Handbook of Water Pollution E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
HANDBOOK of WATER POLLUTION Handbook of Water Pollution discusses a wide range of contaminants heavily affecting our environment and water bodies. The chapters discuss heavy metals, metalloids, pesticides, explosives, toxic chemicals, dyes, plastics, e-wastes, fertilizers, detergents, nitrates/nitrites, phosphates, hydrocarbons, and fecal wastes, along with their sources of action against our environment, their methods of analysis, and finally, their treatments are all presented in detail. Our environment is heavily affected due to extreme human activities. Environmental pollution is a major concern worldwide. Within this, water pollution is one of the major challenges that puts the total ecology at risk. Water pollution is alarming everywhere; many governing authorities believe it is also an unavoidable result of human activity. However, the economic cost of water pollution far outweighs the benefits of skimping on its cause. Water pollution is not just merely related to financial cost but related to all living beings. Toxic waste is getting into the water bodies in various regions, causing many illnesses in humans and poisoning other living things. The destruction of any single component of our ecosystem can have a devastating effect on our biodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the causes of pollution, their nature and mechanism, and, at the same time, study the remedies. The major causes of water pollution are industrial waste, sewage, plastics, oil leakage, biological organisms, toxic chemicals and radioactive waste, and so on. A tremendous amount of research work is going on around the world to understand the causes, their mechanism, and solutions. Many new works are published every day, therefore it's important to gather some of the most relevant findings in one place. This will serve as a link between collected knowledge and current advancements, while also facilitating future thinking.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
1 Introduction to Water Pollution
1.1 Pollution
1.2 What is Water Pollution?
1.3 Prevalence of Water Pollution
1.4 Categories of Water Pollution
1.5 Water Pollutants
1.6 Kinds of Water Pollution
1.7 Determination of Water Quality Parameters
1.8 Sources of Water Pollution
1.9 Effects of Water Pollution on Humans and Animals
1.10 Prevention of Water Pollution
1.11 Control and Prevention of Water Pollution by Biotechnology
1.12 Conclusion
References
2 Impact of Water Pollution & Perspective Techniques to Mitigate It: An Overview
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Causes of Water Pollution
2.3 Effects of Water Pollution on Plant Growth
2.4 Techniques of Treating Water Pollution
2.5 Removal of Pollutants Through Different Nanomaterial
2.6 Discussion and Conclusion
References
3 Pollution of Ground and Surface Waters with Agrochemicals
3.1 Introduction
3.2 A Recounting of the Global Production and Consumption of Agrochemicals
3.3 Characteristics of Agrochemicals
3.4 Occurrences and Levels of Pollution
3.5 Fates of Agrochemicals in Ground and Surface Waters
3.6 Emerging Views and Perspectives
3.7 Concluding Remarks
References
4 Fecal Waste Drives Antimicrobial Resistance: Source Tracking, Wastewater Discriminant Analysis and Management
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Antibiotics/ARB/ARGs: Source Tracking
4.3 Fecal Pollution and the Public Health Risks
4.4 Fecal Indicator Bacteria and Discriminant Analysis
4.5 Management Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance
4.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical Factors
5.3 Chemical Factors
5.4 Biological Factors
5.5 Conclusion
References
6 Parasites: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Method of Analysis
6.3 Methods to Find Concentration of Parasites
6.4 Procedures for Enumeration of Parasites
6.5 Waterborne Protozoan Parasites
6.6 Protozoan Parasite Testing in Water
6.7 Waterborne Helminths
6.8 Water Treatment
6.9 Nanotechnology
6.10 Conclusions
References
7 Oils: Source, Method of Analysis and Treatment
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Oils Causing Pollution and Their Sources
7.3 Method of Analysis
7.4 Treatment
7.5 Conclusion
References
8 Phosphate: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources of Phosphate Pollution in Water
8.3 Method of Analysis
8.4 Phosphate Removal Treatment
8.5 Conclusion
References
9 Endocrine Disruptors: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Parabens: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
9.3 Alkylphenol Ethoxylates: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
9.4 Bisphenols: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
9.5 Phthalates: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
9.6 Conclusions
References
10 Water Pollution by Heavy Metals and Their Impact on Human Health
Abbreviations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources of Heavy Metals
10.3 Heavy Metals in Water and Their Toxic Effect on Human Health
10.4 Different Water Treatment Techniques for Removal of Heavy Metal from Polluted Water
10.5 Conclusion
References
11 Dyes: Sources, Method of Analysis and Treatment
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification of Dyes
11.3 Analysis of Dye Pollution
11.4 Treatments for Removing Dye Pollution from Water
11.5 Conclusions
References
12 Pharmaceutical Pollution of Water Bodies: Sources, Impacts, and Mitigation
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Pharmaceutical Pollution: The Global Scenario
12.3 Sources of Pharmaceutical Pollution
12.4 Factors Affecting Pharmaceutical Pollution
12.5 Impacts of Pharmaceutical Pollution
12.6 Mitigation and Surveillance
12.7 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
13 Instrumental Testing of Quality of Water
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Conclusion
References
14 Catalytic Membranes for Water Pollution
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Configuration of Reactors
14.3 Membrane Reactor for Water Treatment
14.4 Conclusions
References
15 LDH-Based Materials for Photocatalytic Dye Degradation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Dye Degradation
15.3 Factors Affecting Efficient Degradation
15.4 Layered Double Hydroxide Materials (LDH)
15.5 Polyoxometalates Metal-Based LDH Composite
15.6 Carbon-Based LDH Composite
15.7 Semiconductor-Based LDH Composite
15.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
16 Biomineralization as a Strategy for the Bioremediation of Toxic Metals–Contaminated Water
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Minerals Commonly Found in Water and their Effects
16.3 Justification for Toxic Metal Detoxification
16.4 Water-based Metal Detoxification through Biomineralisation
16.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook
References
17 Phytoremediation of Radioactive Pollutants
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Advancement in Methodologies for Phytoremediation of Radionuclides: From Conventional to Novel Approaches
17.3 Preliminary Assessment of the Contaminated Site for Phytoremediation
17.4 Screening of Plants for Effective Uptake of Radionuclides
17.5 Augmentation for Radionuclide Bioavailability
17.6 Post-Phytoremediation Management of Radionuclides
17.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Frequency (%) of polluted water in different countries.
Table 1.2 Limiting values of parameters.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of different techniques to treat wastew...
Table 2.2 Various techniques for the removal of halogenated hydrocarbon.
Table 2.3 Various techniques to remove organic pollutants.
Table 2.4 Applications of different nanomaterials.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Occurrence and levels of contamination of groundwater bodies with pe...
Table 3.2 Occurrence and levels of contamination of surface bodies with pestic...
Table 3.3 Half-life of various pesticides in water.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Control and fecal contamination in different water sources
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Waterborne diseases caused by infectious organisms present in pollut...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison of discussed disinfection processes.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Ship bilge pump data [21].
Table 7.2 Typical oil and grease values in industrial wastewater [18, 89, 90, ...
Table 7.3 Regulatory oil-grease discharge limits for some countries and region...
Table 7.4 Oil and grease removal processes.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Phosphate removal by lanthanum oxides and its composites.
Table 8.2 Phosphate removal by nanomaterial and nanocomposite.
Table 8.3 Phosphate removal by iron and its composite.
Table 8.4 Phosphate removal by Biochar.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Some examples of EDCs belonging to European Union lists.
Table 9.2 Main treatments for parabens elimination found in the bibliography.
Table 9.3 Parabens properties [64].
Table 9.4 Summary of treatments for NP removal from wastewaters.
Table 9.5 Summary of treatment for bisphenols removal from wastewaters.
Table 9.6 Summary of treatment for phthalates removal from wastewaters.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Some heavy metals have harmful impacts on human health.
Table 10.2 Comparative analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the sev...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Characteristic of dyes generally used in textile/paper/leather indu...
Table 11.2 Merits and demerits of different physical methods of decolorization...
Table 11.3 Merits and demerits of different chemical methods of decolorization...
Table 11.4 Merits and demerits of different biological methods of decolorizati...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Major classes of pharmaceuticals detected from global water bodies ...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Standard Potable water specifications by WHO.
Table 13.2 Relative weight of chemical parameters.
Table 13.3 Classification of water quality on the bases of WQI.
Table 13.4 Rating of water with different TDS concentrations [14].
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Polymeric membrane with TiO
2
for degradation of pollutants.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Summary of MB dye degradation efficiency by non-metal, metal oxide,...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Allowable limits for toxic metal as ions for WHO and USEPA in water...
Table 16.2 Different microorganisms involved in biomineralisation.
Table 16.3 Metal specific biomineralising microorganisms.
Table 16.4 Metal detoxification technologies compared.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Candidate plant species effective in phytoremediation of radionucli...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Domestic sewage.
Figure 1.2 Toxic industrial waste.
Figure 1.3 Inorganic contaminants in water.
Figure 1.4 Biological contaminants in water.
Figure 1.5 Industrial pollutants cause ground water pollution.
Figure 1.6 Industrial waste discharge in open lands.
Figure 1.7 Industrial waste discharge.
Figure 1.8 Strategies to prevent water pollution.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Different causes of water pollution.
Figure 2.2 Effect of water pollution on plant growth.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Global pesticide usage per hectare of cropland (1990 to 2017)
Figure 3.2 Projections of global synthetic fertilizer consumption (1961-2019).
Figure 3.3 Routes of groundwater pollution by agrochemicals (drawn by author).
Figure 3.4 Factors affecting the leaching of pesticides into groundwater bodie...
Figure 3.5 Fate of agrochemicals in ground and surface waters (drawn by author...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Bibliometric map of keywords, generated by VOSviewer, based on resu...
Figure 4.2 Antibiotic classes occurrence and distribution in different aqueous...
Figure 4.3 Modes of resistance gene transfer in bacteria by (a) transformation...
Figure 4.4 The origin and transferred ways of antibiotics.
Figure 4.5 Fecal contamination levels of surface waters for human supply
Figure 4.6 Unit operations and basic steps in traditional processes for wastew...
Figure 4.7 Main biological methods and rates of removal of antibiotics from wa...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Biochemical oxygen demand.
Figure 5.2 Chemical oxygen demand.
Figure 5.3 Structure of DDT and DDE.
Figure 5.4 Nitrification process.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Sedgwick rafter apparatus.
Figure 6.2 Centrifuge extractor apparatus.
Figure 6.3 Compound microscope apparatus.
Figure 6.4 Whipple ocular micrometer apparatus.
Figure 6.5 Stage micrometer apparatus.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 The most important factors of oil pollution in the oceans [139].
Figure 7.2 Phase states with emulsions, O: oil; W: water; M: middle phase.
Figure 7.3 Combination forms of oil particles formed by emulsion decomposition...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Various phosphate removal methods and its mechanisms.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Most known EDCs, their molecular structure and the presence and sou...
Figure 9.2 Diseases that can appear as a consequence of human exposure to EDCs...
Figure 9.3 Chemical structure of phthalates.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a) Pollution caused by heavy metals and their sources; (b) Heavy ...
Figure 10.2 Heavy metal toxic effects on human health.
Figure 10.3 Molecular structure of some turn-off/turn-on fluorescent chemo-sen...
Figure 10.4 Reaction scheme for synthesis of Eu-based MOF for detection of ars...
Figure 10.5 Conventional treatments for eliminating heavy metals.
Figure 10.6 (a) gold, (b) silver, (c) iron oxide and (d) zinc sulfide nanopart...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Damages caused by effluents consist of dyes.
Figure 11.2 Dye-solution absorbance vs. concentration plot.
Figure 11.3 Classification of wastewater treatment methods.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Sources and Impacts of pharmaceutical pollution. The figure shows ...
Figure 12.2 Relative distribution of APIs detected from water bodies across th...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Classification of water impurities.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Membrane as separator/extractor.
Figure 14.2 Membrane reactor as a distributor.
Figure 14.3 Design of an MR as a contactor.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Schematic representation of various sources of water pollution.
Figure 15.2 Schematic representation of the dye degradation process.
Figure 15.3 Suggested adsorption path of NO
2
on Ni–Al–CO
3
LDH adsorbent
Figure 15.4 Schematic illustration proposed mechanism of MB dye over g-C
3
N
4
\Zn...
Figure 15.5 Photoelectric conversion mechanism NF-LDH/dye LB films
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Demonstrating microbial induced carbonate biomineralization.
Figure 16.2 Microbial-mediated reactions with phosphate that promote metal pre...
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Diagrammatic representation of Phytoremediation. (a) Phytoextracti...
Figure 17.2 Uptake mechanism of radionuclides. Radionuclides present in the co...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Handbook of Water Pollution
Edited by
Inamuddin
Tariq Altalhi
and
Arwa Alrooqi
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-90480-9
Cover Image Background: Water Pollution: Toa555 | Dreamstime.comCover images: Trash in Water: Marinv and Water Testing: Natali Filina | Dreamstime.comCover design by Kris Hackerott
1Introduction to Water Pollution
Hira Munir1*, Areeba Kashaf1, Mahnoor Masood1, Rabia Sajid1, Hira Amjad1, Tahreem Shehzadi1 and Jawayria Najeeb2
1Department of Biochemistry, Government College Women University Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
2Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan
Abstract
Contamination in natural resources is principally pollution; water pollution is one of them. Natural water is pure and useable but nowadays it is polluted due to human activities. When different contaminants enter water bodies like rivers, lakes and oceans, they make the water unsafe for human consumption and also disturb the aquatic ecosystem. Water pollution from a point source or non-point sources has drastic effects on marine life and human health. Due to urbanization, industrialization increased. Industries, without treating that chemical-containing water, release effluents into water bodies. Later on, chemicals like arsenic, phosphorous and other pesticides will cause severe toxicity for aquatic life and also cause kidney and liver disorders in humans. Color, pH, turbidity, hardness, BOD, and TDS exist as constraints to water quality. Water pollution can be reduced by management or by applying strategies like water maintenance, reducing plastic pollution, controlling air pollution and educating people about environmental preservation. Before releasing any industrial waste, it is essential to treat that contaminated water. By using biotechnological approaches, we can prevent water pollution on a higher level.
Keywords: Water, contamination, pollution, agriculture, biotechnology, plastic wastes, microorganisms, sewage, industry
1.1 Pollution
Pollution can be defined as a flow of physical constituents that harm the human ability or capacity to adore life. Pollution includes running down any resource faster than it can revive itself, physical garbage, air and water pollution, exhaustion of the soil, problems of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), noise and radiation levels [1]. The by-product of production is contamination, which is steadily dissolving and damaging the environment. The adverse effects of pollution are ignored by the market outcome and therefore result in greater levels of output and pollution as well [2]. Pollution is a diverse term; it is a form of unwanted energy that is detrimental to well-being [3].
1.2 What is Water Pollution?
In the 21st century, one of the major difficulties that humanity is facing is associated with water quality issues. In all parts of the world, organic toxic waste of water has become the foremost community distress. The unhygienic and poor quality of water is responsible for about 3.1% of deaths worldwide [4]. Due to climate change, there is an escalation of the water cycle; high temperature of water and melting of glaciers are causing water problems to be more serious. Agricultural, domestic and industrial sectors consume more than 1/3rd of water on Earth and these actions are the basis of water impurity. Recreation, urbanization, population growth and exposure to pathogens through food chains are additional threats [5]. Among the natural resources water is the most vigorous component as it is essential for the survival of life, production of food, and economic growth. Seawater is 98% water; high salt concentration makes it unusable while freshwater is only 2% percent and 1.6% is covered by glaciers and ice sheets. Another 0.36% exists as groundwater and water boreholes and 0.036% could be reachable to ponds and channels [6]. Environment and progress are highly affected by the quality (depending upon region and season) and accessibility of water. Worldwide many cities are facing severe water shortages. Water contamination is a stern risk to both the Earth and its inhabitants [7].
The word “pollute” means to make something infected or unclean. In the case of water, pollution infers observable floating debris is present [8]. A water pollutant is the accumulation of any material to water that alters its usual characteristics to such a degree that it can be used or whatever thing which brings about a decline in the diversity of aquatic life and ultimately disturbs the balance of life [9]. About 80% of the population is showing higher levels of hazards related to water [10]. Living beings require pure, safe water to grow. Water is the universal solvent and hence a major cause of infections worldwide. Waterborne diseases are 80% as stated by WHO. In most countries, potable water does not reach WHO standards [11].
Outflow from water tanks and discharge of domestic and industrial waste, marine discarding, radioactive waste and atmospheric deposition cause water pollution. There is an addition of trash metals in ponds and rivers that are harmful to living beings. The toxins cause immune destruction, regenerative collapse and critical toxicity. This includes communicable infections such as bacterial dysentery, typhoid, gastrointestinal diseases, skin and renal problems [12]. Plants and animal nutrition directly affect human health. Water pollutants are slaughtering marine life, which reduces foodstuff meant for humans. Insecticide absorption is growing in the food chain and is damaging to people [13].
Domestic sewage (Figure 1.1) causes 75-80% of water pollution. There are fewer flora and fauna in the polluted river that has unbearable smells [14]. Numerous marine ecologies (lakes, salted water and marine water) are at risk of indirect outcomes for mortality. Ineffectively handled or unprocessed water is released in large quantities into surface, earth and coastline water [15].
Figure 1.1 Domestic sewage.
1.3 Prevalence of Water Pollution
According to WHO reports, approximately one thousand million people drink water from a source polluted with faeces worldwide, which causes infectious diseases such as cerebral palsy, fever, dehydration, intestinal infection, and hepatitis. Hence, twelve lac individuals are dying from water-borne infections yearly. In underdeveloped and developing countries, almost 50% of the inhabitants have water-related issues. Table 1.1 presents the frequency (%) of water toxic waste in different countries. Contaminants, for example micro-plastics, anti-bacterial medicines, PFAS and many other related products in water, are health hazardous to organisms. Water is essential for drinking and sanitation, farming, businesses and industry [15].
Out of 122 nations, Pakistan ranks at number 80 concerning water quality. Coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides cause water contamination throughout the country. Water quality parameters set by WHO are often violated [12].
Arsenic-containing potable water is affecting sixty million Pakistanis, the largest mass poisoning in history. In the dried pipes used for water supply, an E. coli bacterium can grow into masses within a week. Intake of such polluted water may cause bone and false teeth damage, diarrhea, fever, liver damage, other waterborne infections and death of numerous people [16].
1.4 Categories of Water Pollution
There are two categories of water pollution:
Point sources
Non-point sources
Table 1.1 Frequency (%) of polluted water in different countries.
Country
Frequency (%) of water pollution
America
95% polluted river [
62
]
Pakistan
84-89% of polluted water [
14
]
India
80% polluted resources [
63
]
China
66.6% polluted freshwater [
64
]
1.4.1 Point Sources
Point sources are the category of water pollution directly from an identifiable source. This includes the following:
Wastewater effluent
Stormwater discharge
All of this affects the area near these point sources. The characteristics of point sources of chemical inputs to receiving water are:
Water effluent from municipal and industrial areas.
Waste disposal site runoff and leachate.
Animal feedlot runoff and infiltration.
Mines, oil fields and unsewered industrial sites runoff.
Storm sewer outfalls in cities with a population greater than 100,000.
Sanitary and combine storm outfalls.
Construction site runoffs [
17
].
Point source pollution is always from a known source such as the industry of sewage pipelines. These sources are associated with manufacturing processes and their discharge from water treatment plants and animal feeding operations [18]. Industries dump toxic chemicals into the waterways as shown in Figure 1.2, sometimes intentionally or sometimes accidentally. These pollutants reduce oxygen from the water body which will kill aquatic life. They may settle in the tissues of fishes which we will eat. All this pollution affects forest trees and agricultural fields when this water reaches them. Point source pollution is artificial pollution; it is basically from domestic, industrial and farm stocking residue sources [19].
Figure 1.2 Toxic industrial waste.
1.4.2 Non-Point Sources
It is the category of water pollution which gathers from different origins from different non-identifiable sources. There are several ways by which these impurities enter groundwater and surface water.
Non-point sources generally include:
Runoffs from agricultural means or urban areas
Radioactive waste from nuclear reprocessing plants
1.4.3 Transboundary Pollution
It is a term in non-point sources that means pollution from one place affects hundreds and thousands of kilometres or miles of area. The characteristics of non-point sources of chemical inputs to receiving water are:
Agriculture runoff is from the irrigated area.
Pasture and range runoffs.
Urban runoffs from sewered areas with population greater than 100,000.
Leachate from a septic tank and runoffs from septic tanks that failed.
Construction site runoffs.
Abandoned mines runoffs.
Atmospheric deposition on the water surface.
Some lands generate contaminants activities on these lands such as logging, wetland conversion, development of land and waterways and construction [
17
].
Non-point sources of pollution create gigantic problems. These occur when water from rainfall, snowfall or irrigation runs off and gathers pollutants as it reaches the water body. This may contain different pollutants such as paints, dyes, salts, insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers, oils, solvents, acids, etc. Non-point pollution is natural pollution and harms the environment as compared to point pollution. It is more dangerous than point source pollution [19].
Non-point sources are called non-point as they have no point source; they gather from different miscellaneous or diffuse sources that are not specific. Non-point sources consist of sources from pollutants of roadways and road salting activities, litter, improper use of fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides, acid deposition, leakage from sewer lines, dumps from boats and ships and cleaners from boats and ships, etc. [18].
1.4.4 Problems Caused by Point and Non-Point Sources
As it reduces the oxygen level in the waterbody it will affect photosynthesis in aquatic plants which will affect the ecosystem.
Absorption of pollutants by terrestrial and aquatic trees.
Mud and clay from construction sites kill the plants and trees. Herbicides affect and kill plants and trees; this chemical is very dangerous for plants [
19
].
1.5 Water Pollutants
Water can be contaminated by the following pollutants:
1.5.1 Organic Pollutants
The organic impurity is caused by vigorous evolutionary origins that include internal left-over, manufacturing waste, pesticides and fungicides. These pollutants can cause serious health problems and diseases such as cancer, nervous breakdown and hormonal disorders [20].
Pesticides are polluted through aseptic and agricultural sources. The environmental effects of pesticides due to health and agriculture are due to the incomplete procedure [21]. The pesticides are made in such a way that they link with the chemicals that live in the body, thus affecting the metabolic rate of organisms. Pesticides may cause liver diseases and mental breakdowns, sometimes also causing tumors in the liver and brain [22].
The greatest group of organic contaminants that cause environmental concerns are dyes. The release of dyes as contamination in water causes eutrophication and non-esthetic pollution, which is very dangerous for marine life [23].
Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) contain organic chemicals and solvents like aromatic hydrocarbons, trichlor and chloroethene; remove the grease, and petroleum extracts. VOCs are the source of long-lasting health disorders that include brain and spinal-related illnesses, hepatitis, cancer and renal damage, reproductive system diseases, and genetic failings [24].
In addition to all the above, some contaminated compounds are also present in water that cause health problems and are very risky. These compounds are evolving organic toxins. It includes domestic and industrial products including petroleum products, pharmaceuticals products including erythromycin and tetracycline, fragrances including glaxolides, plasticizers and surfactants. Most of them are carcinogenic [25].
1.5.2 Inorganic Pollutants
Chemical parameters help in measuring contaminations present in water. Naturally occurring contamination is the hardness of drinking water and this hardness is caused by calcium and magnesium components in water. Hardness may be carbonated and non-carbonated. It depends on particles that bind to Ca and Mg. If the combination occurs with carbonate, then this will be a degree of carbonates and bio-carbonates present in water. If the combination is held with non-carbonate this will be due to anions and sulphate.
As shown in Figure 1.3, some inorganic compounds contaminate water, such as fluoride, lead and copper, etc. Overexploitation of groundwater exaggerates the problems of fluoride concentration in the water. Fluoride contamination in water causes dental, skeletal problems, Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. Fluoride enters the brain and blocks the blood sites causing the risk of nervous disorders [20].
Copper is present in rocks and soil so they deposit in water and cause contamination. It can lead to minor gastral problems but persistent intake of copper-containing water in the body can lead to permanent liver and renal loss [26].
Lead also causes contamination in water. It gradually destroys the urban water arrangements and can lead to extensive problems for hypertensive patients and kidney infections in humans [27].
Figure 1.3 Inorganic contaminants in water.
Nitrate contamination originates from the fertilizers present in manure and human and animal waste. A higher value of nitrate in water leads to severe infections, due to the transformation of nitrate into nitrite. It may cause inhibition of oxygen passage in the blood. This results in difficulty in breathing and cyanosis [28].
1.5.3 Biological Pollutants
It is caused by the presence of algae, fungi, bacteria, protozoans and viruses in water. Each one of these causes serious health problems by drinking this kind of contaminated water. Algae are contaminated and single-celled organisms. The excessive growth of algae in water causes a bad smell and production of germs and insects in water, which causes health problems. Sometimes blue-green algae release toxins which damage the skin, liver and brain (Figure 1.4) [29].
Bacteria are unicellular and microscopic organisms. Some pathogenic bacteria contaminate water leading to diseases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery. There are also some non-pathogenic bacteria which are not as harmful but cause taste and smell problems [30].
Protozoans are present in rivers and lakes contaminated with animal faeces; they dissolve in water causing contaminations and are harmful to plants. They are also single-celled organisms. Diseases caused by protozoans are abdominal cramps, vomiting, tiredness, diarrhea, water deficiency and pains.
Figure 1.4 Biological contaminants in water.
Viruses cause diseases such as hepatitis and polio by contaminating water and eatables. Sometimes hepatitis may be severe and can’t be treated and it leads to the death of a patient [24].
1.5.4 Radiological Pollutants
It is caused by radioactive elements. These radioactive elements are obtained from soils and rocks. The natural deposits of minerals by erosion emit the radiations such as alpha and beta radiations of radioactive elements, which may include U226, Ra226, Ra228 and Rn228, which are very harmful and toxic for underground water and also for exterior water. The tumor is caused by radioactive elements [31].
1.6 Kinds of Water Pollution
1.6.1 Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater consists of chemical, physical and biological properties. Most of the groundwater is colorless, odourless and tasteless. Groundwater pollution mechanisms and surface water pollution have many sources in common which include fertilizers, pesticides, and animal wastes. Groundwater, however, does not naturally flow to a single passage at the topographic bottom of the watershed; the improvements in watershed control can be openly measured. Groundwater release depends on topography which includes mountainous, hilly, or flat, and the sources of groundwater (precipitation; purification of irrigation water, waste from streams, canals) and groundwater pumped in wells. Groundwater is discharged to wells that are dispersed to watershed or groundwater basin, or it may discharge to down-gradient lakes segments and canals, springs, or neighbouring groundwater basins [32].
Groundwater pollution consists of four major origins: domestic, industrial, agricultural and environmental pollution.
Industrial pollution consists of hazardous chemical compounds which are released through industries in sewage water as shown in
Figure 1.5
. These chemical compounds also consist of highly radioactive elements which cause serious effects on human health and are also harmful to the marine life; they are present in canals or rivers where industrial water is also discharged.
Figure 1.5 Industrial pollutants cause ground water pollution.
Agricultural water pollution is produced when rainwater takes away fertilizers, salts, minerals, herbicides and pesticides from fields. Some fertilizers are toxic and when this water is discharged into canals, they cause problems for marine life and also human life.
Environmental water pollution is produced by the interference of seawater [
33
].
1.6.2 Domestic Water Pollution
Domestic water pollution is produced by the release of domestic waste. It may consist of waste from washrooms, latrines, waste kitchens, and the release of domestic sludge containing soaps and some organic substances. Domestic sewage is drained in large amounts into untreated rivers. It comprises toxicants, solid excess, plastic messes and bacterial impurities, and these toxic constituents cause water pollution [34].
1.6.3 River Water Pollution
Water for both drinking and irrigation for agriculture purposes comes from rivers. They are important for the development of forest means, transportation, sustaining soil fertility, and conserving wildlife. Developing countries discharge industrial effluents into rivers [35]. River water needs the least treatment for consumption if it has fewer contaminants, although rivers are utilized as dumping means for liquid and dense excess. It is essential to address river pollution issues with the government for a high-quality water supply [36].
1.6.4 Surface Water Pollution
The naturally occurring factors such as geological, topographical, meteorological, hydrological and biological determine the composition of surface water in the drainage sink, and weather conditions affect its composition and water levels. Surface water quality is getting worse and is insufficient for living because of hasty exploitation of water resources, industrialization and other actions. The variation in surface water affects groundwater badly [37].
1.7 Determination of Water Quality Parameters
1.7.1 pH
The pH is evaluated by taking a water sample in a beaker and placing the probe of the pH meter in the beaker for some time. Then reading was shown on the pH meter but the final value was taken when the value on the pH meter became fixed.
1.7.2 Color
The water sample was taken in a small beaker of the spectrophotometer. This was done for color testing and then reading was taken by spectrophotometer.
1.7.3 Turbidity
This water sample was taken in a very small tube of turbidity meter and when the process starts, the reading was taken which was shown on the meter.
1.7.4 Hardness
The hardness of water was checked by taking a water sample of 50 mL in a beaker and diluting it with 50 mL of refined water. Then one mL starch was placed in the beaker after which the titration process occurs. The reading was taken when the color of the solution turns to purple.
1.7.5 BOD
BOD stands for Biochemical oxygen demand. To measure this parameter, the sample of water was taken in a bottle and diluted with distilled water. The probe multimeter was then placed in that bottle and the reading was noted down. Then the bottle was placed in a refrigerator at a temperature of 200 °C for at least 5 days and after 5 days the readings were taken through a multimeter.
1.7.6 TDS
TDS stands for total dissolved solids. The probe of the multimeter was put down in the sample for a few minutes. The readings which are shown on the multimeter were as the TDS of water [7]. Limiting values of parameters to determine water quality is mentioned in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Limiting values of parameters.
Parameter
Standard
Hardness
200-500 miligram/Liter
Potential Hydrogen
6.5 - 8.5
Biochemical oxygen demand
0.2 miligram/Liter
TDS
1000 miligram/Liter
COD
4 miligram/Liter
Colour
15 pt
CO
2
-
DO
6 miligram/Liter
Cl ion
0.2 miligram/Liter
Turbidity
10 NTU
1.8 Sources of Water Pollution
1.8.1 Urbanization
The chief cause of water contamination is industrial expansion. Because of overpopulation plus urbanization, the number of industries is increasing day by day, and their monitoring level is going downward. Many industries discard the wastes in water bodies or open lands as shown in Figure 1.6. Urbanization is a fast-growing issue. Because it has minimum sustainability also there are no effective government policies to control the unhealthy way of discarding the wastes into an open area or different water bodies [38].
1.8.2 Agriculture
Agriculture serves as a significant source of water contamination. To enhance the crop yield, farmers use different types of chemicals, manure, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. An excessive amount of potassium and nitrogen is provided to crops. If potassium and nitrogen leach into the groundwater below the root zone, then they cause the deposition of chemicals and are ultimately a threat to the groundwater. Also, the use of pesticides and insecticides cause much damage to the soil and land water. They cause soil acidification and heavy metal accumulation. To get better results yield, some farmers use agrochemicals and manure. But this creates problems for the land water. When animals and humans consume that low-quality and highly polluted water, it causes serious health issues [39].
Figure 1.6 Industrial waste discharge in open lands.
1.8.3 Industrialization
Due to lack of management, some industries do not treat their wastewater. They discard the wastes directly or indirectly into the land or different water bodies as shown in Figure 1.7. Industrial waste includes many harmful and toxic chemicals. It also includes Arsenic. Arsenic causes many infectious diseases in humans and also damages animals. When children drink water containing arsenic, it causes skin infections [40]. Heavy metals, when discarded by industries into water bodies, also cause a disturbance of the geochemical cycle. The pH of the water is also affected by the chemicals released by industries after certain biological processes. If the pH of the water is disturbed then it will become impossible to drink or consume that water. Heavy metals are also important but at a certain point, when they exceed their limits, they cause damage to humans, animals, crops and aquatic life [41].
Figure 1.7 Industrial waste discharge.
1.8.4 Population Growth
The increasing population is greatly affecting the water quality. Solid trash generation is greater than before due to the rise in population. There is the discharge of solids and liquids into rivers. Humanoid excreta are contaminating water badly. A large number of bacteria is present in polluted water, which is risky for human health. Urban areas have more sanitation facilities than rural areas. Plastic bags are used to throw the waste away, which is a major source of pollution. Urbanization can cause many infectious diseases. The rate of defecation in the open is approximately three core individuals of urban areas while flush latrines are used by 77% of people and 8% are using pit latrines [12]. Urban areas have congestion, unhygienic environments, and impure drinking water which is the major cause of health issues there. One-quarter of urban inhabitants are vulnerable to disease [34].
1.8.5 Oil Spillage
Oil spillage is the release of crude hydrocarbons in surroundings that occurs both by intention and accidentally. A thin layer is formed on the water surface due to oil spread. Oil spill causes water contamination and greatly affects marine life. The food chain and structure of wetlands are mainly affected by oil spread [42]. If oil-polluted water gets consumed, it has adverse health effects. The hydrocarbons negatively affect the kidneys and liver of those who consume it [43].
1.9 Effects of Water Pollution on Humans and Animals
Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day. All this is because of contaminated water or untreated water. When heavy metals and carcinogenic agents are present in the water, they directly or indirectly enter our food chain in the form of aquatic food. It causes serious health issues. Also in some areas, people used to drink polluted water. Polluted water not only causes health issues but also in some cases it becomes fatal, because that water contains different disease-carrying agents like bacteria and viruses. It also badly affects the productivity rate in plants. Soil gets damaged early and loses its productivity and fertility. If it goes on like this, soon the chances of the survival of life on planet Earth will be much reduced.
Waterborne infectionsWaterborne infections begin mainly through drinking unclean water. Several micro-organisms and different chemicals are reason for these diseases. Some of them are Diarrheal diseases, cholera, cancer, tooth and skeletal damage and schistosomiasis, etc. [44]. Some of the most prominent diseases caused by water contamination which cause a great threat to human health are:
1.9.1 Diarrheal Diseases
It is caused by consuming water that has parasites, fungus, bacteria and viruses. Not only diarrhea, but contaminated water also causes abdominal cramps, nausea and vomiting. If it becomes severe and untreated, then it may cause death, especially in children [45].
1.9.2 Cholera
It is caused by the presence of gram-negative bacteria which is Vibrio cholera. It enters the water through contamination and then enters the body by different means, mainly by drinking. Vibrio cholera, after entering the body, travels through the tract and starts growing and making colonies in the small intestine. Cholera may be considered as morbidity and sometimes mortality. It can be fatal if enters a severe phase [46].
1.9.3 Microcystins
When nitrogen and phosphorous enter the groundwater or fresh water in an excessive amount, it causes eutrophication and algal blooms. It also causes several symptoms in humans such as fever, abdominal pain, headache, sore throat, and vomiting. If it goes untreated and ignored for a longer period then it may cause liver injury, intestinal cancer, genotoxicity and liver cancer, etc. [47].
1.9.4 Sound Effects of Contamination of Water on Aquatic Animals
The effluence of water is a human-created problem. The major cause of it is industrialization. Through industrialization, local waters are being destroyed and polluted all over the world. Heavy metals and other carcinogenic chemicals create a major threat to marine animals. It also disturbs the ecological cycle. It becomes difficult for aquatic animals to breathe and swim easily. Their reproductive cycles also get affected. Besides water pollution, all types of water pollution are considered a great threat to aquatic animals [48].
Deficiency of water resourcesThere is a rising issue of water shortage globally. Basically, this is shortage of clean drinking water. It is because of the continuous contamination of water. So if the water resources got depleted and contaminated at the same rate and level, then it becomes a serious future threat to the survival of humankind on this planet [49].
1.10 Prevention of Water Pollution
To control water pollution, numerous methods could be used. It can be by practice efforts, participating in a project; monitoring and regulation or control measures such as reduction and minimization of waste [50]. Prevention of water pollution can be achieved in the following ways, as shown in Figure 1.8.
Preventing water pollution with your actions
Don’t put trash into lakes, rivers or any water body; make sure that beaches in your country are clean [
51
]
Wash down your vehicle far from the rainstorm conduit.
Do not discharge garbage, toxic waste, and solutions into sewage drains.
The septic structure should be examined after every three to five years.
Utilize fertilizer and insect killers in much smaller amounts, especially those pesticides that can cast out into water systems.
Rather than overflowing your boulevard sweep it down.
In daily households use ecofriendly (that does not suspend in water) cleaning material.
Don’t wipe away your paintbrushes down into the drain.
Figure 1.8 Strategies to prevent water pollution.
Some other approaches to prevent water pollution on your own are to follow the simple rules made by your country to regulate different kinds of pollution as well as to lessen the bad outcomes of pollution [52]. Most of the approaches are accessible via Environmental Protection Agency website. Balancing plus inspecting is a productive approach to pollution management [13].
Pollution could be prevented by these practices:
By reprocessing
By utilizing again
Minimizing the trash
By lessening its worse effects
By nipping it in the bud
By inseminate.
1.10.1 Strategies
1.10.1.1 Water Maintenance
Close the tap while not using water. This will help in preserving water from getting polluted as less amount of water will be contaminated; it will also prevent the shortage of water. Water is a limited resource; it needs to be managed responsibly and used accordingly [53].
1.10.1.2 Wastewater Treatment
Water purification is a method in which pollutants are removed from polluted water which results in water that is pure enough to be used later on for its intended use. Wastewater treatment was supported to lessen the harmful effects of polluted water on the organism and to preserve water sources. Many biological, chemical and physical approaches are used to treat the water [54]. Waste type, effluent heterogeneity conditions, concentration, the purpose of treatment, degree of cleansing and economic parameters will decide which treatment method will be used.
1.10.1.3 Devices
We are living in a technology era, and this technology can also be used to control water pollution. There are many devices such as bag houses, cyclones and electrostatic precipitators used as the dust collection system. There are scrubbers for removal of gases from water, e.g., baffle sprinkle and ejector venture scrubber, automatically supported scrubbers etc., and for management of sewage, triggered bio-slurry filters and aired inlets are used. Industrialized toxic water is controlled by API oil-water filters, bio-filters, DAF, processed elicited carbon management, and vapour retrieval systems, as well as vegetation-enhanced bioremediation techniques [55].
1.10.1.4 Air Pollution Prevention
Air contamination directly contaminates the water, e.g., 25% of human-produced CO2 is absorbed by oceans which leads to acidification of oceans [56]. By controlling air pollution, we can control water pollution.
1.10.1.5 Organic Farming
Water contamination can be reduced by using the organic farming method. Plenty of water gets contaminated when nitrate leaches from soil into water. Almost 70% of the world’s water is used by the agriculture sector; by using green agriculture we can also limit the number of pesticides retained in water [57].
1.10.1.6 Stormwater Management
Stormwater management is an important step in preventing water pollution. We have to limit rainwater or melted snow flow into streets, gardens and in-ground areas so that less water gets contaminated. Through this process, water quality can also be improved [58]. If the stormwater is not managed well it will cause water pollution on a bigger level as it contains sediments from soil oil or grease from roads and other contaminations.
1.10.1.7 Plastic Waste Reduction
By reducing plastic waste, we can reduce water pollution in the ocean and other water bodies. Plastic pollution is a severe human-induced issue in aquatic ecosystems across the world. It is the need the hour to improve plastic waste management. The 3Rs of plastic waste management are a major eco-friendly idea aimed at creating plastic-free environments. Plastic packaging should be strongly prohibited. Factory owners involved in the manufacture and use of plastics can play a critical role in decreasing and reusing plastics. These initiatives might be individual or group efforts aimed at minimizing plastic pollution in the ocean [59].
1.10.1.8 Environmental Education
Without water, there is no life on Earth. Despite its significance, water is mainly polluted by human activities and waste. By educating people about environmental preservation we can prevent water pollution. Environmental education is a key to reducing water pollution [60].
1.11 Control and Prevention of Water Pollution by Biotechnology
Biotechnology has its role in the treatment of wastewater through biological methods and composting techniques by which solid wastes can be disposed of in environmental engineering.
Biological methods include:
Activated sludge
Biofilters
Trickling filters
Oxidation ponds
Rotating biological contractor
Membrane bioreactor
Anaerobic treatment
Environment engineering techniques:
Solid waste composting techniques
Bio trickling filters
Biosorption
In all of these methods, the main thing is to identify microorganisms that will degrade the organic substance and carry out the process under suitably favourable conditions.
ImportanceThe use of biotechnology in the treatment of wastewater is very significant as it is very economical and environmentally friendly. Microbiological processes are very important to excrete major wastes from the environment. Biotechnological methods are very flexible as we can improve the quality of products and reduce cost. Although it costs much, at the same time it is worth it as it removes the threat and prevents water pollution–related problems [61].
1.12 Conclusion
Water is the most precious resource on Earth. We cannot imagine our lives without water. Water pollution originates from many sources and causes. It is mainly a human-induced problem. Polluted water does not merely destroy human health, it negatively affects agriculture plus industrial departments. It can be prevented by using environmentally friendly cleaning products and organic fertilizers and not pouring fats, paints and other products containing harmful chemicals down to the sewage system or into any water body. It’s high time to change individual behaviour regarding disposing of any kind of waste. If we continue like this, maybe one day future generations won’t have water to drink.
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