Handbook of Archaeological Sciences E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 4529

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

HANDBOOK OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SCIENCES A modern and comprehensive introduction to methods and techniques in archaeology In the newly revised Second Edition of the Handbook of Archaeological Sciences, a team of more than 100 researchers delivers a comprehensive and accessible overview of modern methods used in the archaeological sciences. The book covers all relevant approaches to obtaining and analyzing archaeological data, including dating methods, quaternary paleoenvironments, human bioarchaeology, biomolecular archaeology and archaeogenetics, resource exploitation, archaeological prospection, and assessing the decay and conservation of specimens. Overview chapters introduce readers to the relevance of each area, followed by contributions from leading experts that provide detailed technical knowledge and application examples. Readers will also find: * A thorough introduction to human bioarchaeology, including hominin evolution and paleopathology * The use of biomolecular analysis to characterize past environments * Novel approaches to the analysis of archaeological materials that shed new light on early human lifestyles and societies * In-depth explorations of the statistical and computational methods relevant to archaeology Perfect for graduate and advanced undergraduate students of archaeology, the Handbook of Archaeological Sciences will also earn a prominent place in the libraries of researchers and professionals with an interest in the geological, biological, and genetic basis of archaeological studies.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Volume 1

Title Page

Copyright Page

List of Contributors

Foreword: Archaeological Science and the Big Questions

Introduction

References

Don Brothwell – An Appreciation

References

Section 1: Science‐based Dating in Archaeology

1 Quaternary Geochronological Frameworks

The Structure of the Quaternary

Orbital Pacing of the Ice Age Cycles

Marine Oxygen Isotope Stratigraphy

Magnetostratigraphy

Polar Ice Core Chronologies

Speleothem Composite Chronologies

Connecting Geochronological Frameworks for High‐Precision Comparisons

Summary

References

2 New Developments in Radiocarbon Dating

Principles of Radiocarbon Dating

Latest Advances

Conclusion

References

3 Dendrochronology and Archaeology

Tree Rings and Human Time

Tree Ring Evidence is Widely Available

The Potential, Starting with Dating

The Historiography of Dendrochronology and Dendroarchaeology

Principles – General

Dendrochronology Software

Crossdating

The Future and Some Expanding Horizons in Dendroarchaeology

References

4 Trapped Charge Dating and Archaeology

Fundamentals of Trapped Charge Dating

Equivalent Dose Determination

Dose Rate Determination

Trapped‐Charge Dating in Practice: Applications and Contributions to Palaeolithic Archaeology

Conclusions

References

5 U‐Series Dating in Archaeology

Analytical Developments and Improvements in

230

Th/

234

U Dating

Limitations and Corrections: Detrital Fraction and Open Systems

Application to Archaeological Studies

Conclusions

References

6 Archaeomagnetic Dating

Introduction

The Basis of Archaeomagnetic Dating

Archaeomagnetic Dating in Practice

Archaeological Applications

Outlook

References

7 Amino Acid Dating

Principles of Amino Acid Dating

Early Applications

Towards Closed System Geochronology

Building an Aminostratigraphy

Applications of Amino Acid Dating to Key Biominerals

The Practicalities

Conclusions

References

8 An Introduction to Tephrochronology and the Correlation of Sedimentary Sequences Using Volcanic Ash Layers

Volcanic Eruptions

Tephra Deposits and Their Source Volcanoes

Glass Geochemistry

Correlating Tephra Units

Relative Chronology

Dating Tephra Deposits

Archaeological Case Studies

Conclusions

References

Section 2: An Introduction to Quaternary Climate Change and Human Evolution and Adaptation

9 Ice Core and Marine Sediment Records of Quaternary Environmental Change

Ice Core Records

Marine Sediment Records

Conclusions and Implications for Archaeology

References

10 Insects as Palaeoenvironmental and Archaeological Indicators

Insects in Palaeoenvironmental and Archaeological Studies

The Preservation of Insect Remains

Methodology

Palaeoenvironmental Inferences

Examples

Conclusions and Future Potential

References

11 Mammals as Palaeoenvironmental Indicators

Taphonomy

Taxonomic Identification, Uniformitarianism, and Autecology

Morphometrics

Body Size

Functional Morphology

Locomotion

Teeth and Diet

Dental Wear

Palaeoclimate

Habitats

Communities

Summary and Thoughts for the Future

References

12 Lake and Peat Records of Climate Change and Archaeology

Lake Sediment Records

Peat Records

Implications for Archaeology

Closing Thoughts

Acknowledgement

References

13 Archaeological Soil Micromorphology

History

The Soil Micromorphology Approach

Traditional Strengths and Developments Over the Last Twenty Years

Conclusions and Some Possible Future Directions

Acknowledgements

References

14 Pollen and Macroscopic Plant Remains as Indicators of Local and Regional Environments

Pollen Analysis

Analysis of Macroscopic Plant Remains

Integrated Analysis of Pollen and Macroscopic Plant Remains

Conclusion

References

15 Environmental Controls on Human Dispersal and Adaptation

The Importance of Understanding Landscapes

Palaeoclimates

Barriers and Bridges for Dispersal

Developments in Approaches to Environmental Controls on Human Dispersal and Adaptation

Conclusions

References

16 Holocene Climate Changes and Human Consequences

Methods and Approaches

Attribution of Past Causal Relations Between Climate and Society

Holocene Climate Changes: A Brief Overview

Early Holocene Adaptations

The Mid‐Holocene Climatic Transition

Socio‐Environmental Relations During the Late Holocene

Conclusion

References

Section 3: Evolution to Revolution: Human Bioarchaeology is Riding High

17 Hominin Evolution

The Emerging Consensus

Key Methodological Developments in the Twenty‐First Century

Key Evidential Developments in the Twenty‐First Century

Human Evolutionary Studies and Archaeological Science

References

18 Biological Distance

The Theory of Biological Distance: How Similarity Mirrors Relatedness

Trait Selection for Biological Distance Analyses

Measures of Biological Distance and Their Use

Applications of Biological Distance Analysis in Archaeological Contexts

Limitations of Biological Distance

Conclusion

References

19 Palaeopathology

Methodological Advances

Trends in Palaeopathology

Looking Towards the Future

References

20 Integrating Bioarchaeology and Palaeodemography

Demographic and Palaeodemographic Theory

History of Palaeodemographic Methods

Persistent Methodological Issues

Current Methods

Concluding Summary

References

21 Palaeodiet Through Stable Isotope Analysis

The Technique

Sample Types and Analyses

Data Exploration and Analysis

Archaeological Applications

Future Developments and Other Isotopic Systems for Diet

References

22 Preserved Human Bodies

Survival

Bioethics, Conservation Practice, and Curation History

Inspection Modalities

Biomolecular Potential

Interpretive Frameworks

Public Interest in Preserved Bodies

Summary

Acknowledgements

References

Section 4: Shifting to a Higher Gear: Proteins, Small Molecules, and the Rise of Mass Spectrometry

23 Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS)

Ancient Proteins

Soft‐Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Archaeological Bone Proteomics and ZooMS

Conclusions

References

24 Archaeological Proteomics

Techniques of Identification and Analysis

Palaeoproteomics and Archaeological Advances

Future Directions

References

25 The Use of Immunological Methods in Archaeology

Antibodies

Immunological Methods Applied to Archaeology

Recent Developments in Methods Applied to Archaeology

Applications in Archaeological Science

Conclusions

References

26 Lipids in Archaeology

Analytical Techniques and Approaches

Lipids in Soils and Sediments

Lipids in Coprolites

Lipids from Bone

Lipids in Pottery

Aquatic Animals

Beyond Subsistence

Concluding Remarks

References

27 Archaeological Microbiology

Tools and Techniques Used in Archaeological Microbiology

Technical Limitations and Issues

Archaeological Advancements Using Microbial Lenses

The Future of Archaeological Microbiology

Conclusion

References

28 Dental Calculus

Dental Calculus and Its Formation

Dental Calculus, Immunity, and Periodontal Disease

Dental Calculus Composition

History of Study

Dental Calculus in the Archaeological Record

Applications

Conclusions

References

29 The Biomolecular Archaeology of Psychoactive Substances

Analytical Techniques and Approaches

Psychoactive Compounds in Archaeological Artifacts

Psychoactive Compounds in Human Remains

Broader Impacts

Summary

References

Volume 2

Title Page

Copyright Page

Section 5: Archaeogenetics

30 Sex Identification and Kinship Typing of Human Archaeological Remains

Sex Identification

Kinship Studies

Sex Identification and Kinship Studies as an Adjunct to Field Archaeology

References

31 Human Populations – Origins and Movement

The Golden Age of Ancient DNA

Ancient DNA, Human Populations, and Migrations

Genetic Markers and Methods of Analysis in Human Population Genetics and Genomics

Case Study: The Genetic Make‐Up of Modern Europeans

Acknowledgements

References

32 Palaeogenomics of Extinct and Archaic Hominins

Temporal Limits

Technical Issues

Admixture

‘Ghost’ Archaic Lineages

Adaptation

Archaic Introgressed Genes

Past Demography

Inbreeding and Consanguinity

Sex Determination

Kinship Analysis

Social Organization

Deep Evolutionary History

Conclusions

References

33 Palaeogenetics and Palaeogenomics to Study the Domestication of Animals

Analysis of DNA Preserved in Archaeological Specimens: What Archaeologists Want To Know

Palaeogenomic Approaches to Study the Domestication Processes

Domestication of Companion Animals

Domestication of the First Livestock Species

Domestication of Animals of Transport

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

34 Palaeomicrobiology of Human Infectious Diseases

Organisms that Cause Infectious Disease

Transmission of Infection

Palaeomicrobiology

Specific Infections

Ancient Virus Infections

Ancient Unicellular Parasites

Multicellular Parasites – Helminths

Final Comment

References

Section 6: Overview of ‘Biological Resources’ – From Old Debates to Urgent Ecological Dilemmas

35 Archaeobotany

Archaeobotanical Methods

Archaeobotanical Contributions to Archaeological Issues

Conclusions

References

36 Human Impact on Vegetation

Identifying Human Impact on Vegetation from Pollen Data

Estimating Past Regional and Local Vegetation Cover

Simulation Models of Human Impact

Classification of Pollen Samples and Indices of Human Impact

Taxonomic Resolution in Pollen Analysis

Onsite Palynological Studies

Summary

References

37 Zooarchaeology

Key Themes and Integrated Methodologies to Investigate Them

Conclusion

References

38 Coprolites, Gut Contents and Molecular Archaeoparasitology

Historical Development

Gut Contents

Coprolites

Field Methods

References

39 Advances in the Archaeological Study of Invertebrate Animals and Their Products

Invertebrates in Past Human Diets and Subsistence Systems

Mollusc Consumption in Primates and Human Prehistory

Management of Invertebrate Food Resources

Advances in the Study of Shell Artefacts

Shells as Symbols

Natural Products of Invertebrates

Sourcing Shell Artefacts

Concluding Comments

References

40 Archaeological Textiles as Secondary Plant and Animal Products

Textile Materials

History of Exploitation of Plant and Animal Secondary Products by Humans

Preservation of Archaeological Textiles

Manufacturing Textiles

Other Uses of Plants: Food, Medicine, and Dyes

Clothing in the Archaeological Record

References

Section 7: Scientific Studies of Inorganic Resources in Archaeology – Overview of Current Status and Prospects

41 Lithic Exploitation and Usewear Analysis

Characterization and Sourcing Studies

The Context of Lithic Exploitation and Sources of Variability

Usewear Analysis

Future Directions

References

42 Ancient Binders and Pigments

Binders

Pigments

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

43 Materials Analysis of Ceramics

Production Processes

Analytical Techniques

Research Themes

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

44 The Archaeometry of Glass

Some Underlying Assumptions and Principles

Colour and Transparency

Major Flux Traditions

Provenance, Trade, Connectivity

Origins

Technological Change

Recycling

Conclusions

References

45 Mining and Resource Procurement

Which Raw Materials? Usage of Natural Materials Before Modern Times

An Archaeology of Mining for Resource Procurement: A Short Look Back

Basic Research Questions in Mining and Resource Procurement

Basic Methodological Approaches to Mining and Resource Procurement in Empirical Research Work

Pre‐Modern Mining – Raw Material Procurement Between Social Values and Crisis Management

References

46 Making and Using Metals

Finding Metals

Smelting and Slag

Metals and Alloys

Manufacture and Use

Exchange and Recycling

Some Broader Questions

Future Perspectives

References

47 Provenancing Inorganic Materials:

The Provenance Hypothesis

Recycling and Provenance

Time and Provenance

Summary

Acknowledgements

References

Section 8: Prospecting Beyond Boundaries: The Irresistible Rise of Remote Sensing in the Twenty‐First Century

48 Approaches to Archaeological Surface Survey

Seven Key Texts on Survey Methods

Key Terms

Fieldwalking

Recording Data

Sites

Chronology

Survey Design

The Shape of Precision

Regional Analysis

Presentation of Fieldwalking Data

Moving in the Past

Comparison

The Unique and the Sampled

Simple Analyses

Conclusion

References

49 Geophysical Survey Techniques

Past, Present, and Future

The Role of Geophysics in Archaeology

Principles of Archaeological Geophysics

Electrical Resistivity

Magnetometry

Ground Penetrating Radar

Electromagnetic Induction

Data Processing, Integration, and Interpretation

Case Studies

Conclusions

References

50 Archaeological Remote Sensing

Introduction

Remote Sensing Datasets and Case Studies

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

51 Geochemical Prospection and the Identification of Site Activity Areas

Soil Sampling Methods for Site Prospection and Identifying Activity Areas

Phosphate Analysis of Soils and Sediments

Multi‐Element Analysis of Soils and Sediments

pH Analysis of Soils and Sediments

Electrical Conductivity Analysis of Soils and Sediments

Organic Matter Distributions in Soils and Sediments

Magnetic Susceptibility Analysis of Soils and Sediments

Biomolecular Analyses of Soils and Sediments

The Future of Geochemical Prospection and the Identification of Activity Areas

Acknowledgements

References

52 Integrating Survey Data

Forms of Archaeological Survey Data

Geographical Information Systems

Data Issues

Interpreting Remotely Sensed Data

The Varied Goals of Data Integration

Dimensions and Approaches to Survey Data Integration

2D Graphical Integrations of Survey Data

2D Feature‐level Integrations

2D Pixel‐level Integrations of Survey Data

2D Integrations in the Vertical Plane

Integrations Within One Survey Type

3D Integrations

Conclusions

References

Section 9: Conservation Science in Practice

53 Defining the Burial Environment

Section for Environmental Archaeology and Materials Science

Background

Case Studies

Conclusion and Perspectives

References

54 Metallic Corrosion Processes and Information from Corrosion Products

A Brief Introduction to Metallic Corrosion

Metals in Archaeological Contexts

Information from Corrosion Products

Unlocking the Information Preserved in Corrosion Products

Corrosion as the Treasure Trove?

References

55 Post‐Depositional Changes in Archaeological Ceramics and Glass

Archaeological Ceramics and Glass

Use of Ceramics and Glass

Deposition

Excavation

Cleaning and Repair

Storage and Display

Analysis

Conclusion

References

56 Diagenetic Alterations to Vertebrate Mineralized Tissues – A Critical Review

The Origins and Nature of Skeletal Tissues

Types of Bone Tissues

The Chemistry of Mineralized Tissues

Thermal Alterations to Mineralized Tissues

Post‐depositional Alterations to Mineralized Tissues

The Origins of Bacterial Tunnelling

Chemical Alteration To Bone Tissues

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Section 10: ‘It's All in the Numbers’: Quantitative and Computational Approaches in Archaeology

57 Spatial Information in Archaeology

Introduction

Dealing with Spatial Information in Archaeology

Spatial Information in Archaeological Practice

Moving Beyond the Boundaries of GIS

References

58 Multivariate Analysis in Archaeology

The Data Matrix

Searching for Patterns in Multivariate Data

Current and Future Prospects

References

59 The Bayesian Inferential Paradigm in Archaeology

Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Bayesian Statistics

A Simple Archaeological Example

What Is Bayes' Theorem?

Other Archaeological Applications

Some Practicalities

Hopes for the Future

Supplementary Materials

References

60 Quantification in Zooarchaeology and Palaeoethno(Archaeo)botany

Quantification Basics

Palaeoethnobotany

Zooarchaeology

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

61 The Use of Kernel Density Estimates on Chemical and Isotopic Data in Archaeology

Mathematical Derivation of KDE

Quantification of Distributional Overlap

Archaeological Examples

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

62 Forward Modelling and Simulation in Archaeology

Types of Model

Models and Archaeology

Discussion and Conclusions

References

63 Big Data in Archaeology

Introduction

Archaeological ‘Big Data’ Projects up to 2019

Big Data Methods and Concepts

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 Dose rate (in μGy/a) for the isotopes of

238

U,

235

U, and

232

Th dec...

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Insect orders and families used in palaeoenvironmental studies.

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Examples of long core terrestrial records.

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Hominin taxa. Although there is broad consensus about the major t...

Chapter 23

Table 23.1 Symbols and side chains of the protein amino acids.

Chapter 29

Table 29.1 Comparison of extraction results for artefact matrix vs. preserve...

Chapter 30

Table 30.1 STR alleles obtained from the skeletons thought to include the Ro...

Chapter 36

Table 36.1 Relative pollen productivity estimates (RPPs, with standard error...

Table 36.2 Results of a data‐driven classification of >5000 pollen samples f...

Chapter 43

Table 43.1 Different modes of materials analysis with corresponding examples...

Chapter 44

Table 44.1 Flux types used in early glassmaking.

Table 44.2 Various categories of glass (see text) and their likely raw mater...

Table 44.3 Change in mean Na

2

O contents for colourless and weakly coloured n...

Chapter 45

Table 45.1 Some mineral components of ores that contribute to a native polym...

Chapter 54

Table 54.1 Some inorganic crystalline compounds identified in archaeological...

Chapter 58

Table 58.1 Weighting factors for the first six PCs after PCA on 43 samples o...

Chapter 59

Table 59.1 Summary statistics (mean and standard deviation) of artificial ma...

Table 59.2 Null and alternative hypotheses used for NHST.

Table 59.3 Results of the z‐score hypothesis tests described in the text, in...

Table 59.4 Posterior probabilities that the Early and Late Period maximum pr...

Chapter 60

Table 60.1 Basic archaeobotanical quantitative methods.

Table 60.2 Differences between ethnographic and zooarchaeological variables ...

Chapter 61

Table 61.1 Hypothetical dataset of 100 measurements of %Sn in copper alloy o...

Table 61.2 Results of kernel density estimation for the comparative study be...

Table 61.3 Data comparison matrix based on KDE probability distributions (us...

Table 61.4 Data comparison matrix based on KDE probability distributions of ...

Table 61.5 Zr–Cr–Ti and Zr–Ti–Cr–La null hypothesis results between each pai...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 The Quaternary chronostratigraphic record, including key chronolo...

Figure 1.2 The INTIMATE Event Stratigraphy, spanning 123–8 B2k (before the y...

Figure 1.3 The signature of the precession cycle on global hydroclimate is d...

Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of non‐climatic timescale transfer functio...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Radiocarbon dates for the Vindija Neanderthals (Higham et al. 200...

Figure 2.2 (a) Map of sites with Mousterian archaeology sampled for radiocar...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Publications by year 1900–2019

CE

from the Web of Science (SCI‐Ex...

Figure 3.2 Percentage of publications in Figure 3.1 by Web of Science catego...

Figure 3.3 Example of tree‐rings and wood anatomical features comparing the ...

Figure 3.4 (a) View of the upper tank of the Vasca Votiva, Noceto, Italy, du...

Figure 3.5 (a) Photo of the transverse section (horizontal cross‐section thr...

Figure 3.6 Taking a core sample from a dry wood beam using a hollow corer an...

Figure 3.7 Scanning a prepared (sanded) transverse section of a panel painti...

Figure 3.8 Crossdate placement of a chronology to be dated (magenta) versus ...

Figure 3.9 Schematic illustration of how a long tree‐ring chronology is buil...

Figure 3.10 The Bayesian chronological modelling of the YHSS 8–5 sequence at...

Figure 3.11 Selected details from the Bayesian model for the Gordion YHSS 8–...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Ionization process of a tooth exposed to alpha and beta particles...

Figure 4.2 Energy band model: the energy provided by ionizing radiation (α, ...

Figure 4.3 Dosing and bleaching processes illustrated with the example of qu...

Figure 4.4 Example of single aliquot regeneration (SAR, left) and additive d...

Figure 4.5 Thermoluminescence glow curves from a burnt flint. The blue curve...

Figure 4.6 ESR spectrum of a quartz sample measured at low temperature (77°K...

Figure 4.7 ESR spectrum of enamel hydroxyapatite measured at room temperatur...

Figure 4.8 U‐uptake curves obtained for different p‐values according to the ...

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Isochrone diagram with return to equilibrium between

230

Th and

23

...

Figure 5.2 Evolution curve of the

230

Th/

234

U activity ratio with time (assum...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 The acquisition of thermoremanent magnetization. Before heating t...

Figure 6.2 The acquisition of detrital (or depositional) remanent magnetizat...

Figure 6.3 Archaeomagnetic sampling of a pottery kiln, showing samples taken...

Figure 6.4 (a) Archaeomagnetic sampling of lime kiln at West Hyde by Museum ...

Figure 6.5 (a) Photograph of the Lübeck oven‐floor sequence taken during exc...

Figure 6.6 The palaeomagnetic record for Drimolen showing the geomagnetic po...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Most amino acids have no plane of symmetry, just like hands, so t...

Figure 7.2 Hydrolysis breaks the peptide bond between bound amino acids in a...

Figure 7.3 Schematic of intra‐crystalline amino acids trapped within carbona...

Figure 7.4 Age model used to convert A/I values to calendar ages, based on A...

Figure 7.5 (a) The increase in racemization in

Bithynia

opercula with age fo...

Figure 7.6 Age‐depth uncertainty envelopes generated by Bayesian‐Monte Carlo...

Figure 7.7 In amino acids with more than one chiral centre, four enantiomers...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 A schematic of an eruption plume.The eruption plume develops ...

Figure 8.2 (a) Backscattered electron image of tephra and (b) microscope ima...

Figure 8.3 (a) The area covered with visible tephra during the 7.2 ka,

M

7.2 ...

Figure 8.4 (a) Campi Flegrei caldera in Naples, Italy. The photograph was ta...

Figure 8.5 Defining the position of the isochron in cryptotephra studies. (a...

Figure 8.6 Major element (a) and trace element (b) glass shard compositions ...

Figure 8.7 (a) The ‘map’ mural on the N and E wall of shrine 14 in level VII...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Marine sediment and ice core records of Quaternary environmental ...

Figure 9.2 Map showing locations of LR04 marine sediment cores and selected ...

Figure 9.3 Schematic of the surface of ice sheets and glaciers. Snow accumul...

Figure 9.4 Schematic of primary aerosol sources and sinks.

Figure 9.5 Reversible chemical deposition. Some fraction of more volatile co...

Figure 9.6 A typical 100 mm diameter ice core.

Figure 9.7 Example of multiparameter annual layer counting in ice from the f...

Figure 9.8 Example of geochemical fingerprinting of tephra in ice used to id...

Figure 9.9 Chronology of European lead pollution in Greenland ice during ant...

Figure 9.10 Sensitivity of ice core records from (a) central Greenland NGRIP...

Figure 9.11 Microfossil‐based environmental reconstructions from polar and h...

Figure 9.12 Environmental reconstructions from marine sediment cores. (a) No...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Images of subfossil insect remains as assemblages during sample ...

Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of the different habitats available in ...

Figure 10.3 Selection of pathways through which insects can be incorporated ...

Figure 10.4 Example of a downcore subfossil chironomid record, in this case ...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Dr Christine Steininger (right, Site Director) and Dr Hannah O'R...

Figure 11.2 Principal component analysis of modern Asian mammalian communiti...

Figure 11.3 Ti's al Ghadah Unit 5 sands, from which the majority of fossils ...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Examples of the use of ITRAX uXRF core scanning to reconstruct (...

Figure 12.2 Schematic of the two most commonly used

seda

DNA methodologies (a...

Figure 12.3 (1) The hummock hollow gradient from raised peatland. (2) A sect...

Figure 12.4 A diagrammatic representation of the multi‐proxy results from th...

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Taking targeted soil micromorphology samples in Kubiëna tins fro...

Figure 13.2 Block samples from the Hill of Ward, Ireland, drying in Kubiëna ...

Figure 13.3 A group of ‘mammoth’ thin sections from Niah Cave, Malaysia (NCP...

Figure 13.4 In this thin section from Bjerre Site 7, Denmark, an iron pannin...

Figure 13.5 These photomicrographs from the Sanka site in Japan show layers ...

Figure 13.6 This thin section from Traders Cave, Niah National Park, Sarawak...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Photomicrograph of pine (

Pinus sylvestris

) pollen. The body of t...

Figure 14.2 The Neolithic submerged forest at Borth, Cardigan Bay, west Wale...

Figure 14.3 (a) Pollen diagram (selected taxa) from the Clark site core, Sta...

Figure 14.4 Pollen diagram (selected taxa) from the lake‐centre sequence, St...

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Schematic representation of the interactions between landscape, ...

Figure 15.2 (a) Map of the Red Sea showing exposed coastal plains formed dur...

Figure 15.3 Climate model timeslice from the last interglacial (130 ka) show...

Figure 15.4 Approximate locations and timings of introgression events. Ancie...

Figure 15.5 Variation in the potassium (K) content of the composite core fro...

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Multiproxy record of human land use (pollen) and hydro‐climate (...

Figure 16.2 Northern Hemisphere temperature trends during the last 16 000 ye...

Figure 16.3 Examples of Holocene hydro‐climatic changes in cave and lake sed...

Figure 16.4 Long‐term trends for Greece in (a) archaeologically‐inferred pop...

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 The evolution and diversity of

Homo

. The evolution of

Homo

is ch...

Figure 17.2 Teeth are a major source of information in human evolution, part...

Figure 17.3 A simplified representation of admixture among later hominins. T...

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 An example of spondylolysis, a fracture caused by stress or defe...

Figure 19.2 Well‐healed fracture of mandible, potentially caused by interper...

Figure 19.3 Post‐mortem circular cuts on a mandible from the nineteenth‐cent...

Figure 19.4 Example of linear enamel hypoplasia. These dental lesions occur ...

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1 Professor Keith Manchester examining a nineteenth‐century anatom...

Figure 22.2 Dr Eline Schotsmans sampling an intentional, naturally mummified...

Figure 22.3 Examples of superficial desiccation at the Australian Facility f...

Figure 22.4 The frozen remains of one of three Inca Capacocha discovered by ...

Figure 22.5 Sampling for biomolecular analysis being undertaken by Prof Ian ...

Figure 22.6 Discussion between Prof Niels Lynnerup and Prof Don Brothwell du...

Figure 22.7 The conserved remains of Clonycavan Man in a display case within...

Figure 22.8 Empty display case within the ‘Medicine Man’ gallery at the Well...

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1 The linkage of two amino acids into a dipeptide chain by condens...

Figure 23.2 Ionization mechanisms for MALDI (top) and ESI (bottom).

Figure 23.3 Schematics of mass analyzers, showing (top) principle of ‘Time‐O...

Figure 23.4 Enzymatic cleavage of collagen by bacterial collagenase results ...

Figure 23.5 MALDI‐ToF mass spectra of the 10–50% acetonitrile (in 0.1% trifl...

Figure 23.6 (a–e) example cycle of supervised machine learning starting with...

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1 A schematic representation of an antibody. The red areas represe...

Figure 25.2 The binding of antibody to antigen. (a) A schematic of the compl...

Figure 25.3 The traditional immunological techniques applied to archaeology....

Figure 25.4 The variations in the enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) ...

Figure 25.5 More recently applied immunological techniques applied to archae...

Chapter 26

Figure 26.1 Chromatograms showing the patterns and changing fatty acid distr...

Figure 26.2 Summary of the relative faecal lipid biomarker and bile acid dis...

Figure 26.3 Plot of

δ

13

C values of C

16:0

and C

18:0

fatty acids, with 1

σ

...

Figure 26.4 Pie charts spanning Early‐Middle Neolithic sites from which orga...

Chapter 27

Figure 27.1 Summary of all sample types currently utilized in microbial arch...

Figure 27.2 An overview of the current methodologies applied within microbia...

Figure 27.3 Summary of DNA sources in an environmental sample type, such as ...

Chapter 28

Figure 28.1 Location of dental calculus on teeth. (a) Diagram illustrating t...

Figure 28.2 Meta‐analysis of archaeological dental calculus studies, showing...

Figure 28.3 Theoretical model of the proportion of the original biomolecules...

Chapter 29

Figure 29.1 Base‐peak‐intensity chromatograms for (a) caffeine, theobromine,...

Figure 29.2 Common associations between biomarkers, plants, and artefacts....

Figure 29.3 PCA results for the 42 strongest signals from experimental pipes...

Figure 29.4 Schematic representation of tooth staining and calculus deposits...

Chapter 30

Figure 30.1 Agarose gel showing the results of PCR of the amelogenin gene wi...

Figure 30.2 Inheritance of STR alleles in a nuclear family. Males are shown ...

Figure 30.3 Identity‐by‐descent (IBD). The diagram shows the inheritance of ...

Chapter 31

Figure 31.1 Approximate position of genetic clusters of individuals from dif...

Chapter 33

Figure 33.1 Schematic representation of the three DNA analysis methods curre...

Figure 33.2 Schematic representation of the mechanisms shaping the genomes o...

Figure 33.3 Spread of the cat as deduced from the mitochondrial lineages (ha...

Figure 33.4 Evolution of mitochondrial haplotypes and genetic markers associ...

Chapter 36

Figure 36.1 Locations in the Northern Hemisphere from which RPP estimates ha...

Figure 36.2 Schematic diagrams illustrating the landscape reconstruction app...

Figure 36.3 Impact of application of REVEALS model to pollen data from Lake ...

Figure 36.4 Application of LRA (REVEALS and LOVE) to four pollen sequences f...

Figure 36.5 Application of the multiple scenario approach to the Neolithic o...

Figure 36.6 Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) from domesticated gras...

Chapter 37

Figure 37.1 3D photogrammetry being undertaken on a horse astragalus for the...

Figure 37.2 A schematic diagram showings the many stages within faunal tapho...

Figure 37.3 A double horse ‘head and hoof’ burial alongside the remains of a...

Figure 37.4 A close‐up of a parallel strip of bit‐wear identified on the fro...

Chapter 40

Figure 40.1 Plain weave (tabby) textile structure seen as impression in soil...

Figure 40.2 General chemical structures of (a) cellulose, (b) a segment of p...

Figure 40.3 Polarizing light microscope image of dyed rabbit hair from texti...

Figure 40.4 Pseudomorph on a copper celt with plain weave (tabby) textile st...

Figure 40.5 Carbonized textile fragments (a) plain weave, flax (Kremela 2 Cz...

Chapter 41

Figure 41.1 Map of Polynesia, showing distribution of basalt adzes from Eiao...

Figure 41.2 Examples of edge scarring, striations, edge‐rounding, and polish...

Chapter 42

Figure 42.1 Schematic representation showing the principle of ‘glue like’ C–...

Figure 42.2 Pont du Gard (~19

BCE

), Gard, France.

Figure 42.3 The Pantheon in Rome (built 128

CE

).

Figure 42.4 Backscattered electron (BSE) scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ...

Figure 42.5 (a) Backscattered electron (BSE) scanning electron microscopy (S...

Figure 42.6 (a) Visible‐induced NIR luminescence spectrum of Egyptian blue a...

Figure 42.7 The chemical structure for (a) indigotin and (b) indirubin.

Figure 42.8 (a) Jaina‐style figurine from the collection of the Fowler Museu...

Chapter 43

Figure 43.1 Rock fragment in the matrix of an archaeological ceramic prepare...

Chapter 44

Figure 44.1 Potash and magnesia contents of soda‐lime‐silica glasses from th...

Figure 44.2 Classification of natron primary glass groups of the first mille...

Figure 44.3 Discrimination between Egyptian and Mesopotamian Bronze Age glas...

Figure 44.4 Discrimination between glass made from Nile‐derived sands plus n...

Figure 44.5 Mean trace element compositions of weakly coloured transparent g...

Chapter 45

Figure 45.1 Systematics of raw material in premodern times with three case e...

Figure 45.2 Systematics of a basic description of mining and metallurgy in a...

Figure 45.3 Scheme of an ore deposit in humid and arid climate zones after S...

Figure 45.4 Mineral ‘cocktail’ at the Dolcoath‐deposit, Camborne‐Redruth Dis...

Figure 45.5 Production modes and their relation to imprinting processes of r...

Figure 45.6 Scheme of spatial structures of early mining enterprises and the...

Figure 45.7 Sections as main source of mining archaeological observation, (a...

Figure 45.8 (a) Sakdrisi, West of Bolnisi, Georgia. 3D‐model of the Kura‐Ara...

Figure 45.9 Airborne Laser scanning (LiDAR‐DTM model) in service of remote‐s...

Figure 45.10 Experimental archaeology in prehistoric mining. (a) Hammer‐work...

Chapter 46

Figure 46.1 Average copper content in smelting slag samples from Eastern Med...

Figure 46.2 Left, micro‐metallurgical remains from the Middle Shang period s...

Figure 46.3 Ternary plot of the major element composition of gold‐alloy arte...

Figure 46.4 A Viking sword (centre) surrounded by multiple virtual slices ob...

Chapter 48

Figure 48.1 One‐hectare tracts grouped into 16‐hectare units for ease of man...

Figure 48.2 Zonal collection areas covering a mounded site. Zones are constr...

Figure 48.3 Comparison of approaches to artefact concentrations from a surve...

Figure 48.4 Presentations of fieldwalking data. (a) Artefact scatters depict...

Chapter 49

Figure 49.1 Geophysical instruments over time, showing the trend toward mult...

Figure 49.2 Geophysical survey results at Tiwanaku, Bolivia showing evidence...

Figure 49.3 Geophysical survey results at the Singer‐Heironymus site complex...

Figure 49.4 Geophysical survey results for a 90 × 90 m portion of the survey...

Chapter 50

Figure 50.1 The spatial, spectral, and temporal resolution of imagery is key...

Figure 50.2 A 1938 aerial photograph of the 118 Mounds site in Wisconsin, Un...

Figure 50.3 Multispectral Landsat imagery showing the area around Tell Brak,...

Figure 50.4 The major site of Dura Europos in Eastern Syria as seen in high‐...

Figure 50.5 Drone lidar images collected over Kealakekua Bay State Historica...

Figure 50.6 Drone‐acquired thermal images of the Blue J community, New Mexic...

Chapter 51

Figure 51.1 Soil survey and geochemical prospection at I͡Arte 6, Northwest S...

Figure 51.2 Soil survey and geochemical prospection at I͡Arte 6, Northwest S...

Chapter 52

Figure 52.1 Flowchart showing modes and pathways to various forms of 2D data...

Figure 52.2 Geophysical and aerial datasets from Army City: (a) electrical c...

Figure 52.3 Examples of overlays and graphical integrations: (a) the 1.6 ha ...

Figure 52.4 Examples of pixel‐based numerical integrations at Army City: (a)...

Figure 52.5 2D integrations in the vertical plane: (a) magnetic gradiometry ...

Chapter 53

Figure 53.1 Material found at an archaeological excavation represents a snap...

Figure 53.2 Schematic presentation of unsaturated soil, where the soil pores...

Figure 53.3 Moisture content is measured and presented in different ways wit...

Figure 53.4 Hjulström Diagram showing the relationship between particle size...

Figure 53.5 Digital elevation models based on high‐resolution multibeam echo...

Figure 53.6 Use of chemical species (electron acceptors) by microorganisms w...

Figure 53.7 (a) Bryggen is the old Hanseatic wharf in Bergen on the West Coa...

Figure 53.8 Seabed sediment map of the Tudse Hage area.

Figure 53.9

In situ

profiling to characterize whether a site is oxic or anox...

Figure 53.10

Ex situ

assessment of sediment cores to assess the preservation...

Chapter 54

Figure 54.1 Metallic corrosion and ionization potential for some common meta...

Figure 54.2 Cu–H

2

O Pourbaix diagram at 1 × 10

−6

 M copper, 298 K and 1 ...

Chapter 56

Figure 56.1 Schematic diagram of tropocollagen molecule formation and self‐a...

Figure 56.2 Schematic diagram of the assembly of tropocollagen molecules and...

Figure 56.3 Fractured surface of modern bovine bone. (a) Two osteocyte lacun...

Figure 56.4 Ternary diagram of the relative proportions of water, collagen, ...

Figure 56.5 Secondary electron SEM images of a fragment of excavated Medieva...

Figure 56.6 Backscatter SEM images of Medieval human bones from Wharram Perc...

Figure 56.7 Backscatter SEM images of Medieval human bones from sites in the...

Figure 56.8 Secondary electron images of a heavily degraded Romano‐British c...

Figure 56.9 Results of electron microprobe microanalysis (plus linear regres...

Chapter 57

Figure 57.1 Different types of overlay in GIS (vector mode).

Figure 57.2 Different types of raster operations in GIS.

Figure 57.3 Pleiades is an example of a linked open data portal, aiming to c...

Figure 57.4 Example of basic LiDAR visualization using ArcGIS Online and fre...

Figure 57.5 Kernel density mapping of rural settlement densities in the Midd...

Figure 57.6 Combined LCP modelling and viewshed analysis in Zuid‐Limburg, Th...

Figure 57.7 Settlement location preferences with regard to previous occupati...

Chapter 58

Figure 58.1 Scatterplot from lead isotope analysis used to characterize fabr...

Figure 58.2 Scatterplot of rubidium versus zirconium in parts per million fo...

Figure 58.3 Cluster analysis dendrogram illustrates the initial results for ...

Figure 58.4 Scatterplot of PC1 versus PC2 for Inca pottery. Symbols indicate...

Figure 58.5 Biplot of PC1 versus PC2 for Inca pottery. Vectors indicate the ...

Figure 58.6 Scatterplot of canonical discriminant functions CD1 versus CD2 f...

Chapter 59

Figure 59.1 Likelihoods of the maximum length data. The red dashed lines ill...

Figure 59.2 Bayesian posterior probability distributions of each of three pr...

Chapter 60

Figure 60.1 A graphic model of loss of biotic remains over time due to tapho...

Figure 60.2 Models of animal carcass portion food utility based on frequenci...

Chapter 61

Figure 61.1 (a) Histogram of the dataset in Table 61.1 plotted with bin widt...

Figure 61.2 Summary of lead isotopic ratios of bronzes from the Bronze Age C...

Figure 61.3 Rise and fall of highly radiogenic lead in Chinese history.

Figure 61.4 Traditional lead isotope plot with superimposed kernel density e...

Figure 61.5 KDE renditions of major alloying elements (Cu, Sn, Pb) in bronze...

Figure 61.6 Blue twelfth‐century French and English glass and the KDE contou...

Figure 61.7 Zr–Cr–Ti kernel density estimation of glasses unearthed from fou...

Figure 61.8 Zr–Cr–Ti–La kernel density estimation of glasses unearthed from ...

Chapter 62

Figure 62.1 Deterministic (left) and stochastic (right) logistic models of p...

Figure 62.2 Model of skill transmission, innovation and skill loss between g...

Part 9

Figure 1 Electrolytic corrosion of iron during burial and ingress of chlorid...

Figure 2 Photo of the profile of archaeological iron object labelled with MS...

Figure 3 Flaking of iron at the metal/DPL interface during post‐excavation c...

Figure 4 Average increase in corrosion rate of groups of archaeological iron...

Guide

Cover Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

List of Contributors

Foreword: Archaeological Science and the Big Questions

Introduction

Don Brothwell – An Appreciation

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

Wiley End User License Agreement

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Volume 1

Handbook of Archaeological Sciences

Volume 1

Second Edition

Edited by A. Mark Pollard, Ruth Ann Armitage, and Cheryl A. Makarewicz

This second edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History© 2009 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Pollard, A. M., editor. | Armitage, Ruth Ann, editor. | Makarewicz, Cheryl A., editor.Title: Handbook of archaeological sciences / edited by A. Mark Pollard, Ruth Ann Armitage, Cheryl A. Makarewicz.Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022047004 (print) | LCCN 2022047005 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119592044 (set; cloth) | ISBN 9781394156832 (v.1; cloth) | ISBN 9781394156849 (v.2; cloth) | ISBN 9781119592075 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119592082 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Archaeology–Methodology.Classification: LCC CC75 .H34 2023 (print) | LCC CC75 (ebook) | DDC 930.1–dc23/eng/20221013LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047004LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047005

Cover Design: WileyCover Images: Courtesy of Gordon Turner‐Walker; ASVMAGZ/Shutterstock; Xolodan/Shutterstock

List of Contributors

Paul G. AlbertDepartment of Geography, Swansea University, Swansea, UK

Ruth Ann ArmitageDepartment of Chemistry, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, USA

Benjamin M. AuerbachDepartments of Anthropology & Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA

Christel M. BaldiaNYLAB, Laboratory Scientific Services Directorate, US Customs and Border Protection, Newark, NJ, USA

Magdalena BalonisDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Cathy BattSchool of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK

Lorena Becerra‐ValdiviaOxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

A.‐I. BidegarayResearch Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Simon BlockleyCentre for Quaternary Research, Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK

Amy BogaardSchool of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Christopher Bronk RamseyResearch Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

A.G. BrownPalaeoecology Laboratory (PLUS), School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Keri A. BrownManchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Terence A. BrownManchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

S.O. BruggerDivision of Hydrologic Science, Desert Research Institute, Reno Northern Nevada Science Center, Reno, NV, USA

Caitlin E. BuckSchool of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Michael BuckleySchool of Natural Sciences, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Ian D. BullOrganic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

L. da C. CarvalhoSchool of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Jesse CasanaDepartment of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA

Emmanuelle CasanovaOrganic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Virginie CerdeiraWellcome Trust, London, UK

N.J. ChellmanDivision of Hydrologic Science, Desert Research Institute, Reno Northern Nevada Science Center, Reno, NV, USA

Shadreck ChirikureSchool of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

C.L. ClarkePalaeoecology Laboratory (PLUS), School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Lucy J.E. CrampDepartment of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Petra DarkDepartment of Archaeology, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Helen D. DonoghueCentre for Clinical Microbiology, Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, UK

Konstantina DrosouManchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UKSchool of Biological Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Julie DunneOrganic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

M.E. Edwards