impacts they exert on both the environment and human health. A good example is methyl bromide. Methyl bromide is a good chemical pesticide that has been used for over 4 decades to treat many crops such as strawberry, melon seeds, all varieties of peppers and tomatoes against pests, nematodes, and soil pathogens. However, methyl bromide contributes negativity to the depletion of ozone layer and this prompted to its ban according to the regulation given by Protocol by Montreal.
Likewise, different synthetic compounds utilized as pesticides, for example, dazomet and chloropicrin have additionally been suspended; this is because of the antagonistic impact on food and human well-being [16]. Insecticides produced from natural substances or microorganisms are named biological pesticides or biopesticides. Three different types of biopesticides exist, and they include plant-incorporated protectants, microbial biopesticides, and botanical pesticides [17]. Characteristics of biopesticides include minimal adverse effects, capacity to disintegrate fast, high efficacy, and potential target specificity. These characteristics, however, paved way for biopesticides to serve as an alternative to conventional insecticidal methods. A lot of substances that have been investigated as biopesticides include the fractions isolated from Clitoria ternatea, an alkaloid component called oxymatrine, stilbenes in grape cane, olive mill oil, and T. flavus [18]. Due to the negative influence biopesticides have on the human health status, it is advisable for its administration to be done with caution [19].
Figure 2.1 Significance of nanotechnology in the production of nano-based biopesticides. Source: Lade et al. [35].
Recently, a novel field called nanotechnology has gained special attention due to its application in multidisciplines. These include parasitology discipline, agriculture field, pest management, and pharmacology field [20]. Nanoparticles (NPs), a rapidly expanding area of nanotechnology, provide solutions to lots of natural challenges as a result of their cost effectiveness, tiny size (1–100 nm), wide surface area, and cost effectiveness. It has been established that novel nanocomposites can be produced using an effective equipment nanotechnology. This is done so as to prevent crops from pest infestation and also to enhance different crops varieties [21].
2.2 Types of Biopesticides
Biopesticides exist in various kinds and are characterized in accordance to the various factors, which include origin of extractions and sorts of atoms utilized for arrangement/preparation [22]. The different types of biopesticides are explained below.
2.2.1 Microbial Pesticides
Different organisms have been utilized for the synthesis of microbial pesticides. Microbial pesticide affects both entomopathogenic nematodes and distinct pest species. Bioinsecticides are known as the compounds or molecules that target the insects that affect crops, while bioherbicides are pesticides that have influence over weeds via microbes, like fungi. A wide range of research carried out on microbial pesticides has resulted to the detection of a huge quantity of biopesticides, and this has also created a great path for their marketability [22].
The effective utilization of Bacillus thuringiensis and a few species of other microbes driven to the disclosure of numerous modern species and strains of microbes, and their profitable poisons and destructiveness components that might be a benefit for the biopesticide business, and a few of these have been deciphered into saleable items as well [23]. Significant species of bacterial entomopathogens involve Pseudomonas sp., Chromobacterium sp., Yersinia sp., etc., whereas fungi contain the following Paecilomyces sp., Beauveria sp., Lecanicillium sp., Metarhizium sp., Hirsutella sp., Verticillium sp., and so on [24]. Other crucial makers of pesticides synthesized from microbes include baculoviruses which are species explicit and their infectious activity is related with the crystal-clear impediment bodies which are dynamic on pests (Lepidopteran caterpillars) [24].
2.2.2 Biochemical Pesticides
The normal happening products, which are utilized to manage pests via nonharmful instrument are called biochemical pesticides, although pesticides produced from chemical synthesis utilize engineered atoms that specifically destroy insects and pests. The characterization of biochemical pesticides into distinctive types depends on their function in the management of invasions of pests and insects by exploiting pheromones (semichemicals), natural pests’ growth regulator or plant fractions/oils. Figure 2.2 shows different categories of biopesticide [36].
2.2.3 Insect Pheromones
Insect pheromones are synthetic compounds made by pests and insects, which are mirrored for utility in managing pests within the coordinate’s pest management programs. These synthetic compounds are viable in disturbing pests mating to avoid the aim of mating, hence decreasing the quantity of pests offspring. The pests used in this mechanism behave as allocators of pheromones that had the chance to be bewildered because of the existence of semiochemical flumes dispersed in the environment. Insect semiochemicals are not genuine “insecticides” because they do not destroy pests but impact their olfactory structure, which influence their conduct [25]. An accurate record of the method of activity of pheromones was described by Ujváry [23]. Summarily, the receiving wires (antennae) of the seeing pests accumulate pheromones on the surface, which is further dispersed to the inner parts of sensilla via minute openings within the cuticula. When they entered, they are exchanged via the polar sensillum to the sensory receptor layers by semiochemical binding proteins. Hence, the semiochemical binds to a particular protein receptor, which changes the synthetic compounds signs to an increased electric signs by a second courier structure associated with neuronal apparatus [26].
2.2.4 Essential Oils and Plant-Based Extracts
Plant-based fractions and essential oils have developed as promising insect pest management options in contrast to chemical insecticides in recent years. Because they are generated out of vegetations and consist of a variety of active compounds, these insecticides are naturally occurring insecticides [27]. Essential oils and fractions obtained from plants have a variety of activity on insects, and this depends on the physiological qualities of insect spp. as well as the kind of vegetation: they can act as antifeedants, attractants or repellents. The plants extracts and essential oils can also disrupt respiration, hinder insect recognition of plant host, stop the process of laying eggs, and reduce adult development through larvicidal and ovicidal impacts [28–30]. Their make-up differs tremendously. In this context, notable models include lemongrass oil and neem, both of which are widely available in worldwide herbal markets. Some researchers found that the combination of neem oil with entomopathogenic microscopic organisms, such as Beauveria bassiana, was extremely effective against on sucking pests [29]. Nonetheless, it is crucial to decide the portion of azadirachtin constituent in neem oil in order not to destroy nonaim microorganisms [31]. For the successful control of the aimed pests without damaging nontarget pests, a comparable strategy must be devised for entomopathogenic fungi, which must be backed by supplementary laboratory bioassays, station, and/or field trials [32].
Figure 2.2 Different categories of biopesticide. Source: Abdollahdokht et al. [36].
2.2.5 Insect Growth Regulators
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) kill insects by inhibiting key essential processes needed for their survival. Besides, these molecules are extremely specific and less hazardous to microorganisms that are not targeted [26]. IGRs have lately been classified as chitin synthesis inhibitors and chemicals which get involved in the activity of the hormonal system of insects (that is, ecdysteroids and juvenile hormone analogs) based on their method of activity. Even while IGRs are not as lethal to adult insects as mosquitos, cockroaches, and fleas, they can also manage a wide range of insects, which include fleas, mosquitos, and cockroaches. Despite the fact that they are not harmful to people, they forestall proliferation, egg hatching, and shedding starting with one phase then onto the next in young insects, and when combined with different pesticides, they can destroy even the adult insects [33].
2.2.6 Genetically Modified Microorganisms Products
These synthetic compounds are made by genetically engineered microorganisms. The hereditary material is integrated in the plant, which is subsequently utilized to manufacture pesticides, also known as plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). Insecticidal proteins (or cry proteins) are original insecticidal plant-incorporated protectants brought into genetically modified plants with engineered genes from Bacillus thuringiensis soil bacteria [34]. Plant-incorporated protectants likewise necessitate the current status of research for continuous ecological fate evaluations of these particles, especially the RNAi-based PIPs [34], which would be discussed in a separate section.
2.2.7 Plant-Incorporated Protectants
PIPs are chemicals used to control pests, and they are produced by plants as well as the genes expected for the plant to create them [37]. A large number of pesticides being used include low molecular weights biochemical compounds (<0.5 kDa or 500 g∙mol−1). The ecological and insightful science of these pesticides and their possible effect on environmental and human well-being have all been well studied. While low molecular weight-chemical pesticides have overwhelmed the market, biopesticides are turning into a greater part of the pesticide business/market [38]. The worldwide market for every biopesticide is presently valued at USD 34 billion, representing generally 6% of the overall pesticide market. Plant incorporated protectants are also biopesticides; they are displayed straightforwardly in the tissues of genetically engineered crops, so as to shield and keep them from pests infestation, such as viruses and insects. This aspect majors on plant-incorporated protectants designed against insects as a result of the broad utilization of insecticidal plant-incorporated protectants all over the planet earth, and also the recent development of novel plant-incorporated protectants targeting insect pests [39]. PIPs are consumed by insect/pests when they feed on transgenic crop tissue. Double-stranded ribonucleic acid (dsRNA) plant-incorporated protectants and cry proteins within the gut of an insect have a variety of effects on insect development and mortality [40]. PIPs and cry protein bind to particular sense organ on epithelial cells present in insect midgut, enter the cell layer, and in the long run create transmembrane pores, resulting in the destruction of cell and pest mortality.
Cry proteins come in a variety of shapes and sizes, each with its own structure and toxicity, which is peculiar to certain insect groups. Cry1 proteins poison Lepidoptera (such as corn borer), and Cry3 proteins harm Coleoptera (such as the corn rootworm). Cry proteins are the originally produced insecticidal plant-incorporated protectants. PIPs for next-generation dsRNA have as of late been endorsed. The pest insect’s dsRNA PIPs are delivered into a target cell after consumption. Inside the cell, double stranded-RNA is separated to 20-nucleotide siRNA (small interfering RNA) atoms, which directs the insect’s inner RNAi (RNA interference) apparatus to break down the corresponding messenger RNA. The aimed mRNA is degraded, preventing it from being converted to fundamental insect proteins, resulting in sublethal consequences (e.g., reduced growth) or high mortality of pests (Figure 2.3). The corn rootworm also known as Diabrotica virgifera is aimed by the primary dsRNA PIP endorsed by the FDA. This is done by obstructing the significant vacuolar arranging protein, i.e., formulation of the Snf7 protein [41].
Figure 2.3 An organism that secretes a protein that is poisonous to some insect species. The Bacillus thuringiensis gene, which is responsible for the production of the toxin, can be transported to plants, which increases the resistance of the plants to the matching insect. Source: Abdollahdokht et al. [36].
2.3 Nanobiopesticides
Nanobiopesticides are appealing for usage because of their properties, such as greater solubility, steadiness, huge surface-area-to-volume proportion, mobility, enhanced efficiency, decreased toxicity, and small size. Because of their low toxicity, they are highly recommended. When sprayed directly to plants, chemical pesticides pose a significant danger to both the human and environment wellbeing. These threats can be mitigated by using pesticides that contain nanoparticles and nanocomposites in their formulations [42]. Nanobiopesticides are comprised in carriers that allow the precise dispensing of dynamic constituent to achieve the ideal effects in a specific climate. Penetrability, solubility, crystallinity, stiffness, biodegradability, and thermal stability are all improved when nanobiopesticides are added to polymers [43]. Nanobiopesticides have numerous benefits and superiority above biopesticides and conventional techniques. Biodegradability, ease of distribution to plants, ecologically friendly behavior, quick and desired results after utilization, and delayed release from the vector are only a few of the benefits [20].
Nanobiopesticides are an efficient transporter when paired with pesticides which can comfortably penetrate crops as a result of their tiny size. The photo toxicity of Ag-based NPs has been decreased through nanoencapsulation with biological compatible polyvinyl pyrrole molecules, and nanobiopesticides do not pose any toxicity on soil bacteria [44]. Nanobiopesticides have been found to comprise of auxiliary plant metabolites and their regulated metal oxide nanoparticles. According to the data, a lot of research has lately been done on nanobiopesticides; either pest are becoming resistant to synthetic pesticides, or a low quantity of insecticides are expired owing to significant human and ecological concerns. This circumstance, however, necessitates the development of new pesticides synthesized from plant extracts on the nanoscale in order to synthesize nanobiopesticides for the control of pest. Bacillus firmus and Bacillus sphaericus, which are utilized on diamond black moths, Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma harzianum, which are utilized on root rots and wilts, neem-based nanobiopesticides against whitefly, and Bacillus thuringiensis against israelensis are examples of various biopesticides that have been used on pests, yet they do not have the ability to inhibit pests [45].
2.4 Synthesis of Nanobiopesticides
There are different synthetic methodologies that can be utilized in the formulation of nanoparticles. These synthetic methodologies are costly, and the majority of the synthetic substances are made out of dangerous substances. This provokes incited scientists to redirect their attention regarding the utilization of organic strategies like plant extracts and microorganisms for the creation of nanoparticles. These biologically produced NPs are more secure than nanoparticles produced or formulated from chemical compounds [46]. The synthesis of nanobiopesticides is done at room temperature, and its procedure consumes low energy and power. It has been accounted for that the synthesis of nanobiopesticides is economy friendly and can likewise undergo a cycle to restore its usage [47]. A fascinating part of nanotechnology is the utilization of products produced from plants for the synthesis of nanobiopesticides. Polymers, which comprises of sugars or proteins, accommodates the trapped subdued nanoparticles (pesticides and nanoparticles) [48]. The entrapped nanobiopesticides are maintained and freed by the activities of the biodegradable polymers and cross-linking. The active synthetic compounds present in nanobiopesticides are liberated in a sequenced order to guarantee the life span of its pesticidal activity; this is made possible through the help of the trio structure known as cross-linking polymer, nanoparticles and active biopesticides [49]. The capability of nanobiopesticides to destroy pests can be known through the utilization of relative examination of the nanoparticles, biopolymers, plant extractbased metals, crude extract, and the synthesized nanobiopesticides. This can however be done through the evacuation of the active compounds in the crude extract from the nanobiopesticides. Nanobiopesticides can be synthesized with the utilization of silver nitrate salt (AgNO3). The silver nitrate salt can be reduced by the extract obtained from a plant named Aleo vera, and incorporated into a particular chitosan (which is a biopolymer) (Figure 2.4) [50].
Figure 2.4 Nanobiopesticides synthesis with the use of silver nitrate salt (AgNO3). Source: Lade and Gogle [50].
2.5 Different Methods Used in the Synthesis of Nanobiopesticides
There are lots of strategies accessible for the synthesis/formulations of nanobiopesticides. These techniques incorporate microwave oven, homogenization, high-pressure homogenization, mixing nanoparticles with APC, mixing in magnetic stirrer autoclave, ultra high-pressure homogenization, and so on. These large numbers of strategies are the least complex methods utilized in the synthesis nanobiopesticides. Other high level strategies utilized in nanobiopesticides synthesis include ball milling, electrospinning and grinding. However, only nanobiopesticides formulation and cross-linking in polymers through electro spinning method is examined here [50].
2.5.1 Electrospinning
The application of electrospinning techniques has been utilized in some areas or fields such as farming, pharmaceutical, clinical, and wound dressing.
2.5.1.1 Principle of Electrospinning
The electro spinning generates nanofibers out of the polymer which contains and directs the nanoparticles. The dissolved polymer was passed via syringes to obtained droplets at lower voltage. The melted polymer which was yielded at the collector because of the application of increased voltage by electrostatic force disappears or dissipates until it arrives at the collector to form nanofibers [50].
2.5.1.2 Fundamental Building Blocks of Electrospinning
These include (1) the injection needle siphon: this enables the melted solution move via the spinneret at a directed and consistent level. The spinneret is attached to the injection needle whereby the channeling polymer is processed, this happens in the syringe pump. (2) High-voltage system: the significant power that attracts nanofibers is the expanded voltage DC power. The anode and syringe’s needle is connected to the expanded voltage DC power supply, and the negative terminal is appended to a collector (metallic in nature) shielded with aluminum foil: 30 to 50 KV is commonly utilized in here. (3) Collector: this comprises of different conducting materials like aluminum. These conducting materials accept the electric charged fibers and place them on aluminum to constitute a nano fiber web. The collection agents can be revolving in nature or static in nature. Various kinds of collectors include grids, mesh, pin, gridded bars or parallel, wheel liquid bath, rotating rods [50].
Figure 2.5 Fundamental electrospinning setup and production of nanofiber. Source: Lade and Gogle [50].
2.5.1.3 Methods Used in Electrospinning
The synthesized nanobiopesticides are mixed together in a specific diluent and the conductor polymer is melted in the specific diluent. The nanobiopesticides and the diluent (which contains the polymers) are stirred in a shaker; the diluent is then introduced, electric charge is moved via the instrument and the fibers are collected in the collection agent. The end product is nanofibers of nanobiopesticides and polymers. Figure 2.5 shows the structure of nanofiber [51].
2.6 Possible Nanostructures
Various structures of nanobiopesticides have been synthesized and examined in many advanced countries. Figure 2.6 below shows the common conceivable nanostructures shapes utilized for the synthesis of nanobiopesticides using secondary metabolites obtained from plants. Discussion on these nanostructure-holding nanoparticles and APC is given below. Nanospheres: the active constituent is evenly dispensed in the polymeric matrix in this mass aggregate; nanocapsules: in this mass cluster, the active constituent is gathered in one mass (concentrated) close to the middle core and lined by the polymeric matrix; nanogels: a cross-linked polymer that has can possibly integrate increased the quantity of water; Micelles; this totality is composed in aqueous solution by atoms (which have hydrophobic and hydrophilic component) [49]; nanofibers: these are fibers with diameters within nano meter range produced out of various conducting polymers. Other possible nanostructures include layered biopolymers, dendrimer, liposomes, mesoporous silica, and liposomes.
Figure 2.6 Possible nanostructure obtained from different methods. Source: Nuruzzaman et al. [52].
2.7 Mechanisms of Nanobiopesticides
Efficient dispersion is required for nanoeffective synthesis in real-world utilizations. Water, fertilizers, and pesticides may now be used in an ecologically beneficial way because of the utilization of nanosensors and intelligent delivery structure. The utilization of satellite pictures of the field by farm managers helps them to easily locate and identify agricultural pests on the farm. It also helps in the collection of proof of pressure instigated by outrageous intensity of flood, heat and drought. To create a more accurate ecological model, nanomaterials and GPS would be coupled with satellite photos of farmlands. Farmers may now modify agricultural inputs consequently on account of this innovation. The detection of plant viruses and soil nutrients can be done through the utilization of nanosensors in the field, which allows for accurate plant management. Pesticides utility and contamination are limited when slow-release biopesticide present in the nanoparticles is delivered to their target [35].
Utilization of nanobarcode is another alternative used in the delivery mechanism of nanobiopesticides. A novel innovation called nanobarcode is being used to determine the quality/nature of farm produce. Various researchers from Cornell University utilized grocery barcodes to develop rapid, efficient, low-cost and easy approach for the detection of illnesses and diseases. Grocery barcodes were used to create this technique. Selffolding branching DNA structures can be used to scan these nanobarcodes or tiny probes using a microscope. A fluorescent color ratio can be utilized to recognize an illness biomarker on farm products or on the farm. Since nanobarcodes and microbe biomarkers are so viable, they ought to be identified by any fluorescent-based machine that has the potential of discovering illness or infection [53]. Microemulsion and nanoemulsion can improve the kinetic steadiness, optical translucency, solubility, and bioavailability of nanobiopesticides while reducing the emulsion size and viscosity [54]. The potential antimicrobial properties of incorporating Ag NPs into electrospun polyacrylonitrile fibers are fascinating. This approach could be utilized to betrap a dynamic constituent or a nanobiopesticide for utilization in insecticides or pesticides that are applied to the ground. An electrospun nanofibrous mat filled with nanobiopesticides is electrospun into the soil and then discarded to kill the soil-borne insect [55].
The utilization of nanoparticles for the conveyance of biopesticides and pesticides in the field encounter a few difficulties like many ecological perturbations, the huge regions under spray coverage, and expense viability. In the standard spraying system, the entire plant is sprinkled with the synthetic compound for easy utilization including a low-value preparation, high-volume, while nanomaterial-based preparations are supposed to include high-value utilization and low-volume. This monitored nanoparticle delivery structure needs an aimed released method zeroed in on utilizing information of the conduct and life cycle of the pest or pathogenic microbes [56]. The overall utilization of nanobiopesticides to crops for pest management is displayed in Figure 2.7. These nanopesticides can comprise of biological constituents (like polymers) and/or chemical constituents (like metal oxides) in different structures like particles and micelles, nanofibers, nanogels, or nanocapsules [49]. The nanobiopesticides are utilized on crops to manage the insects or pests and also to protect the plants. Notwithstanding, the impacts of these nanobiopesticides on insects and plants, have not been deeply known. It is crucial to decide biopesticide formulation toxicity for nontoxic-limit concentrations.
Figure 2.7 Delivery mechanism of nanobiopesticides in crop for pest management. Source: Lade and Gogle [35].
2.8 Possible Action of Nanobiopesticide
The biopesticides can be combined and mixed with known polymers via encapsulation for successful activity and the slow-release mechanism. When the levels of light and other explicit factors like moisture, temperature, pH or water are achieved, the splitting of the biological polymer (such as poliglusam) and slow delivery of nanoparticles as well as pesticides (like biocides) may happen. This particular circumstance permits dissipation or debasement of the poliglusam polymer and delivers the acting nanobiopesticides in the atmosphere, soil and plants. These nanoformulations are by and large normal to different pesticides which have the benefit of expansion in the obvious solvency of an inadequately dissolvable active constituent and delivering the bioactive constituent in a gradual way, and additionally safeguarding the bioactive constituent against untimely desement [57]. These nanobiopesticides influence pests or insects infesting plants, though the polymers are nonharmful and are degenerated after releasing the nanoparticles.
2.8.1 Safe Target Delivery of Pesticides
Recently, new research on the useful control release of conventional pesticides formulations have emerged due to its limitation. Controlled pesticide release structures are utilized on farmlands to manage a particular pest through the selection of a proper and relevant result channel. The use of a smart innovation that screens and delays pesticide release seeks to reduce pesticide demand in crops and also allows for more efficient use of pesticides over the long run [58].
2.8.2 Nanopesticides
Research has shiwn that engineered nanoparticles possess the capability to be used and deployed as pesticide carriers. Various formulations that may be utilized to enhance the effectiveness of present-day pesticides active ingredients or their ecological security have also been proposed. This range of formulations include nanoencapsulations, nanoemulsions, nanofibers, nanogels, nanovesicles [59].
2.8.3 Nanoemulsion
AIs dispersed in the oil and water produce a biphasic dispersion system is called a nanoemulsion [60]. This structure is kinetically stable and has a translucent/transparent appearance due to the size of the nanometer drops (20 nm–200 nm) [61]. An oil-in-water (O/W) dissipitation of pesticides can melt weakly water-soluble insecticides into minute oil drops, considerably enhancing their bioavailability and adequacy [62]. Moreover, as compared to standard pesticide formulations, nanoemulsion greatly limits the utilization of organic solvents and surfactants, and has obtained a lot of attention from scientists lately [63]. A group of researchers, for instance, gave a nanoemulsion solution, which contains ecological acceptable surface-active agents, esterified fats, and 41% (w/w) glyphosate isopropyl amine herbicide [63]. The characteristics of nanoemulsion, which incorporate little molecule size (< 200nm) and reduced surface tension than the cationic surfactant system (RoundupR), empowers the drops to be disseminated and deposited similarly on the leaves with decreased contact point, which results in great spreading, wetting and saturation. The nanoemulsion formulations had a much lower effective dosage 50 (ED50) than RoundupR, which implies that they were more organically efficient. A group of scientists made an avermectin B1-loaded nanoemulsion with 2% avermectin B1, 5% polyethylene glycol castor oil, and 7.5% of organic compound solvent that met the Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) quality markers [61
