Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology, Volume 4 E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Handbook of Agricultural Bionanobiotechnology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 724

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

Handbook of AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY The book provides detailed information about the application of repellent products that contain plant-based ingredients known as nanobioinsecticides, including the pesticide evaluation scheme guidelines for repellent testing, relevant information about the procedures to evaluate several repellent compounds, the development of new products that offer high repellency, and guidelines for consumer safety. The chapters of volume IV of this set, focus on a wide range of related topics. They chronicle many traditional repellent plants that could be used in ethnobotanical studies and provides valuable insight into the development of new natural products. It outlines the standardization and numerous investigations used to affirm the level of repellent compounds from various plants. Furthermore, it details the safety, efficacy, and facts about plant-based repellent testing, and reviews new developments in the field. The book also explores the sustainable techniques involved in the structural elucidation and characterization of active constituents found in nanobioinsecticides, and gives relevant information on the use of essential oils, derived from plants, in the preparation of nanobioinsecticides. Audience The book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, microbial biotechnologists, farmers, policymakers, and extension workers.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 The Contribution of Ethnobotany to the Discovery of New Plant-Based Repellents

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Ethnobotany in the Discovery of New Plant-Based Repellents

1.3 Plant-Based Repellent

Acknowledgements

References

2 Nanobioinsecticide Derived from Essential Oils of

Cymbopogon nardus

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Materials and Methods

2.3 Root

2.4 Discussion

2.5 Conclusion

References

3 Nanobioinsecticides Derived from Neem-Based Preparations

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Conventional Farming and its Challenges

3.3 Insects

3.4 Pesticides

3.5 Nanotechnology

3.6 Biomaterials

3.7 Description of Neem

3.8 Farm Level Neem Bioinsecticide Preparation

3.9 Effects of Neem Compounds and Its Composites on Insects

3.10 Neem-Based Preparations

3.11 Conclusion and Future Perspectives

References

4 Nanoinsecticides Derived from Poaceae Family

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Nanobioinsecticides Derived from Poaceae

4.3 Some Examples of Essential Oils Applied in Different Studies

4.4 Effectiveness/Efficacy of Essential Oils from Several Plants

4.5 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils

References

5 Nanoinsecticides Derived from Pennyroyal-Containing Compounds

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Nanobioinsecticides Derived from Pennyroyal

5.3 Effectiveness/Efficacy of Essential Oils from Several Plants

5.4 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils

5.5 Conclusion

References

6 Nanobioinsecticide Derived from Thyme Oil

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Effectiveness/Efficacy of Oils from Several Plants

6.3 Mechanism of Action of Essential Oils

6.4 Conclusion

References

7 Nanobioinsecticides from Geraniol-Containing Compounds

7.1 Introduction

7.2 General Overview

7.3 Nanobioinsecticides Derived from Geraniol

7.4 Effectiveness/Efficacy of Essential Oils from Several Plants

References

8 Repellant Testing Methodology for Nanobioinsecticide

8.1 Introduction

8.2 The Antifeedant Management, Resources, and Reserve Capabilities of Nanotechnology-Based Antifeedant Delivery Systems for Insect Pest Control

8.3 Delivery System for Nanoparticle Antifeedant Formulation

8.4 Preventive Maintenance Dose (PMD) from Lemon Eucalyptus (

Corymbia citriodora

) Extract

8.5 Conclusion

8.6 The Way Forward

References

9 Nanobioinsecticide and Nanoemulsions: Recent Advances

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Insecticide

9.3 Bioinsecticide

9.4 Problems with Bioinsecticide

9.5 Mechanism of Action of Bioinsecticide

9.6 Nanotechnology

9.7 Nanoemulsion

9.8 Monomolecular Films

9.9 Multimolecular Films

9.10 Solid Particulate Films

9.11 Method of Nanoemulsion

9.12 Characterization of Nanoemulsion

9.13 Application of Nanoemulsion

9.14 Recent Advances in Nanobioinsectides and Nanoemulsion

9.15 Future Perspectives

9.16 Summary and Conclusion

References

10 Roles of Improved Formulations and Fixatives in the Development of Nanobioinsecticide

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Biopesticides in Organic Farming

10.3 Natural Pesticide Mechanisms

10.4 Antifeedants

10.5 Citronella

10.6 Neem

10.7 Naturally Occurring Oils and Emulsions

10.8 Fragrant Oils

10.9 Considerations for Repellent Testing Methodology

10.10 Several Misconceptions Regarding Natural or Plant-Based Repellents

10.11 Progress in Plant-Based Repellents that is Promising

10.12 Botanical Pesticide Formulations Nanotechnology Use

10.13 Conclusion

References

11 Plant-Based Repellent Evaluation and Development

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Plant-Based Repellents

11.3 Mechanism of Action

11.4 Development in Plant-Based Repellents

11.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

12 Techniques Involved in the Structural Elucidation and Characterization of Active Constituents That Could Serve as Repellent Products Containing Plant-Based Ingredients as Nanobioinsecticide

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Farming’s Use of Nano-Agrochemicals

12.3 Employing Natural Insecticides to Eradicate Serious Insects from Vegetable Crops

12.4 Effectiveness of Natural Pesticides in Practical Situations

12.5 Sustainability in Action: Natural Insecticides for Vegetable Crop Production

12.6 Conclusions

References

13 The Influence of Nanoinsecticides on the Social Economy and Its Bio-Economy Perspectives in Attaining Sustainable Development Goals

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Nanotechnology as a Potential Source of Modern Pesticides

13.3 Agriculture and Toxicology of Insecticides

13.4 Nanostructured Alumina: A Novel Pesticide Powder Developed Through Nanotechnology

13.5 Pesticides Made of Nanoparticles

13.6 Review of the Literature

13.7 The Impact of Nanoinsecticides on the Development of Sustainable Development Goals

13.8 Conclusion

References

14 Procedure Involved in the Evaluation of Several Repellent Compounds Used for the Fabrication of Nanobioinsecticide

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Insecticide Nanoparticles in a Variety of Forms

14.3 Resources for Producing Nanoemulsions

14.4 Nanosuspensions Production

14.5 Nanocapsules

14.6 Nanoparticles

14.7 Classification of Nanoparticles

14.8 Silver Nanoparticle Production

14.9 Nano-Sized Silica Particles

14.10 Making Silica Nanoparticles: Techniques

14.11 Pest Control: The Role of Silica Nanoparticles

14.12 Conclusion

References

15 Safety, Efficacy, and Facts on Testing of Plant-Based Repellants and Effectiveness of Nanobioinsecticides

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Insect Repellants

15.3 PMD Obtained from Concentrate of Lemon Eucalyptus (

Corymbia citriodora

)

15.4 Techniques to Consider While Assessing Repellents

15.5 Test Protocols for Repellents Based on Guidelines from (WHOPES, 2009)

15.6 Effectiveness, Safety of Toxic Chemical, and Plant-Based Insect Repellents

15.7 Insecticides Produced Using Plants

15.8 A Few Misguided Judgments with Respect to Normal or Plant-Based Repellents

15.9 The Fate of Plant-Based Repellents Looks Encouraging

15.10 Differentiating Bug Repellents Made of Synthetic Compounds and Plants

15.11 Bioinsecticides Based on Plant Science for Mosquito Control

15.12 Utilizing Insect Sprays to Control Mosquitoes

15.13 Mosquito Insecticide Resistance

15.14 Bioinsecticides Based on Plants

15.15 Assessment of Plant-Based Bioinsecticides’ Mosquito Control Effectiveness

15.16 Using Plant-Based Bioinsecticides to Control Resistant Mosquito Populations

15.17 How Might Plant-Based Bioinsecticides Be More Effective in Mosquito Control Techniques?

15.18 Conclusion

References

16 Recent Advances in the Application of Biogenic Materials in the Formulation of Nanobioinsecticide Derived from

Azadirachta indica

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Chemistry and Function of Neem Oil

16.3 Main Products of Neem

16.4 Neem Oil Nanoemulsion

16.5 Food Preservation and Packaging Function of the Oil of Neem Oil and its Nanoemulsion

16.6 The Usefulness of the Pesticides of Neem as an Agonist against a Variety of Pests Found in Food Crops

16.7 The Anti-Insect Properties of Azadirachtin

16.8 Neem’s Action Mode and Specificity

16.9 Neem’s Future Prospects

16.10 Conclusions

References

Index

Also of Interest

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Yield experimental results of the citronella essential oil using the...

Chapter 3

Table 3.1 List of some insecticides and their toxicities.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Essential oils from plant origin.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Some examples of essential oils used as insecticides.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 An overview of the effectiveness of repellent plants based on resea...

Table 10.2 Some often found natural repellant compounds that could be dangerou...

Table 10.3 Guidelines for testing repellents modified from [140].

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Natural pesticides for vegetable crops derived from plants often fo...

Table 12.2 Pests of vegetable crops and the effects of natural pesticides from...

Table 12.3 Notable weeds and several insecticidal natural Mediterranean plants...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 GC traces of citronella essential oil obtained by steam distillatio...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Biosynthetic route of nanobioinsecticide.

Figure 3.2 Bioactive compounds in neem tree.

Guide

Cover Page

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Begin Reading

Index

Also of Interest

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Handbook of Agricultural Biotechnology

Volume IV Nanoinsecticides

Edited by

Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji

and

Julius Kola Oloke

This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-83617-9

Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson

Preface

Insect pests have been established as one of the critical factors contributing to the higher rate of loss of agricultural crops worldwide.

The application of synthetic insecticides is effective for the prevention of agricultural insect pests, but they can pose serious threats to human health and the maintenance of a healthy environment.

These synthetic pesticides also affect humanity due to drifting, and whenever they are ingested in contaminated foods and water.

Insecticide pollution is a global challenge whenever synthetic insecticides are applied for insect pest regulation.

This has led to a higher level of pest resistance to these synthetic pesticides, instabilities of the environment, lethal influence to non-target organisms, secondary-pest resurgence, and direct toxicity to the people who applied these synthetic insecticides.

Globally, large sums of money are spent on preventing the destructive action of agricultural pests by using synthetic insecticides, but there are several challenges.

This includes their non-biodegradable attributes, higher cost, and higher level of toxicity, as well as greater amount of insecticides that reside in the water, soil, and crops, all of which affect public health.

Hence, there is a need to search for biologically compatible, naturally available materials that can be used for effective management of agricultural pests. One solution is to use plant-based repellents, which is a sustainable technique and can result in an increased yield of agricultural crops. Their success is due to their effectiveness, biocompatibility, availability, sustainability, high repellency, biodegradability, environmental friendliness, and good consumer safety.

This book provides detailed information about the application of repellent products that contain plant-based ingredients known as nanobioinsecticides. It includes the pesticide evaluation scheme guidelines for repellent testing; relevant information about the procedures to evaluate several repellent compounds and develop new products that offer high repellency; and guidelines for good consumer safety.

The chapters herein focus on a wide range of related topics. The book chronicles many traditionally repellent plants that could be used in ethnobotanical studies and provides valuable insight into the development of new natural products. It outlines the standardization and numerous investigations used to affirm the level of repellent compounds from various plants. Furthermore, it details the safety, efficacy, and facts about plant-based repellent testing, and reviews new developments in the field.

Finally, the book explores the sustainable techniques involved in the structural elucidation and characterization of active constituents found in nanobioinsecticides, and gives relevant information on the use of essential oils, derived from plants, in the preparation of nanobioinsecticides.

This book is a useful resource for a diverse audience, including global leaders, industrialists, food industry professionals, agriculturists, agricultural microbiologists, plant pathologists, botanists, agricultural experts, microbiologists, biotechnologists, nanotechnologists, environmental microbiologists and microbial biotechnologists, investors, innovators, farmers, policy makers, extension workers, educators, researchers, and many in other interdisciplinary fields of science. It also serves as an educational resource manual and a project guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as for educational institutions that seek to carry out research in the field of agriculture and nanotechnology.

I offer my deepest appreciation to all the contributors who dedicated their time and efforts to make this book a success. Furthermore, I want thank my co-editors for their effort and dedication during this project. Moreover, I wish to gratefully acknowledge the suggestions, help, and support of Martin Scrivener and the Scrivener Publishing team.

Professor Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji(Ph.D, AAS affiliate, FRSB (UK) FNYA; FBSN; FNSM, MNBGN)

Director of Research and Innovation, Edo State University, Uzairue, Nigeria

December, 2023

1The Contribution of Ethnobotany to the Discovery of New Plant-Based Repellents

Edokpolor Osazee Ohanmu1, Saheed Ibrahim Musa2, Gloria Omorowa Omoregie3, Anagwonye Uju4, Etinfoh Hope4, Ebiminor Gift Taramapreye4, Alexis Ojeide5 and Beckley Ikhajiagbe4*

1Department of Biological Sciences, Edo University, Uzairue, Benin City, Nigeria

2Department of Biology and Forensic Science, Admiralty University of Nigeria, Delta State, Nigeria

3Department of Environmental Management and Toxicology, Federal University of Petroleum Resources Effunrun, Warri, Delta, Nigeria

4Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria

5Botany Department, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria

Abstract

Bug, mosquito, mite, tick, and lice are insects that pose a variety of issues for people. There is an ongoing want to produce novel deterrent and insecticide, especially in light of report of insect resistance and necessities to better eco-friendly societies. Traditional plant-based repellant ethnobotanical surveys give direct approach to identify plant for possible usage. A repellent is a chemical or plant-based agent that renders the insect’s surroundings uninhabitable, preventing it from contacting the host. Repellents are chemicals that are applied to treated surfaces to prevent arthropods from settling or crawling. They are safe to use on exposed skin, clothing, and other surfaces. Repellents can be thought of as a specific tool for keeping humans safe from insect-borne illnesses because they aid in the prevention, reduction, and control of disease outbreaks.

Keywords: Ethnobotany, phytomedicine, secondary products, bioinsecticides, plant-based repellents

1.1 Introduction

Bug, mosquito, mite, tick, and lice are hematophagous insects that pose a variety of issues for people. When they sting, they can result in necrosis, blister, or allergy in people [1]. Furthermore, hematophagous invertebrates can transmit infectious pathogens to humans, resulting in the spread of ailment. Humans have tried a variety of tactics to combat hematophagous insects. Native herbs have traditionally been applied in protection of people against bite. Oil derived from plant parts apply to the body, for example [2]. Traditional plant-based insect repellents are no longer practical in urban environments, but are exploited as source for recent pesticides and repellent. Pyrethrum and neem are two instances of actual current product derived through traditional botanicals [3]. Plant items, such as wood and leaves, are also commonly burned to deter insects.

Ethnobotany is the study of plants in a particular place, as well as their practical application based on local culture and expertise. Taxonomy, cultivation, and the usage of indigenous plants as food, medicine, and shelter are all covered. The use of ethnobotany to choose plants demands detailed documenting of indigenous communities’ relationships with plants. Ethnobotanic knowledge is based on observation, relationships, requirements, and traditional ways of knowing and can be applied to both wild and domesticated species. New discoveries, ingenuity, and techniques are constantly added to the mix as knowledge advances. Ethnobotany is now acknowledged as an important subject dedicated to the study of all sorts of human–plant interactions.

1.2 Ethnobotany in the Discovery of New Plant-Based Repellents

Botanical knowledge of a specific ethnic group can be useful in a variety of situations. Plants used for fiber, color agent, poison, manure, construction material, watercraft, and plant-based repellents are among the natural products studied by ethnobotany. Plant-based repellents were use as private defense technique against mosquito for ages. Ethnobotanical research yields relevant information of traditional deterrent plant use in development of novel products [4]. In order to generate new plant-based repellents, ethnobotany is required.

Phytochemicals are produced by many plants to deter insects that feed on plant fluids. Mosquito repellents are required to protect humans from mosquito stings [5]. Depending on their activity, phytochemicals can be extracted from whole plants or specific parts of plants. Photo-activated toxins found in certain phytochemicals have been shown to be effective against mosquitos [5]. Human-friendly plant-based insect repellents should be less harmful and have fewer adverse effects. As a result, using plant derivatives rather than chemicals in mosquito repellents could result in lower manufacturing costs and reduced environmental impact. The development of novel and more effective plant-based repellents has been aided by ethnobotanical research with indigenous peoples and their use of plants as repellents.

1.2.1 Ethnobotany and Its Role in Plant-Based Repellents

For decades, plant-based repellents have been used as a personal defense against mosquitoes looking for a place to lay their eggs [4]. Ethnobotanical research can be used to develop new natural goods based on traditional repellant plants [4]. In comparison to long-established synthetic repellents, consumers are becoming interested on repellent made from plant compound since they are observed to be safe [4]. With a few exceptions, the majority of newly emerging infectious illnesses are arthropod via tick or mosquito which are not vaccine-preventable. Plants are frequently used in the creation of effective plant-based repellents. Tobacco, corymbia, neem, and citronella are some examples.

1.2.2 Problems in Ethnobotanical Studies in Relation to Plant-Based Repellent

Traditional plant-based insect repellents are no longer practical in urban environments, but exploited as means for current pesticides and deterrent. Researchers have screened plants that may operate as natural repellents and characterized their activities and toxicities over numerous generations. Due to their low cost, few individuals in distant regions still employ old ways in control of insects [6, 7].

Also, traditional pest management knowledge is fast being lost because of increases in standard of living and lack of information [18]. Ethnobotany has yielded a harvest of unique, laboratory-proven therapeutic plants and chemicals in recent decades, but it has fallen short of its promise of producing a cornucopia of new and taxonomically focused plant-based repellant discoveries. Individual or group interviews are frequently used to obtain information about how different plant species are used in a community, and range of information varies depending on method applied. Finally, a lack of funding for ethnobotanical research and studies is a barrier. When financing for ethnobotanical research is scarce, progress is stifled, providing a problem for the field’s future growth.

1.3 Plant-Based Repellent

A plant-based repellent is an organic repellent that is created from plant extracts and concentrates or comes in the shape of a plant. Plants were used to deter and eradicate insects since prehistoric times, and many people continue to do so today in the world [8]. Traditional repellent plant knowledge can be applied to produce current natural repellents that can be used instead of synthetic repellents. Plant-based repellents provide a high concentration of bioactive phytochemicals that are both innocuous and non-toxic biodegradable byproducts that might be studied for insecticidal efficiency [2].

There is currently considerable agreement that plant-based products are safer and that phytochemicals degrade swiftly, piquing researchers’ and the general public’s curiosity [8]. One advantage of using a plant-based botanical is user acceptance. The majority of individuals prefer natural things to synthetics. Plant-based repellents are economical, widely accessible, wellknown, and culturally suitable [8]. Ethnobotany plays an important role in the development of new plant-based repellents. It’s a strategy of conducting in-depth interviews with key people knowledgeable about culture and traditional medicine in order to conduct a concentrated search for therapeutic plants. Plant by ethnic group is commonly studied using ethnobotanical research that combines scheduled discussions with plant voucher species collection. Plants that have been wounded or harmed release volatile odors into the environment, providing insect defense from afar. When these chemicals are used in repellents that are applied to the skin, their volatility becomes a concern.

1.3.1 Plant Products Used as Repellents

Plant repellents including citronella oil from Cymbopogon nardus, PMD from Eucalyptus Maculata citriodora, and fennel oil from Foeniculum vulgare do little to no harm in societies or human life, and might be a good alternative to artificial repellent like DEET [19, 20]. Some of these plants-derived repellents are discussed below:

1.3.1.1 Citronella

Citronella is a natural oil obtained from stem and leaf of many lemongrass specie (Cymbopogon sp) [9]. It’s made of lemongrass and has a repellent effect on Anopheles culicifacies for 11 hours [10]. Mosquito coils with citronella oil or the citronellal component are also used to keep mosquitos out of outdoor spaces [11]. Citronella was first distilled for perfume use in 1858, and comes from French term Citronelle.

It is widely use natural repellent, with concentrations ranging from 5% to 10%. Although the concentration is low compare to that of most repellent, larger concentration could cause skin irritation. It’s frequently used as an insect repellant in the outdoors. Citronella is available at 0.5–20% concentrations in lotions, oils, and hard wax infused candles and blazing pots. Due to its high volatility, citronella duration of effect is short, yet it can repel mosquito bites for up to 2 hours.

1.3.1.2 Neem

Neem oil, made from cold-pressed seeds, is efficient against a variety of insects and mites, as well as phytopathogens [11]. Despite the presence of over a dozen azadirachtin analogs in neem seeds, azadirachtin is the major form, and the other minor chemicals are unlikely to have a substantial impact on the extract’s overall efficacy. Nimbin, salannin, and triterpene derivatives are among the other triterpenoids found in seed extracts. Other natural chemicals’ functions are questionable, but azadirachtin appears to be the main functional principle.

1.3.1.3 Oil of Lemon Eucalyptus

P-menthane-3, 8-diol (PMD), sometimes known as lemon eucalyptus oil, is an organic or inorganic extract of the leaves of Corymbiacitriodora. PMD has similar insect repellent efficiency and length like DEET, Andas picaridin may provide superior tick guard than DEET. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) has recommended PMD as the only plant-based deterrent for use in disease zones [12]. It was discovered to be just as effective and long-lasting as DEET.

1.3.1.4 Essential Oils

They are one-of-a-kind combination of unstable organic chemicals produce as secondary metabolite by plant. Hydrocarbon (Sesquiterpenes and Terpene) and oxygenated compounds (ethers, esters, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, phenols, lactones, and phenol ethers) make up essential oils [12]. Several plant essential oils and concentrates, particularly for Anopheles species, could be utilized to make long-lasting and environmentally friendly repellents [13, 21–24].

Essential oils obtain through distilling aromatic plant have long been employed in the manufacture of colognes and aromatics in cologne and food products, and are now used for therapeutic and medicinal herbs [4, 5, 13–15]. Commercially available extracts of cinnamon, thyme, garlic, cedar, pine, fennel, peppermints, geranium, verbena oils, and lavender have been shown to repel numerous mosquito species, including Aedesalbopictus[3] [13, 16, 23]. Prior to the discovery of efficient synthetic repellents, the military used aromatic oils as repellents. A lotion containing citronella, paraffin, and camphor was issued to the British Indian troops, but it barely lasted 2 hours [13, 17, 18, 21, 24].

1.3.1.5 Catnip

Catmint is a common name for a perennial mint plant in the Labiatae family called Catmint. This herb grows from central Europe through central Asia, as well as on the Iranian plateaus [17]. Catnip has long been known for its cat-stimulating properties. The active ingredient in catnip has been identified as nepetalactone, which is found in two isomers in the essential oil of the plant: E,Z (trans, cis) and Z,E (cis, trans), with Z,E-nepetalactone the most common. Catnip has a lengthy history of insect repellent use, with the majority of it being scientifically proven.

1.3.1.6 Vanillin

Asynthetic version of a natural occurring molecule present in vanilla seed pods. Vanillin (10%) has been found to enhance the repellent qualities of different volatile oils against Aedesaegypti. Addition of vanillin to an oil-based repellent reduces volatility and increases the natural repellent’s lifespan. The increase in protection time with varied ratios of vanillin to repellents was not substantial, with the exception of diethyl toluamide (deet [diethyltoluamide]). In most cases, the length of protection was increased by more than 100%. According to studies, some mosquito repellents containing vanillin can provide protection from mosquito stings for up to a day [16].

Acknowledgements

Beckley Ikhajiagbe, our supervisor and professor, was instrumental in the drafting of the outline and guidelines for producing this review, as well as encouraging us all to write. Sir, thank you very much.

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Note

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