Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology, Volume 3 E-Book
168,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Handbook of Agricultural Bionanobiotechnology
- Sprache: Englisch
Handbook of AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY This book provides state-of-the-art information about recent advancements in the application of nanobiofungicides for effective management of post-harvest diseases and agricultural fungal diseases, including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts. The book details the formulation and standardization of nanobiofungicides, as well as their application in the management of biotic and abiotic stress. It provides relevant information on the isolation, characterization, purification, and structural characterization of active constituents, using spectroscopic techniques and explains the quarantine and regulatory issues that are associated with nanobiofungicides (derived from plants and other biogenic sources), as well as various regulatory bodies that manage the control of pesticides on agricultural products. Readers will learn about the application of nanobiofungicides when applied as a biocontrol agent against soil-borne and root-borne plant pathogens; the management of mycotoxin; the non-target effect of plant-based nanobiofungicides when applied in the greenhouse and field (such as rate of CO2 evolution, organic carbon content, enzymatic activity, acidic and alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenases, urease, and protease); and the effect on soil microorganisms using different assay techniques. Furthermore, the book provides information on several plant materials that could serve as nanobiofungicdes, and explains the procedure involved in the characterization of plant-based nanobiofungicides (using TEM, SEM, XRD, EDX, UV, zeta potential, dynamic light-scattering). Finally, it offers a specific illustration on the application of microencapsulation and nanoformulation technology in the synthesis of plant-based nanobiofungicides. Audience The book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, microbial biotechnologists, farmers, policymakers, and extension workers.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 381
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Introduction to Nanobiofungicides
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Mechanism of Action of Nanobiofungicides
References
2 Relevance of Nanobiofungicides in the Prevention of Abiotic Stress
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fungicides
2.3 Biofungicides
2.4 Nanoparticles as Applied to Biofungicides
2.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
3 Management of Mycotoxins
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Effect of Mycotoxin Contamination on Fish
3.3 Effect of Mycotoxin Contamination on Edible Insects
3.4 Management of Mycotoxins
3.5 Physical Methods
3.6 Chemical Methods
3.7 Biological Methods
3.8 Recent Methods for Detection and Management of Mycotoxins
3.9 Conclusion
References
4 Nanobiofungicides Derived from Beneficial Plants
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Various Types of Nanoparticles Used as Biofungicides
4.3 Forms of Nanomaterials
4.4 Advantages of Biofungicides on Chemically Synthesized Fungicides
4.5 Mode of Action of Nanobiofungicides
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Characterization of Plant-Based Nanobiofungicides
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Role of Plant-Based Nanofungicides in the Management of Plant Diseases
5.3 General Physicochemical Properties of Nanofungicides
5.4 Recent Studies on Characterization of Plant-Based Nanobiofungicides Using Various Instrumental Techniques
5.5 Characterization Techniques for Nanofungicide and Their Principles
5.6 Conclusion
References
6 Relevance of Nanofungicides on the Social and its Bioeconomy Perspectives in Attaining Sustainable Development Goals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fungi as Efficient Mycosystems
6.3 Literature Review
6.4 Nanofungicides’ Influence on the Establishment of Sustainable Development Goals
6.5 Conclusion
References
7 Biological Control of Stored Product Pest and Pathogens Using Nanobiofungicides
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biopesticides
7.3 Nanotechnology
7.4 Nanoparticles and Pathogenesis: A Step in Advance Plant Disease Surveillance and Control
7.5 Penetration, Transport, and Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles
7.6 Metal Nanoparticles Used in Plant Pathology
7.7 Regulatory Laws and Commercial NPs Goods
7.8 The Use of NPs as a Means of Achieving the SD2030 Goal of Sustainable Agriculture
7.9 Insecticides Based on Nanomaterials
7.10 Agriculture and Nanomaterials
7.11 Nanopesticide
7.12 Nanotechnology’s Potential Applications in the Pesticides Industry
7.13 Exposure to Nanotechnology-Based Pesticides (NBPs) Requires Special Attention
7.14 Pesticides Using Nanoscale Materials are Regulated by the EPA
7.15 Future Expectations
7.16 Conclusion
References
8 Next-Generation Bionanofungicides Against Agricultural Pathogens
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Pathogens: Soil-Borne and Root-Borne Plant Pathogens
8.3 Types of Botanicals Used as Biofungicides
8.4 Past and Current Scenario of Bionanofungicides
8.5 Future Prospects
8.6 Conclusion
References
9
Eleusine indica
: Nanofungicidal and Other Biological Activities
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Role of
Eleusine indica
in Nanobiotechnology
9.3 Fungicidal Activity of
Eleusine indica
9.4 Bioactivity of
Eleusine indica
9.5 Other Biological Effects of
Eleusine
indica
9.6
Eleusine indica
: Hypogycemic, Hypolipidemic, Hepatoprotective, and Antimicrobial Effects
References
10 Nanofungicidal and Other Activities of Cyclopiagenistoides
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fungicidal Activities of
Cyclopiagenistoides
10.3 The Role of Cyclopiagenistoides-Synthesized Flavonoids in Nanotechnology
10.4 Bioactivity
10.5 Hypogycemic, Hypolipidemic, Hepatoprotective, and Anti-Ulcer Effects
References
11
Citrullus lanatus
(Thunberg) Matsumura and Nakai: Nanofungicidal and Other Biological Activities
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Brief Description of
Citrullus lanatus
11.3 Antifungal Effects of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) Produced from
Citrullus lanatus
11.4 Antifungal Activity of
Citrullus lanatus
11.5
Citrullus lanatus
as an Antibacteria
11.6
Citrullus lanatus
as an Antivirus
11.7
Citrullus lanatus
as an Antipyretic Agent
11.8 Cardiovascular Effects of
Citrullus lanatus
11.9 Effect of
Citrullus lanatus
on the Nervous System
11.10 Anticancer Effects of
Citrullus Lanatus
11.11 Lycopene Antioxidant Effects of
Citrullus lanatus
11.12 Apoptotic Effects of Lycopene
11.13 Cell Cycle Arrest
11.14 Lycopene and Signaling Pathway
11.15 Metastasis
11.16 Anti-Diabetic Activity of
Citrullus lanatus
11.17 Anti-Ulcer Effects of
Citrullus lanatus
11.18 Hypoglycemic, Hypolipid, and Hepatoprotective Effects
11.19 Diuretic and Anti-Urolithiatic Activities
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Summary of Mycotoxins, their sources, and effects.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Fungicidal properties of essential oils of some plants.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Chemical structures of some phenols in plants.
Figure 8.2 Chemical structure of coumarin.
Figure 8.3 Chemical structure of eugenol.
Figure 8.4 Chemical structure of cinnamaldehyde.
Figure 8.5 Chemical structure of carvacrol.
Figure 8.6 Chemical structure of thymol.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The picture of
Eleusine indica.
Figure 9.2 Numerous bioactives and pharmacology of medicinal plant
E. indica.
...
Figure 9.3 The structure of two important pharmacological compounds of
E. indi
...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 The different parts of
Citrillus latanus.
Figure 11.2 Some pharmacologically active compounds in
C. lanatus
associated w...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
ii
iii
iv
xi
xiv
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology
Volume III Nanofungicides
Edited by
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
and
Julius Kola Oloke
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-83616-2
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
This book provides state-of-the-art information about recent advancements in the application of nanobiofungicides for effective management of post-harvest diseases and agricultural fungal diseases, including blights, mildews, molds, and rusts. Additionally, it explains several methods for preventing pests and pathogens during storage, transportation, and handling of stored products. Furthermore, it thoroughly details the formulation and standardization of nanobiofungicides, as well as their application in the management of biotic and abiotic stress.
The chapters herein provide relevant information on the isolation, characterization, purification, and structural characterization of active constituents, using NMR, HPLC, TLC, and FTIR. This book explains the quarantine and regulatory issues that are associated with nanobiofungicides (derived from plants and other biogenic sources), as well as various regulatory bodies that manage the control of pesticides on agricultural products.
Readers will gain a wide range of knowledge about nanobiofungicides. They will learn about the application of nanobiofungicides when applied as a biocontrol agent against soil-borne and root-borne plant pathogens; the management of mycotoxin (specifically aflatoxin, citrinin, ochratoxin, fumonisins, ochratoxin, and patulin); the non-target effect of plant-based nanobiofungicides when applied in the green house and field (such as rate of CO2 evolution, organic carbon content, enzymatic activity, acidic and alkaline phosphatase, dehydrogenases, urease, and protease); and the effect on soil microorganisms using different assay techniques.
Also included here is a deep dive into the commercialization and the availability nanobiofungicides in the market, as well as their application in field, greenhouse, and laboratory trials. Furthermore, this book provides information on several plant materials that could serve as nanobiofungicdes, and explains the procedure involved in the characterization of plant-based nanobiofungicides (using TEM, SEM, XRD, EDX, UV, zeta potential, dynamic light-scattering). Finally, it offers a specific illustration on the application of microencapsulation and nanoformulation technology in the synthesis of pant-based nanobiofungicides.
This book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including global leaders, industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, agricultural experts, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, environmental microbiologists and microbial biotechnologists, investors, innovators, farmers, policy makers, extension workers, educators, researchers, and many in other interdisciplinary fields of science. It also serves as an educational resource manual and a project guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as for educational institutions that seek to carry out research in the field of agriculture and nanotechnology.
I offer my deepest appreciation to all the contributors who dedicated their time and efforts to make this book a success. Furthermore, I want thank my co-editors for their effort and dedication during this project. Moreover, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the suggestions, help, and support of Martin Scrivener and the Scrivener Publishing team.
Professor Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji (Ph.D, AAS affiliate, FRSB (UK) FNYA; FBSN; FNSM, MNBGN)
Director of Research and Innovation, Edo State University, Uzairue, Nigeria
December, 2023
1Introduction to Nanobiofungicides
Frank Abimbola Ogundolie1* and Michael O. Okpara2
1Department of Biotechnology, Baze University, Abuja, Nigeria
2Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Abstract
Economic losses resulting from the plant pathogenic fungi have raised the concerns all over the world due to the wide loss it causes to yield and quality of agricultural products. This also affects the health of man. Attempts over the years in the management of this plant pathogens through use of synthetic fungicides has been observed to raise some serious health concerns ranging from environmental pollution to health challenges and recently, increased pest resistance been observed worldwide. Technology advancement in the area of plant protection today has resulted in a safer way of managing plant pathogenic fungi through the use of biological organisms to monitor their activities. Today, the use of nanoparticles based biofungicides to prevent plant pathogenic fungi is fast yielding positive and desirable results. In this chapter, we look into some nanoparticle based materials used in biofungicides.
Keywords: Pathogens, nanobiofungicides, fungi, nanoparticles, diseases, mode of action
1.1 Introduction
Plant fungal infections are among the major causes of economic loss in food production by crop plants of economic importance. Plant fungal pathogens are reported to be responsible for the destruction of about one-third of crop produce amounting to USD 60 billion annually [1, 2]. Therefore, inhibiting the growth/survival of plant fungal pathogens will be critical to achieving global food security, safety, and sustainability. However, measures to control the destructive activities of plant fungal pathogens are quite limited; and with the steady rise in world population, food scarcity may become a global challenge in the future. Consequently, tackling the food-destroying impact of plant fungal pathogens will require an innovative approach or method [3, 4].
Nanobiofungicides are biological organisms or products of biological organisms – with a size below 100 nm – that exhibit fungicidal activity against plant pathogenic fungi. These biological organisms can include animals, plants, bacteria, or fungi provided the biological organism or its product can inhibit the growth/survival of pathogenic fungi or their spores. The production and utilization of nanobiofungicides for controlling plant pathogenic fungi is an emerging field that has proved to be more advantageous for food security than the use of artificially synthesized fungicides. Unlike the synthetic fungicides which the world has largely depended on over the years, nanobiofungicides are mostly bacteria and fungi that are ubiquitous in the soil. Moreso, nano-based bio fungicides are more precise in targeting plant pathogenic fungi compared to synthetic fungicides. As described by Kookana et al., [5], nanobiofungicides are generally ecofriendly while being toxic to plant pathogenic fungi.
The mode of action of nanobiofungicides vary from one organism to another and could be any of the following: (1) secretion of chemicals/antibiotics or metabolites or enzymes that are harmful to plant pathogens, (2) outcompeting plant pathogens for available soil nutrients, (3) activation of the plant’s immune response against fungal diseases, (4) secretion of fungicidal nanoparticles, or (5) mycoparasitism.
1.2 Mechanism of Action of Nanobiofungicides
Nanobiofungicides, like other biocides, are critical for the control and/or destruction of unwanted fungi and their spores. The mechanism of action of nano bio fungicides varies and depends on factors like the antagonistic association between the fungicide-producing organism and the parasitic fungi, the concentration of nano bio fungicide applied, stimulation of metabolic change in the parasitic microbes and so on. To inhibit the destructive activities of plant fungal pathogens, nanobiofungicides must be able to secrete antibiotics, act as an antagonizing organism to the pathogen, secrete nanoparticles with fungicidal properties, or stimulate disease resistance mechanism in the plant. And with the advances made in nanotechnology so far, the delivery of bio fungicides to the sites of action is even now more precise.
Bacteria species such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus velezensis, and Bacillus pumilus [6, 7] and fungi species such as Trichoderma harzianum [8, 9], Trichoderma viride, and Trichoderma virens [10] are some examples of micro-organisms that possess biofungicidal properties and can be applied to plants to control and/or destroy parasitic pathogens. Some other microbes belonging to this class are pathogenic [9, 11].
Trichoderma spp. are among the most well-investigated and most promising bio fungicides for controlling the parasitic activities of plant pathogenic fungi. Trichoderma harzianum, Trichoderma virens and Trichoderma viride are three species of Trichoderma that are widely applied and commercially available bio fungicides [12].
Trichoderma harzianum has been applied as a bio fungicide against plant pathogenic fungi like Rhizoctonia solani in pepper plants [13], cotton, tobacco plants [14], peanuts [15, 16] and rice [17]. It has also been applied against Macrophomina phaseolina in eggplant [18], Fusarium oxysporum in melon plants [19] and Phytophthora erythroseptica in tomato and potato [20]. Trichoderma virens has been shown to possess biofungicidal activity against plant pathogenic fungi like Sclerotium rolfsii [21], Phytophthora erythroseptica [20] and Rhizoctonia solani [21] in tomato plants. Trichoderma viride has been reported to show biofungicidal activity against plant pathogenic fungi like Rhizoctonia solani in tomato plants and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in cowpea plants [21]. Herein, Trichoderma spp. will be used to describe the general modes of action of nanobiofungicides.
One of the modes of action of bio fungicides like Trichoderma sp. is to grow around the plant’s root, possess the rhizosphere and prevent the growth or survival of parasitic fungal pathogens without affecting the activities or survival of the plant’s symbionts. In their study, Wojtkowiak-Gębarowska and Pietr [22] demonstrated that Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride efficiently colonized the root systems of cucumber and inhibited the growth of plant pathogenic fungi Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Fusarium culmorum [22, 23].
Furthermore, the occupation of the plant’s root by Trichoderma spp. stimulates the plant’s immune response against pathogens through the production of different defense-related chemicals like alkaloids, phenolics and terpenoids. These chemicals are produced in different locations on the plant and as such, the plant’s defense mechanism stimulated by Trichoderma spp. in the root can also have a protective effect on other plant parts. For instance, Trichoderma asperellum has been demonstrated to exhibit a protective effect on tomato plants against Botrytis cinerea [24]. Botrytis cinerea is an airborne necrotrophic fungus found on the leaves of a wide range of economically important oil, fiber, protein, vegetable, and horticultural plants [25–28].
Trichoderma spp. are also very strong parasites against many plant pathogenic fungi and this property are being exploited by agriculturalists in applying Trichoderma spp. as bio fungicides. Upon their application to the soil as bio fungicides, Trichoderma spp. locate and get attached to plant pathogenic fungi. Then they disrupt the parasite’s cell wall to gain entry by secreting cell wall degrading enzymes like cellulases, proteases, chitinases, and glucanases [29, 30]. However, the mode of cell wall degradation differs from one Trichoderma sp. to another [31–33]. While inside the plant pathogenic fungi, Trichoderma spp. act as mycoparasites by absorbing the nutrients of the plant pathogenic fungi and eventually causing their death [34].
Trichoderma spp. also secretes volatile and non-volatile compounds that are toxic to parasitic fungi and inhibit fungal mycelia growth. Trichoderma spp. has been reported to produce metabolites and/or antibiotics – such as alamethicins, tricholin, massoilactone, harzianic acid, 6-pentyl-α-pyrone, polyketides, terpenoids, heptelidic acid, and gliovirin among others which are toxic to plant pathogens [35, 36]. However, the kind of toxic compounds produced by Trichoderma spp. differ from one species to another.
Unlike many plant pathogenic fungi, Trichoderma spp. can obtain energy from complex cell wall components of fungi (chitin) and plants (cellulose) through the secretion of chitinase and other cell wall degrading enzymes [31, 32]. Thus, while most plant pathogenic fungi die from starvation, Trichoderma spp. can survive for a longer time after outcompeting the plant pathogenic fungi for available soil nutrients. This trait is also exploited by agriculturists in the application of Trichoderma spp. as a bio fungicide.
Production of fungicidal nanoparticles is another mechanism adopted by nanobiofungicides for inhibiting the growth/survival of plant fungal pathogens. Trichoderma harzianum has been reported to produce Ag, ZnO, and CuO nanoparticles which were further demonstrated to possess anti-fungal activities against some plant fungal pathogens. In a recent study by Zaki et al. [37], they demonstrated that Trichoderma harzianum can produce fungicidal ZnO nanoparticles which were potent againstsoil-cotton fungal pathogens by inhibiting their growths and spores’ formation. In a different study, Consolo and her colleagues [38] demonstrated that Trichoderma harzianum can produce Ag, CuO, and ZnO nanoparticles with anti-fungal activities against Alternaria alternata and Pyricularia oryzae [38].
The mechanism by which Ag nanoparticles inhibit the growth/survival of parasitic fungi are not yet fully known. However, it has been reported that the positive charges on Ag nanoparticles cause the cysteine-containing proteins on the cell membranes of pathogenic fungi to become porous thus allowing intracellular components of the fungi to be released from the cell and subsequently leading to the death of the pathogen [39, 40]. Once inside the cytoplasm of the pathogenic fungal, the positively charged Ag binds to negatively charged macromolecules (DNA and proteins) thus altering the structure and function of the macromolecules. In its ionic form, the Ag+ ion binds to phosphate ions in the pathogen’s DNA. Subsequently, this leads to the death of such pathogen because the DNA replication and protein expression in the pathogen is greatly affected [41]. Also, Ag+ ion nanoparticles damage the mitochondria of pathogenic fungi by the action of the reactive oxygen species it produces and also it can be destroyed by the generation of free radicals which affect the mitochondria. Some studies have shown that Ag+ ion nanoparticles can potentially damage the proton pump in pathogenic fungi thereby inhibiting the pathogen’s growth [42–44].
The mechanisms by which ZnO nanoparticles exhibit their fungicidal actions are quite like those of Ag nanoparticles. The charged ZnO nanoparticles can cause disruption and dysfunction of pathogenic fungal cell membrane which causes leakage of the pathogen’s cytoplasmic contents and the death of the pathogen [45–47]. ZnO nanoparticles also damage the mitochondria of pathogenic fungi by the action of the reactive oxygen species it produces and also it can be destroyed by the generation of free radicals which affect the mitochondria [45, 48, 49].
Perhaps, the most efficient means of fungicidal action by CuO nanoparticles is through the formation of reactive oxygen species. Due to its small size, CuO nanoparticles can penetrate the cell membrane of the pathogen into the cytoplasm where the nanoparticles could be oxidized to Cu2+ ions and produce ROS causing oxidative stress and damage to the pathogen’s mitochondria. Furthermore, Cu2+ ions can compete with and displace other metal ions in metalloproteins thereby altering the structure and function of the metalloprotein [50, 51].
References
1. Avery, S.V., Singleton, I., Magan, N., Goldman, G.H., The fungal threat to global food security.
Fungal Biol.
, 123, 8, 555–557, 2019.
2. Kettles, G.J. and Luna, E., Food security in 2044: How do we control the fungal threat?
Fungal Biol.
, 123, 8, 558–564, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2019.04.006
.
3. Adetunji, C.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Olaniyan, O.T., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Titilayo, O., Ghazanfar, S., Ijabadeniyi, O.A., Ajiboye, M.D., Ajayi, O.O., Dauda, W.P., Nanobiomaterials for food packaging sensor applications, in:
Bio- and Nano-Sensing Technologies for Food Processing and Packaging
,
R. Soc. Chem
., pp. 167–180, 2022.
4. Adetunji, C.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Ajiboye, M.D., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Titilayo, O., Olaniyan, O.T., Ijabadeniyi, O.A., Ajayi, O.O., Dauda, W.P., Ghazanfar, S., Bio- and nanosensors in the food industry, in:
Bio- and Nano-Sensing Technologies for Food Processing and Packaging
,
R. Soc. Chem.
, pp. 22–36, 2022.
5. Kookana, R.S., Boxall, A.B.A., Reeves, P.T., Ashauer, R., Beulke, S., Chaudhry, Q., Van Den Brink, P.J., Nanopesticides: Guiding principles for regulatory evaluation of environmental risks.
J. Agric. Food Chem.
, 62, 19, 4227–4240, 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf500232f
.
6. Chen, H., Zhao, J., Jiang, J., Chen, S., Guan, Z., Chen, F., Zhao, S., Assessing the influence of fumigation and bacillus subtilis-based biofungicide on the microbiome of chrysanthemum rhizosphere.
Agric. (Switzerland)
, 9, 12, 1–13, 2019.
7. Stanojević, O., Berić, T., Potočnik, I., Rekanović, E., Stanković, S., Milijašević-Marčić, S., Biological control of green mould and dry bubble diseases of cultivated mushroom (
Agaricus bisporus
L.) by
Bacillus spp
.
Crop Prot.
, 126, 9, 1–9, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2019.104944
.
8. Mousumi Das, M., Aguilar, C.N., Haridas, M., Sabu, A., Production of bio-fungicide,
Trichoderma harzianum
CH1 under solid-state fermentation using coffee husk.
Bioresour. Technol.
, 15, 2, 1–9, 2021.
9. Adetunji, C.O., Inobeme, A., Tadso, J., Olaniyan, O.T., Abimbola, O.F., Shahnawaz, M., Anani, O., Potential of plastic waste in enhancing the level of pathogenicity of diverse pathogens in the marine biota, in:
Impact of Plastic Waste on the Marine Biota
, pp. 301–312, Springer, Singapore, 2022.
10. Zin, N.A. and Badaluddin, N.A., Biological functions of
Trichoderma spp.
for agriculture applications.
Ann. Agric. Sci.
, 65, 2, 168–178, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2020.09.003
.
11. Adetunji, C.O., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Olaniyan, O.T., RB Singh, K., Abimbola, O.F., Nayak, V., Singh, J., Singh, R.P., Microbial and plant cell bio-sensors for environmental monitoring, in:
Nanobiosensors for Environmental Monitoring
, R.P. Singh, K.E. Ukhurebor, J. Singh, C.O. Adetunji, K.R. Singh (Eds.), Springer, Cham, 2022.
12. Woo, S.L., Ruocco, M., Vinale, F., Nigro, M., Marra, R., Lombardi, N., Lorito, M., Trichoderma-based products and their widespread use in agriculture.
Open Mycol. J.
, 8, 1, 71–126, 2014.
https://doi.org/10.2174/1874437001408010071
.
13. Sid Ahmed, A., Ezziyyani, M., Pérez Sánchez, C., Candela, M.E., Effect of chitin on biological control activity of Bacillus spp. and
Trichoderma harzianum
against root rot disease in pepper (
Capsicum annuum
) plants.
Eur. J. Plant Pathol.
, 109, 6, 633–637, 2003.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024734216814
.
14. Gveroska, B. and Ziberoski, J.,
Trichoderma harzianum
as a biocontrol agent against Alternaria alternata on tobacco.
ATI-Applied Technologies & Innovations
, 7, 2, 67–76, 2012.
https://doi.org/10.15208/ati.2012.9
.
15. Rojo, F.G., Reynoso, M.M., Ferez, M., Chulze, S.N., Torres, A.M., Biological control by Trichoderma species of
Fusarium solani
causing peanut brown root rot under field conditions.
J. Crop Prot.
, 26, 4, 549–555, 2007.
16. Adetunji, C.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Titilayo, O., Olaniyan, O.T., Ijabadeniyi, O.A., Ajiboye, M.D., Ajayi, O.O., Dauda, W., Ghazanfar, S., Graphene-based nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery and tissue engineering, in:
Novel Platforms for Drug Delivery Applications
, pp. 277–288, Woodhead Publishing-Elsevier, UK, 2023.
17. Naeimi, S., Okhovvat, S.M., Javan-Nikkhah, M., Vágvölgyi, C., Khosravi, V., Kredics, L., Biological control of
Rhizoctonia solani
AG1-1A, the causal agent of rice sheath blight with
Trichoderma
strains.
Phytopathol. Mediterr.
, 49, 3, 287–300, 2010.
18. Ramezani, H., Biological control of root-rot of eggplant caused by Macrophomina phaseolina.
American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci.
, 4, 2, 218–220, 2008.
19. Bernal-Vicente, A., Ros, M., Pascual, J.A., Increased effectiveness of the
Trichoderma harzianum
isolates T-78 against
Fusarium wilt
on melon plants under nursery conditions.
J. Sci. Food Agric.
, 89, 5, 827–833, 2009.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3520
.
20. Etebarian, H.R., Scott, E.S., Wicks, T.J.,
Trichoderma harzianum
T39 and T. virens DAR 74290 as potential biological control agents for
Phytophthora erythroseptica
.
Eur. J. Plant Pathol.
, 106, 4, 329–337, 2000.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008736727259
.
21. Amin, F., Razdan, V.K., Mohiddin, F.A., Bhat, K.A., Banday, S., Potential of trichoderma species as biocontrol agents of soil borne fungal propagules.
J. Phytol.
, 2010, 10, 38–41, 20102010. Retrieved from
www.journalphytology.com
.
22. Wojtkowiak-Gębarowska, E. and Pietr, S.J., Colonization of roots and growth stimulation of cucumber by iprodione-resistant isolates of
trichoderma spp.
applied alone and combined with fungicides.
Phytopathol. Pol.
, 41, 1, 51–64, 2006.
23. Ayodeji, A.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Bamidele, O.S., Kolawole, A.O., Ajele, J.O., Raw starch degrading, acidic-thermostable glucoamylase from
Aspergillus fumigatus
CFU-01: Purification and characterization for biotechnological application.
J. Microbiol. Biotechnol.
, 6, 90–100, 2017.
24. Herrera-Téllez, V.I., Cruz-Olmedo, A.K., Plasencia, J., Gavilanes-Ruíz, M., Arce-Cervantes, O., Hernández-León, S., Saucedo-García, M., The protective effect of
trichoderma asperellum
on tomato plants against fusarium oxysporum and botrytis cinerea diseases involves inhibition of reactive oxygen species production.
Int. J. Mol. Sci.
, 20, 8, 1–13, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20082007
.
25. Elad, Y. and Stewart, A., Microbial control of botrytis spp, in:
Botrytis: Biology, Pathology and Control
, 1st ed., Y. Elad, B. Williamson, P. Tudzynski, N. Delen (Eds.), pp. 223–241, Springer, Dordrecht, 2007,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-2626-3_13
.
26. Adetunji, C.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Titilayo, O., Olaniyan, O.T., Ghazanfar, S., Ijabadeniyi, O.A., Ajiboye, M.D., Ajayi, O.O., Dauda, W., Nanotube platforms for effective drug delivery applications, in:
Novel Platforms for Drug Delivery Applications
, pp. 317–332, Woodhead Publishing, UK, 2023.
27. Ogundolie, F.A.,
Characterization of a purified β–amylase from black marble vine (Dioclea reflexa) seeds,
Doctoral dissertation, Federal University of Technology, Akure, UK, 2015.
http://196.220.128.81:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/4407
28. Adetunji, C.O., Ogundolie, F.A., Ajiboye, M.D., Mathew, J.T., Inobeme, A., Dauda, W.P., Adetunji, J.B., Nano-engineered sensors for food processing, in:
Bio- and Nano-Sensing Technologies for Food Processing and Packaging
,
R. Soc. Chem.
, pp. 151–166, UK, 2022.
29. Carsolio, C., Benhamou, N., Haran, S., Cortés, C., Gutiérrez, A., Chet, I., Herrera-Estrella, A., Role of the
Trichoderma harzianum
endochitinase gene, ech42, in mycoparasitism.
Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
, 65, 3, 929–935, 1999.
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.65.3.929-935.1999
.
30. Ogundolie, F.A., Ayodeji, A.O., Olajuyigbe, F.M., Kolawole, A.O., Ajele, J.O., Biochemical insights into the functionality of a novel thermostable β-amylase from
Dioclea reflexa.
Biocatal.
Agric. Biotechnol.
, 42, 102361, 2022.
31. Abu-Tahon, M.A. and Isaac, G.S., Anticancer and antifungal efficiencies of purified chitinase produced from
Trichoderma viride
under submerged fermentation.
J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol.
, 66, 1, 32–40, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.2323/jgam.2019.04.006
.
32. Moka, S., Singh, N., Buttar, D.S., Identification of potential native chitinase-producing
Trichoderma spp.
and its efficacy against damping-off in onion.
Eur. J. Plant Pathol.
, 161, 2, 289–300, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-021-02321-9
.
33. Silveira, A.A., Andrade, J.P.S., Guissoni, A.C.P., Barreto, L.P., Fernandes, E.K.K., Souza, G.R.L., Fernandes, K., Effect of cell wall degrading enzymes produced by
Trichoderma asperellum
on cuticle cattle tick
Boophilus microplus
.
J. Biotech.
, 280, January, S40, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2018.06.126
.
34. Bhat, K.A., A new agar plate assisted slide culture technique to study mycoparasitism of
Trichoderma sp.
on
Rhizoctonia solani
and
Fusarium oxysporium
.
Int. J. Curr. Microbiol.
, 6, 8, 3176–3180, 2017.
https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.608.378
.
35. Rivera, F.M., Paula Barros, E.B., Oliveira, A., Rezende, C.M., Leite, S.G.F., Production of 6-pentyl-α-pyrone by Trichoderma harzianum using brazilian espresso coffee grounds, in:
Flavour Science
, V. Ferreira and R. Lopez, (Eds.), pp. 619–622, Elsevier Inc., UK, 2014,
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-398549-1.00113-6
.
36. Adetunji, C.O., Abimbola, O.F., Singh, K.R., Olaniyan, O.T., Bodunrinde, R.E., Inobeme, A., Mathew, J.T., Singh, J., Singh, R.P., Microbe performance and dynamics in activated sludge digestion, in:
Microbial Community Studies in Industrial Wastewater Treatment
, pp. 99–112, CRC Press, USA, 2022.
37. Zaki, S.A., Ouf, S.A., Albarakaty, F.M., Habeb, M.M., Aly, A.A., Abd-Elsalam, K.A.,
Trichoderma harzianum
-mediated ZnO nanoparticles: A green tool for controlling soil-borne pathogens in cotton.
J. Fungi
, 7, 11, 1–20, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7110952
.
38. Consolo, V.F., Torres-Nicolini, A., Alvarez, V.A., Mycosinthetized Ag, CuO and ZnO nanoparticles from a promising
Trichoderma harzianum
strain and their antifungal potential against important phytopathogens.
Sci. Rep.
, 10, 1, 1–9, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77294-6
.
39. Durán, N., Durán, M., de Jesus, M.B., Seabra, A.B., Fávaro, W.J., Nakazato, G., Silver nanoparticles: A new view on mechanistic aspects of antimicrobial activity.
Nanomed.: Nanotechnol. Biol. Med.
, 12, 3, 789–799, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2015.11.016
.
40. Jo, Y.K., Kim, B.H., Jung, G., Antifungal activity of silver ions and nanoparticles on phytopathogenic fungi.
Plant Dis.
, 93, 10, 1037–1043, 2009.
https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-93-10-1037
.
41. Gogoi, S.K., Gopinath, P., Paul, A., Ramesh, A., Ghosh, S.S., Chattopadhyay, A., Green fluorescent protein-expressing Escherichia coli as a model system for investigating the antimicrobial activities of silver nanoparticles.
Langmuir
, 22, 22, 9322–9328, 2006.
https://doi.org/10.1021/la060661v
.
42. Mansoor, S., Zahoor, I., Baba, T.R., Padder, S.A., Bhat, Z.A., Koul, A.M., Jiang, L., Fabrication of silver nanoparticles against fungal pathogens.
Front. Nanotechnol.
, 3, 10, 1–12, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2021.679358
.
43. Xia, Z.K., Ma, Q.H., Li, S.Y., Zhang, D.Q., Cong, L., Tian, Y.L., Yang, R.Y., The antifungal effect of silver nanoparticles on
Trichosporon asahii
.
J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect.
, 49, 2, 182–188, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2014.04.013
.
44. Adetunji, C.O., Mathew, J.T., Singh, K.R., Bodunrinde, R.E., Inobeme, A., Olaniyan, O.T., Abimbola, O.F., Singh, J., Nayak, V., Singh, R.P., Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant genes in wastewater treatment plants, in:
Microbial Community Studies in Industrial Wastewater Treatment
, pp. 127–141, CRC Press, USA, 2022.
45. Gunalan, S., Sivaraj, R., Rajendran, V., Green synthesized ZnO nanoparticles against bacterial and fungal pathogens.
Prog. Nat. Sci.
, 22, 6, 693–700, 2012.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2012.11.015
.
46. Li, J., Sang, H., Guo, H., Popko, J.T., He, L., White, J.C., Xing, B., Antifungal mechanisms of ZnO and Ag nanoparticles to
Sclerotinia homoeocarpa
.
J. Nanotechnol.
, 28, 15, 1–10, 2017.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/aa61f3
.
47. Fadare, O.A., Omisore, N.O., Adegbite, O.B., Awofisayo, O.A., Ogundolie, F.A., Adesanwo, J.K., Obafemi, C.A., Structure based design, stability study and synthesis of the dinitrophenylhydrazone derivative of the oxidation product of lanosterol as a potential P. falciparum transketolase inhibitor and
in-vivo
antimalarial study.
In Silico Pharmacol.
, 9, 1, 1–16, 2021.
48. Arciniegas-Grijalba, P.A., Patiño-Portela, M.C., Mosquera-Sánchez, L.P., Guerrero-Vargas, J.A., Rodríguez-Páez, J.E., ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) and their antifungal activity against coffee fungus
Erythricium salmonicolor
.
Appl. Nanosci
.
(Switzerland)
, 7, 5, 225–241, 2017.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-017-0561-3
.
49. Navale, G.R., Thripuranthaka, M., Late, D.J., Shinde, S.S., Antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoparticles against pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
JSM Nanotechnol. Nanomed.
, 3, 1, 1–9, 2015.
50. Ogundolie, F.A.,
Cloning of α-amylase and pullulanase genes of bacillus licheniformis-FAO. CP7 from cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Pods and Biochemical Characterization of the Expressed Enzymes (Doctoral dissertation
, Federal University of Technology, Akure, 2021.
http://196.220.128.81:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/4548
51. Ingle, A.P., Duran, N., Rai, M., Bioactivity, mechanism of action, and cytotoxicity of copper-based nanoparticles: A review.
Appl. Microbiol. Biotech.
, 98, 3, 1001–1009, 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-013-5422-8
.
Note
*
Corresponding author
:
2Relevance of Nanobiofungicides in the Prevention of Abiotic Stress
Gloria Omorowa Omoregie1, Edokpolor Osazee Ohanmu2, Francis Aibuedefe Igiebor3, Yvonne Dike4, Chima James Rufus5, Esther Eniola6, Saheed Ibrahim Musa7, Emmanuel Ochoche Shaibu6 and Beckley Ikhajiagbe6*
1Department of Environmental Management and Toxicology, Federal University of Petroleum Resources, Effurun, Warri, Delta State, Nigeria
2Department of Biological Sciences, Edo State University Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria
3Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, Wellspring University, Benin, Nigeria
4Department of Botany, Ambrose Alli University, Edo State, Nigeria
5Department of Microbiology, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria
6Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria
7Department of Biology and Forensic Science, Admiralty University of Nigeria, Ibusa, Delta State, Nigeria
Abstract
When plants are grown in a poor environment, the demand placed on them becomes unavoidable. Plant stress is the term for this. If stress surpasses the plant’s tolerance limitations, it can result in growth delays, reduced agricultural yield, irreversible damage, or death. Abiotic and biotic stressors are both encountered by plants. Stress is typically linked to complex biological mechanisms including gene expression alterations and regulatory network changes. The quantity of force for a given unit area was represented by stress or pressure in the theory of elasticity. It is defined as “high pressure that disrupts normal processes of individual life” or “conditions that prevent plants from effectively expressing their genetic potential for growth, development, and reproduction.” Stress in plants refers to a situation in which a plant that is growing in an unfavorable or unhealthy state might have a negative impact on its development, crop output, reproductive capacity, or even death if the stress level exceeds the plant’s tolerance limits. Plants can recover rapidly when the stress is minor or only lasts a short time; however, when the stress is severe or lasts a long time, plants show inhibition in their development processes such as flowering, germination, and reproduction, resulting in the plant’s mortality. In addition, persisting stresses can be partially compensated for through acclimatization and maintenance, adaption, and intense or chronic events that may lead to cell death.
Keywords: Abiotic, plant, stress, nanobiofungicides, germination
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Biotic Stress
According to Atkinson and Urwin [1], biotic stresses (which include pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes, and herbivores) account for approximately 26.3%, 28.2%, 28.8%, 31.2%, 37.4%, 40.3%, and yield losses in the crops of soybeans, wheat, cotton, maize, rice and potatoes respectively. It is the most significant environmental stress element that emerges as a result of plant-to-plant communication, resulting in either partial injury that allows the plant to survive or total injury that causes plant death. Plants have evolved a number of adaptations to cope with such conditions in order to survive. They become involved when they sense a stressor in the environment and subsequently initiate the appropriate physiological responses. These cellular responses work by sending signals from cell surface or cytoplasmic sensors to the nucleus’ transcriptional machinery through a number of signal transduction routes. As a result, the plant goes through different transcriptional alterations, allowing it to endure the stress. Signaling pathways are important because they link the perception of a stressful environment with the physiological and biochemical responses that are needed [2].
2.1.2 Abiotic Stress
Drought, overwatering (water logging), frost, cold, and heat, salt, and toxicity of minerals all have an influence on plant physiological, biochemical, and metabolic activities, also plant development. Plants generate a range of defense mechanisms to protect themselves from abiotic stimuli in the environment; it may have a negative outcome on their growth and output. The following are the most common types of abiotic stress:
a) Salinity
b) Drought
c) Temperature
d) Flooding
2.1.2.1 Salinity
What exactly is salinity? Excessive soluble salts that restrict or degrade plant growth and, in certain situations, result in plant death is referred to as salinity. In a dry environment, it is part of the crucial abiotic factors affecting agricultural output [3]. Ion toxicity and osmotic stress are two significant effects of salt stress on crop plants. The osmotic pressure in plant cells surpasses the osmotic pressure in plant cells under salt stress, restricting the capacity of plants to absorb water and minerals including K+ and Ca2+. Salt stressors affect various plant characteristics such as physiology, morphology, anatomy, chemical composition, and water content of plant tissues [3]. Salinity is basically from two sources, which include:
Natural or primary sources include minerals weathering and soils formed by the decomposition of saline parent rocks [
4
].
Human-caused secondary salinization: Examples of human-caused secondary salinization include irrigation, deforestation, overgrazing, and intensive farming [
4
].
Different plants react to salt stress in different ways depending on their salt tolerance, and are often divided into two categories:
Halophytes: These are plants that are unaffected by increasing salinity. They’re well-known for having a unique salinity tolerance mechanism that allows them to flourish in saline soil with high salt concentrations. Excess salt is excreted by some halophytes through salt glands in their leaf cells, while others use salt hairs on their stems.
Glycophytes: Plants that cannot grow in salty environment but can survive in saline soil by accumulating sugar in the leaves and compartmentalizing the soil (checked from reaching to photosynthetic parts).
2.1.2.2 Drought
Drought is a lengthy period of below-average rainfall for a certain place as compared to the statistical mean. Abiotic stresses such as too much salt, flooding, insufficient rainfall, too much light, and temperature variations are just a few examples of abiotic stresses that can harm a plant’s overall health and development. When dryness threatens crop plants, their first reaction is to stop growing. Drought causes plants to slow their growth of shoots and lessen their metabolic demands. This condition causes plants to slow down their shoot growth and reduce their metabolic demands. Drought stress can have a variety of effects on soil-plant including:
Seedling growth and germination are hampered.
Inadequate vegetative development.
The ability to reproduce is significantly hampered.
Reduced plant height and leaf area
Leaf weight is significantly reduced.
The elimination of water causes changes in the structure of macromolecules.
The reduction of turgor pressure slows the rate of cell growth.
Photosynthesis is inhibited when mesophyll cells become dehydrated.
Stomatal closure is caused by a decrease in turgor.
2.1.2.3 Temperature
Temperature stress is a hazardous environmental condition that impairs plant development, resulting in low germination rates, growth retardation, reduced photosynthesis, and in extreme circumstances, mortality. Temperature stress, according to Greaves [5], is defined as a slight reduction in growth or induced metabolic, cellular, or tissue damage that confines the genetic variants yield of crops as an immediate impact of temperature extremes up or down thermal threshold levels for suitable physiological and biochemical activity or morphological development. Psychrophiles have an extreme temperature threshold of 15°C–20°C, mesophiles have an extremely high temperature limit of 35°C to 45°C, thermophiles have a high temperature cut-off of 45 to 100 degrees Celsius. Plants are classified as psychrophiles, mesophiles, or thermophiles based on their ability to withstand low, medium, or high temperatures [6]. Temperature stress is subdivided into the following categories:
1. Cold stress: Plants in temperate settings are subjected to severely stressful chilly and freezing weather. Plants can be influenced by long periods of relatively high temperature just as much as they can be influenced by brief intense periods heat, but the procedure for handling with these stresses vary. The following are some of the consequences of cold temperatures on plants:
Leaves have become discolored.
Flowering and plant growth are both delayed.
Extracellular ice production causes protoplast shrinkage.
Chlorophyll decomposition.
Inhibition of photosynthesis and degradation.
The levels of ABA and Jasmonic acid will rise when the temperature is low.
Gibberellic acid, ethylene, and cytokinin levels are all reduced when the temperature is low. As a result, all signaling will be disabled.
High Temperature or Heat
Stress Whenever vegetations are subjected to high temperatures or thermal stress and their seed germination, photosynthetic responsiveness, and returns all experience. High temperatures have varied effects on different plants.
The normal temperature is between 0°C and 40°C, whereas the stress temperature is above 40°C.
Some of the fallouts of heat stress on seedlings are as follows:
Flowering formation is being hampered.
The parching of the leaflet edges causes the blistering effect on the leaves.
The rate of plant growth has slowed.
Both photosynthesis and respiration are slowed.
Chloroplast enzymes become unstable and behave inappropriately.
The interaction between polar proteins within the membrane is weakened by membrane lipid fluidity.
Ion leakage can occur as a result of changes in membrane composition and structure, impacting pollen formation.
Tolerance to high temperatures.
Plants must be grown in a shady environment.
Overhead irrigation to avoid sunburn.
2.1.2.4 Flooding
Flooding stress is known as waterlogging, and the injurious expression are caused primarily by the plants’ lengthen vulnerability to asphyxia. In this situation, there is a water layer above the soil surface. This water layer might be thin or thick, submerging plants partially or fully. At the same water depth, the degree of plant submergence varies based on the developmental stage (e.g. seedlings vs. mature plants) and plant growth habit (e.g. creeping vs. upright plant growth), among other traits determining plant height. Every year, floods inundate enormous areas of rain-fed crops, peculiarly in South and Southeast Asia.
Aftermath of flooding includes:
Respiratory effects; In order to produce high-energy molecules, living plant tissues, including roots, depend upon oxygen for respiration. Almost every other biological reaction necessitates the presence of these substances. The entire respiratory process slows down when there is a lack of oxygen.
Plant respiration turns to a fermentation-like mechanism when oxygen levels are too low.
Photosynthesis effects; one of the first effects of root zone flooding is leaf stomatal closure. Flooding is thought to create hypoxia in roots, which causes ethylene biosynthesis and translocation to rise. This is due to the fact that internal tissue, such as the stele of the roots, is completely devoid of oxygen (anoxic), as opposed to peripheral cortical tissues, which have lower oxygen content (hypoxia).
2.1.3 Environment Stress and Fungal Effects
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi cast synergietic relationships with a variety of plant species, increasing soil structure and plant development in both normal and stressful conditions [7
