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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
HARVESTING FOODS from WEEDS Food science is a rapidly changing and complicated subject. This new series addresses the current state-of-the-art concepts and technologies associated with the industry and will cover new ideas and emerging novel technologies and processes. With the world's population continuing to grow exponentially, with many "food deserts" across the globe, including even in rich countries, food production is more important than ever. Finding alternative ways to produce food, in a sustainable way, is increasingly important and something that is on the minds of scientists, engineers, policy makers, and other professionals. Weeds are mainly undesirable plants, but nowadays researchers are exploring these weeds as a food source. Weeds can also grow in adverse climatic conditions with minimum nutritional requirements. Weeds that are rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds are suitable ingredients for functional foods and meet nutritional requirements at a cheaper cost and thus are lucrative and attractive for the food industry. This latest volume in the groundbreaking series, "Bioprocessing in the Food Industry," covers different types of weeds, like eleusine indica, tribulus terrestris, hibiscus cannabinus, corchorus, gynandra gynandropsis, and many others. These weeds have limited food applications, mainly because of traditional food production. This book will provide detailed knowledge regarding the nutritional value, health benefits and processing methods of these weeds. Readers will learn how these weeds can be utilized for food production, healthy food development, and sustainability. Combining the technological requirements, food safety and quality, this book showcases the utilization of modern technologies to process food products with great benefits. The volume will comprehensively meet the knowledge requirements for the curriculum of undergraduate, postgraduate and research students for learning the concepts of bioprocessing in food engineering, as well as veteran engineers, policy makers, scientists, chemists, and other industry professionals. It is a must have for any library.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Chenopodium Species
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chenopodium Varieties
1.3 Growth and Plantation
1.4 Health Effects
1.5 Medicinal Values
1.6 Anti-Nutritional Factors
1.7 Methods of Elimination of Anti-Nutritional Factors
1.8 Traditional Food Products
1.9 Future Scope
1.10 Conclusion
References
2 Herbs of Asteraceae Family: Nutritional Profile, Bioactive Compounds, and Potentials in Therapeutics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Future Prospects
2.3 Conclusion
References
Appendix A: Comprehensive List of Plants in Asteraceae Family
3
Tribulus terrestris:
Pharmacological and Nutraceutical Potential
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Chemical Composition and Active Constituents Possessed by
Tribulus terrestris
3.3 Nutritional and Antinutritional Content of Leaves of
Tribulus terrestris
3.4 Medicinal Benefits of TT Extracts
3.5 Ayurvedic Importance and Recommendations
3.6 Biological Activities of
Tribulus terrestris
3.7 Pharmacological Profiling of
Tribulus terrestris
3.8 Mechanisms of Action of
Tribulus terrestris
3.9 Effects of Herbal Supplements with Medication Effects
3.10 Herb-Drug Interconnection
3.11 Toxicity and Dosage
3.12 Conclusion
References
4 Eleusine Indica
4.1 Origin and History
4.2 Botanical Explanation
4.3 Production, Development, and Maturation
4.4 Nutritional Profile
4.5 Bioactives: Pharmacology and Bioactive
4.6 Pharmacology
4.7 Health Benefits
4.8 Future Prospectus and Conclusion
References
5 Hemp (
Cannabis sativa
L.) Agronomic Practices, Engineering Properties, Bioactive Compounds and Utilization in Food Processing Industry
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hemp Taxonomic Classification
5.3 Agronomic Practices/Growing Condition for Hemp Cultivation
5.4 Hemp Phytomorphology
5.5 Hemp Plant Parts
5.6 Bioactive Compounds
5.7 Pharmacological Properties
5.8 Processing Technologies (Methods and Effects)
5.9 Conclusion and Prospects for the Future
References
6
Ocimum
Species
6.1 Origin and History
6.2 Botanical Distribution
6.3 Production
6.4 Development and Maturation
6.5 Nutritional Profile
6.6 Bioactive Compounds
6.7 Pharmacological Aspect
6.8 Health Benefits
6.9 Industrial Utilization
6.10 Conclusion and Future Prospectus
References
7 Role of Bioactive Compounds of
Bauhinia variegata
and their Benefits
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Origin and Distribution of
Bauhinia variegata
7.3 Cultivation
7.4 Morphology
7.5 Composition
7.6 Bioactive Compound of
Bauhinia variegta
7.7 Role and Structure of Bioactive Compounds of
Bauhinia variegta
7.8 Traditional Uses as a Food
7.9 Therapeutic Value of
Bauhinia variegata
7.10 Health Benefits of
Bauhinia variegatata
7.11 Other Uses
7.12
Bauhinia variegate
Was Used Mythologically
7.13 Market Product
7.14 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
8
Hibiscus cannabinus
8.1 Origin and History
8.2 Botanical Description
8.3 Production
8.4 Development and Maturation
8.5 Nutritional Profile
8.6 Bioactive Compounds
8.7 Pharmacology
8.8 Health Benefits
8.9 Industrial Use
8.10 Conclusion and Future Prospectus
References
9 Dhatura: Nutritional, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Properties
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Botanical Description
9.3 Nutritional Properties and Phytochemistry
9.4 Properties of Plant
9.5 Applications
9.6 Toxic Effects of Datura Plant
9.7 Conclusion
References
10 Bioactive Properties and Health Benefits of
Amaranthus
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Species
10.3 Plant Physiology and Environmental Factors for Growth of Amaranth
10.4 Edible Part and Uses
10.5 Nutritional Properties
10.6 Non-Nutritional Compounds
10.7 Medicinal Properties
10.8 Conclusion
References
11 Corchorus Species: Health Benefits and Industrial Importance
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Various Species of Corchorus
11.3 Future Scope
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Few
Chenopodium
species of the family
Chenopodiaceae.
Table 1.2 Proximate composition of
C. album
leaves.
Table 1.3 Various therapeutic properties of
C. album
with most effective solve...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Medicinal and therapeutic uses of some species of Asteraceae.
Table 2.2 Characteristics of herbs in Asteraceae Family.
Table 2.3 Fatty acids contents of cardoon seed oils and heads (%).
Table 2.4 Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids contents of cardoon seed oils ...
Table 2.5 Mineral composition of cardoon (mg/100 g dry weight).
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Taxonomical classification of
Tribulus terrestris
[9].
Table 3.2 Common classification of
Tribulus terrestris
[4].
Table 3.3 Pharmacological activities of
Tribulus terrestris.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Nutritional profile of
Eleusine indica.
Table 4.2 Bioactive compounds in
Eleusine Indica.
Table 4.3 Health benefits of
Eleusine indica.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Nutritional composition of different parts of hemp plant.
Table 5.2 Bioactive compounds in various parts of hemp plant.
Table 5.3 Bioactive compounds in different plant parts of hemp.
Table 5.4 Potential health benefits of hemp and its plant parts.
Table 5.5 Different types of hemp protein.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Physiochemical composition of
O. grattissimum and O. basilicum
[32].
Table 6.2 Bioactive components of
Ocimum
species.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 The structure and health benefits of
Bauhinia variegta
compounds whi...
Table 7.2 Traditional uses of the various part of
Bauhinia variegta
in food.
Table 7.3 Therapeutic value of
Bauhinia variegta
and its model studies.
Table 7.4 Other uses of the various part of the
Bauhinia variegta
tree.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Proximate composition of kenaf [26, 29].
Table 8.2 Amino acid content of kenaf plant parts [26, 33, 34].
Table 8.3 Total phenol, flavonoids and antioxidant activity of kenaf plant.
Table 8.4 Bioactive compounds present in Kenaf.
Table 8.5 Pharmacological properties of kenaf.
Table 8.6 Health benefits of different parts of kenaf plant.
Table 8.7 Various uses of Kenaf.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Nutritional composition of different Datura species.
Table 9.2 Pharmacological studies of different Datura species.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Vernacular name of amaranthus from different origin.
Table 10.2 Quantitative analysis of macro and micro nutrients of different var...
Table 10.3 Quantitative analysis of macro and micro nutrients of different var...
Table 10.4 Pharmacological activities of Amaranthus species.
Table 10.5 Anticolorectal cancer properties of
Amaranthus
sp.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Classified study of structures of different species of
Corchorus
.
Table 11.2 Constituents of
C. olitorious.
Table 11.3 Chemical composition of
C. olitorius.
Table 11.4 Medicinal uses of
Corchorus
species.
Table 11.5 Classified study of industrial and economic importance of
Corchorus
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Botanical classification of
C. album.
Figure 1.2 Common names of
C. album in different states
[9, 16].
Figure 1.3 Chemical constituents of different parts of
C. album
plant [26–28].
Figure 1.4 Medicinal properties of
C. album
extract with solvent showing maxim...
Figure 1.5 Nutritional and phytochemical composition of
C. album
plant [15, 20...
Figure 1.6 Health benefits and adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors on ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Some common plants in Asteraceae family.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Leaves and flowers of
Tribulus terrestris.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Growing stages of
E. indica
(goosegrass).
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Different parts and their uses of
Cannabis sativa.
Figure 5.2 Sex determination in hemp.
Figure 5.3 Hemp seed.
Figure 5.4 Cross-section of hemp stem.
Figure 5.5 Structure of cannabinoid compounds in cannabis.
Figure 5.6 Structures of different alkaloid compounds in hemp.
Figure 5.7 Structure of different flavonoid compounds in hemp.
Figure 5.8 Structure of different terpene compound in hemp.
Figure 5.9 Process flow diagram for extraction of hemp oil.
Figure 5.10 Process flow diagram for hemp fiber processing.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1
Ocimum
species from India.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Local name of
Bauhinia variegate
in India [4, 14, 15].
Figure 7.2 Composition of the various part of
Bauhinia variegta
[4, 17].
Figure 7.3 Compound present in different part of
Bauhinia variegta
[12, 36–40]...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Botanical description of
Hibiscus cannabinus
(kenaf) plant componen...
Figure 8.2 World production (100 tons) of kenaf and allied fiber crops (2012–2...
Figure 8.3 Kenaf and allied fiber crops production (100 tons) in major cultiva...
Figure 8.4 Oil composition. Comparison of kenaf and other plants seed oil comp...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Parts of datura plant—(a) plant, (b) leaves, (c) fruit, (d) flower.
Figure 9.2 Phytochemical compounds of Datura species.
Figure 9.3 Antiasthmatic and broncho dilating effects of Datura plant.
Figure 9.4 Anticancerous activity of Datura flower.
Figure 9.5 Hypoglycemic effect (by pancreatic β-cells) of Datura plant.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Various amranthus species.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Different species of
Corchorus
.
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Bioprocessing in Food Science
Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD
Scope: Bioprocessing in Food Science will comprise a series of volumes covering the entirety of food science, unit operations in food processing, nutrition, food chemistry, microbiology, biotechnology, physics and engineering during harvesting, processing, packaging, food safety, and storage and supply chain of food. The main objectives of this series are to disseminate knowledge pertaining to recent technologies developed in the field of food science and food process engineering to students, researchers and industry people. This will enable them to make crucial decisions regarding adoption, implementation, economics and constraints of the different technologies.
As the demand of healthy food is increasing in the current global scenario, so manufacturers are searching for new possibilities for occupying a major share in a rapidly changing food market. Compiled reports and knowledge on bioprocessing and food products is a must for industry people. In the current scenario, academia, researchers and food industries are working in a scattered manner and different technologies developed at each level are not implemented for the benefits of different stake holders. However, the advancements in bioprocesses are required at all levels for betterment of food industries and consumers.
The volumes in this series will be comprehensive compilations of all the research that has been carried out so far, their practical applications and the future scope of research and development in the food bioprocessing industry. The novel technologies employed for processing different types of foods, encompassing the background, principles, classification, applications, equipment, effect on foods, legislative issue, technology implementation, constraints, and food and human safety concerns will be covered in this series in an orderly fashion. These volumes will comprehensively meet the knowledge requirements for the curriculum of undergraduate, postgraduate and research students for learning the concepts of bioprocessing in food engineering. Undergraduate, post graduate students and academicians, researchers in academics and in the industry, large- and small-scale manufacturers, national research laboratories, all working in the field of food science, agri-processing and food biotechnology will benefit.
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Harvesting Food from Weeds
Edited by
Prerna GuptaNavnidhi Chhikara
and
Anil Panghal
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-79197-3
Cover image: Dandelion Greens and Jam | Elena Elisseeva | Dreamstime.comCover design by Kris Hackerott
Preface
With the world’s growing population, the demand and supply of food rich in nutrients are also growing. The food industries are working to meet this demand and at the same time keep the nutrients intact. The series, “Bioprocessing in Food Science,” is an attempt to address the recent developments in food sciences. As the demand of healthy food is increasing all over the world, manufacturers are searching for new possibilities to occupy a major share in a rapidly changing food market. Presently, underutilized crops have come to play a major role in fulfilling this demand. And weeds are no less than these. Research workers from various parts of the world have also been devoting attention by working in such fields.
This book contains collective information about the phytochemical potential of various weeds and how to extract and separate them by using newer technologies like spray drying, encapsulation, and and how further to utilize them as functional foods of nutraceutical significance. This will be a new approach towards exploring the nutritional profile of weedy plants that are generally considered as waste. The biggest advantage of this book is that it will change the perspective of people toward weedy plants which can be further utilized to enhance the nutritional and functional properties of food products.
Harvesting Food from Weeds is primarily focused on different aspects in food nutrition, food science, and related subjects for individuals in the food industry, research, academia and students and assumes some knowledge of basic weeds used as food either whole, in parts, or in by-products. Traditionally various weeds are used in treatments of digestive problems, burns, blood purification, piles, arthritics, leukoderma, epilepsy, salivation, fever, cough, abdominal pain, peptic ulcer, hepatic disorder, and many others. The medicinal significance is due to the presence of phytochemicals like flavonoids, iso-flavonoids, and polyphenols. Researchers around the globe will be able to use this information as a guide in establishing the direction of future research in food processing, considering various aspects related to weeds usage in food. The main reason for writing this book now is to disseminate the wealth of knowledge on weeds nutrition and its relation to the food industry. It is envisioned for scientists, technologists, and engineers working in the area of food processing, nutrition, environmental engineering, process equipment design and product development, and students of food nutrition, food science & technology, health science, and engineering.
International peers having both the academic and professional expertise in the field extended their knowledge in the form of chapters of this book. The book illustrates a very clear and concise discussion on weeds usage in the food industry.
Today, with people’s busy schedule, the demand for ready-to-serve food products is also growing. To meet this need, we have made this book by treating the subject in all its essential aspects in a simple and interesting style. We are confident that this book is going to receive an overwhelming response from the industry. Each of the chapters is supported with references owing to be an invaluable resource for the reader. Self-explanatory illustrations and tables of each chapter are an added advantage to understand the technology process and its outcome easily. We have also rationalized the index, which we decided was excessive and contained too many esoteric or trivial entries.
We are indebted to our numerous colleagues for their quality chapters and helping us to complete the book. We also thank the authorities of Lovely Professional University, Punjab, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, and Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar for their support. Finally, we also express indebtedness and thankfulness to Scrivener Publishing and Wiley for their unfailing guidance and assistance provided in finalization and publishing the book.
Dr. Prerna Gupta
Dr. Navnidhi Chhikara
Dr. Anil Panghal
1Chenopodium Species
Priyanka Kundu and Prerna Gupta*
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, (LPU), Punjab, India
Abstract
Plant-based food has been chosen for eating purposes because of its medicinal and health-promoting benefits. Components, like antioxidants, phenols, alkaloids, and flavonoids, present in them exhibit functions as anthelmintic, laxative, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antiseptic, anti-pruritic, and so on. The presence of various minerals, vitamins high-quality proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids helps in performing various functions in the human body. Chenopodiaceae is an underutilized weedy crop having purposeful perspective apart from crucial nutritional benefits, it possesses nutraceutical and functional properties. The leaves of chenopodium species (Chenopodium opulifolium shraeder, Chenopodium murale L, Chenopodium album L., etc.) plants are generally used in various food products to make them more nutritious and healthier because of the presence of minerals, vitamins, fiber, and essential fatty acids. Among all the species, C. album L. is widely famous and consumed in the form of food items like bathua saag, parantha, dosa, and chutney throughout India. Traditionally bathua is used in treatments of digestive problems, burns, blood purification, piles, arthritics, leukoderma, epilepsy, salivation, fever, cough and abdominal pain, peptic ulcer, hepatic disorder, and so on. The medicinal significance is due to the presence of phytochemicals, like flavonoids, iso-flavonoids, and polyphenols.
Keywords:Chenopodiaceae, Chenopodium album, extruded product, plant foods, phytochemicals
1.1 Introduction
Weeds are generally considered unwanted plants embattled for abolition as they grow in between the main crop, compete for nutrition, and do not require further treatment for better growth [1]. It is generally said that “one year of seeding corresponds to seven years of weeding” which means if we sow the weed once, it can be fed to people for seven years [2]. However, they are considered useful to humankind because of their high nutritional, functional, and phytochemical value, as well as medicinal properties [3, 4]. Unfortunately, a major part of our population is not aware of the nutritional benefits of these underutilized crops, especially people staying in urban areas because they are totally dependent on processed foods. It is very important to increase the level of knowledge regarding underutilized crops so that they can make it a part of their daily dietary habits. The incorporation of these underutilized crops into a food can make them functional foods by increasing the nutritional and phytochemical composition of the foods [4]. One fine example of this is C. album, which is commonly called bathua and belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). It is widely growing in gram, mustard and wheat crop fields of the tropical and subtropical regions. This plant grows to a height of 0.3 to 3.3 m, with leaves that differ in size and form [5, 6]. The leaves and young shoots can be consumed like other leaf vegetables but their consumption should be limited due to presence of anti nutritional factor, i.e., oxalic acid [7]. C. album is an excellent source of various nutrients, phytochemicals, and also minerals, such as potassium, iron, calcium and phosphorus [6, 8]. The high nutritive value and medicinal properties that include anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, antiseptic, antipruritic, antinociceptic make it very effective in treating the diseases of heart, blood, eye, and abdominal pain [9]. The processing and utilization of C. album can increase the nutritional and phytochemical composition of different food products. It is generally used in the preparation of dosa, potato curry, corn salad, bathua saag, parantha, chapati, and snacks [10–12]. Bathua’s antimicrobial activity is also gaining researchers’ attention with a zone of inhibition of 19.7 mm against Staphylococcus aureus, 18.3 mm against Bacillus polymexia and 16.37 mm against Streptococcus faecalis in a solvent extract of its leaves [14]. Bathua’s methanolic extract inflorescence extract had the most antifungal activity, reducing fungal biomass generation by up to 60% [4]. The bioactive components of bathua leaves can be evaluated and used for the production of important drugs. It can be concluded that this weedy plant is actually an herb full of nutritional components [13, 15]. This plant could be a good alternative to expensive functional foods and may help in frightening against the hunger problem of India [10, 11]. In this chapter, the functional and medicinal properties of this weedy plant have been discussed.
Figure 1.1 Botanical classification of C. album.
Figure 1.2 Common names of C. album in different states [9, 16].
1.2 Chenopodium Varieties
Generally, 250 species of Chenopodium are present throughout the world but among all these varieties C. murale and C. quinoa is mostly accepted because these weedy crops have higher nutritional content (Table 1.1) [7].
Table 1.1 Few Chenopodium species of the family Chenopodiaceae.
Chenopodium
species
References
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium opulifolium
[
15
–
17
]
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Chenopodium foliosum
Chenopodium bonus henricus
Chenopodium hybridum
Chenopodium botrys
Chenopodium leptophyllum
Chenopodium chilense
Chenopodium missouriense
Chenopodium ficicolium
Chenopodium multifidum
Chenopodium murale
Chenopodium pallidicaule
[
18
,
19
]
Chenopodium polyspermum
Chenopodium rubrum
Chenopodium procerum
Chenopodium Quinoa
Chenopodium urbicum
Chenopodium vulvaria
1.3 Growth and Plantation
C. album is a winter annual herb with 250 species available throughout the world and 21 in India [20]. The stem of Chenopodium is erect with 0.3 to 3 m in height. The leaves are dark green in color with a smooth surface, variable in shape and size, and are generally found to be 15 cm long. Seeds are having 1.5 mm diameter with an acute margin and the flowers are in the form of cluster [21]. The origin of the species is from Europe. It is also found in Western Asia, America, and Mexico [22]. According to the writings of Kalm, an Agricultural economist, the Scandinavians (people living in northern Europe) used bathua as a flavoring agent during the preparation of meat. During ancient times, the Napoleon army was totally dependent on bathua seeds at the time of revenue [23]. In India Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Sikkim, West Bengal are the states that contribute to the production of C. album [24].
1.4 Health Effects
C. album is an underutilized wild plant that is loaded with vitamins and minerals (Table 1.2). Its leaves contain a large number nutrients including vitamin C, vitamin A, protein, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, iron, as well as amino acids [27]. Flavonoids, such as saponin, phenolic amide, alkaloid chinoalbicin, phenols, lignans, cinnamic acid amide, xyloside, have also been discovered to be potent phytoconstituents [28]. It can be a part of our eating habits not only because of nutrients, amino acids, fiber, and vitamins but also to enhance the sensory and functional content of the meal [27]. So this plant in our everyday life has great importance to prevent health from many diseases, its antioxidant effect has active compounds, a strong natural antioxidant mixture has been reported from the leaves of bathua with its key active compounds, which are heat stable and nontoxic when consumed, its dietary invention is important in human [26, 27]. Since ancient times, it is an integral part of Ayurveda due to its health-promoting benefits. It is used to treat hepatic diseases, spleen enlargement, intestinal ulcer [24].Various bioactivities of crude and extracted compounds from the herb, such as anthelmintic, laxative, antipruritic, hypotensive, antifungal, antinociceptive properties, justified its uses in conventional medicinal. Bathua has been used since ancient times for medicinal purpose [9, 14] like to treat burns and irritation, the juice of C. album leaves is commonly used. The leaf juice can relieve skin inflammation and alleviate discomfort and redness. The extract of the arial portion of this plant can be used to treat arthritis by rubbing the solution on the affected part [12]. Its medicinal properties have also been addressed in several ancient books, such as Ayurveda, Charak Samhita, Atharvaveda, Sushruta Samhita from the 6th century, have also discussed about the medicinal properties of bathua [7]. Various chapters are available on medicinal properties of seeds, leaves, flowers and roots of Chenopodium album. The combination of bathua leaves with some cereals leads to the compensation of amino acid profiling food products, this nutritional approach can also be used for C. album in India [10, 11]. Its consumption should be promoted because by exploring this wild underutilized plant we can provide a new food product range to the food industry. We can provide the nutrition of green leafy vegetables to the consumers in the food of their own choice like extruded products or bakery products. It can be used as medicinal ingredient due to the presence of flavonoids and other bioactive phenolics with good antioxidant effect (Figure 1.3). Fermented foods, such as idlli, dosa, and bread, can also be made [14, 20]. C. album and soya that has been protein isolate can also be used to produce low fat-fried noodles, like snacks and extruded goods.
Table 1.2 Proximate composition of C. album leaves.
Nutrients
Concentration
References
Moisture content
89.65%
[
24
]
Protein
3.7%
[
25
]
Fat
0.4%
Dietary fiber
4
Carbohydrates
2.9
[
26
]
Minerals
2.6
Calcium
15 g
Phosphorus
8 g
Iron
4.2 gm
[
23
]
Magnesium
34 mg
Potassium
452 mg
Sodium
43 mg
[
15
,
24
]
Thiamine
0.01 mg
Niacin
0.6 mg
Vitamin C
35 mg
Β-Carotene
1.47 µg
Saponins
0.46 g
Alkaloids
9.7 g
Figure 1.3 Chemical constituents of different parts of C. album plant [26–28].
1.5 Medicinal Values
Traditional medicine has been practiced by a significant proportion of the population for many decades, owing to the natural availability of medicinal herbs. One such common herb is chenopodium album, which contains alkaloids, saponins, phenols, and flavonoids as major phytochemicals [26, 27]. It specifically includes two flavonoids, like quercetin and kaempferol. It has essential oil, mineral matter, mostly potash, and a large number of albuminoids in its leaves. Due to the presence of these phytochemicals, C. album possesses therapeutic properties like a laxative, antirheumatic, anthelmintic, antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antioxidant, contraceptive (Table 1.3) [26–29]. Since ancient times, people used this plant to treat various medical conditions like heart disease, anemia, kidney stone, jaundice, swelling, and burn as well [22, 25]. But with advancements in pharma industries, these traditional plants lost their value hence researchers need to focus on these plants to explore their therapeutic values (Figures 1.4 and 1.5) [28].
Table 1.3 Various therapeutic properties of C. album with most effective solvent.
Effects
Utilization [References]
Antibacterial
Methanol, chloroform, and acetone extract of
C. album
leaves exhibit antibacterial effect against
Lactobacillus
and
E. coli
[
11
].Gqaza
et al
and Ahmad
et al.
[
7
,
31
] studied the antibacterial effect of bathua leaves against human pathogenic bacteria like
Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus
and found that the bathua plant is having highest antibacterial property against
Staphylococcus aureus.
Antifungal activity
The highest antifungal activity was observed in a methanol inflorescence extract of
C. album
, which resulted in a 90% reduction in fungal bio mass production [
32
].
Antioxidant activity
Aqueous extract of
C. album
leaves exhibits significant reducing ability and free radical scavenging effect on DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide and hydrogen peroxide radicals when examined
in vitro
[
11
].
Antinociceptive effect
At doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, an ethanolic extract of the fruits of
C. album
has the ability to suppress scratching activity caused by 5-HT (5-hydroxyryptamine). 5-HT is well known for facilitating inflammatory pain of its own, as well as potentiating pain caused by other inflammatory mediators including noradrenaline and prostaglandin E. As a result, the extract’s antinociceptive action may be mediated by 5-HT inhibition. In mice, the extract reduced the writing responses caused by acetic acid and an interplanetary injection of formaline [
26
,
27
].Investigated the effect of different solvent extract of
C. album
leaves on growth of human breast cancer cell lines and also evaluated its antioxidant activity. And found that methanolic extract of
Chenopodium
leaves showed higher anticancer activity [
33
–
35
].
Anti-cancer
Evaluated antitumor activity of
C. album
flavonoids. The flavonoids contained in
C. album
leaves showed antitumor activity [
33
,
51
].
Anti- ulcer
Evaluated alcoholic extract of
C. album
leaves for its antiulcer activity. It was reported that ulcer index and gastric secretion were reduced with the use of
C. album
leaves extract [
27
].
Anthelmintic activity
Anthelmintic activity of
C. album
against trichostrongylid nematodes was investigated. It was analyzed that
C. album
Aqueous methanolic extracts at 3.0 g/kg on day 5 post-treatment showed a higher rate of reduction (82.2%) in eggs per gram (EPG) of feces [
23
,
25
,
36
].
Spasmolytic
Ethanol, water, chloroform, and ethyl acetate were used for the extraction process. The various extracts were examined on rabbit intestinal smooth muscles. The blunt extract demonstrated a dose-dependent improvement in smooth muscle relaxation, with the highest effect detected at 20 mg/ml (92.86%) [
31
].
Analgesic activity
The tail-flick procedure was used to test the blunt extract’s analgesic activity in mice. From 30 to 210 minutes, a major analgesic effect was observed at a dose of 500 mg/kg [
31
].
Antipruritic and Antinociceptive effects
The ethanolic extract of
C. album
L. investigated for antinociceptive and antipruritic effects at doses of 100–400 mg/kg, dose-dependently inhibited scratching behavior induced by 5-HT. observed that extract of
C. album
flower possesses antipruritic and antinociceptive activities [
14
].
Anti-inflammatory activity
The occurrence of limonene, linalyl acetate, pinene, and linalool in
C. album
seed essential oil was investigated for anti-inflammatory action. It was discovered that the oil’s anti-inflammatory activity is concentration-dependent. As a result, as the oil content grows, the percentage drop in ear edema rises as well [
31
].
Sperm immobilizing agent
C. album
seeds were evaluated for sperm immobilizing capacity by applying the
C. album
seed decoction on the vaginal lining in rats. Results showed that a 2-mg/ml concentration of chenopodium album decoction was effective in the immobilization of spermatozoa [
15
].
Figure 1.4 Medicinal properties of C. album extract with solvent showing maximum therapeutic activity [15, 27–29, 31–34, 51, 54].
1.6 Anti-Nutritional Factors
Anti-nutritional factors are chemical compounds synthesized in natural food by the normal metabolism of species. These compounds have lower nutrient absorption in the body [37–39]. However, if one continues the consumption of the same diet having a high amount of anti-nutritional factors, these toxins will reach to harmful levels in the body. These toxins not only hinder nutrient absorption but also destroy the vitamins in the food. It is important to remove or inactivate these compounds in order to protect the food values and prevent health problems (Figure 1.6). In the same way C. album is also having anti-nutritional factors, such as oxalates, saponins, phytates, and so on. Its anti-nutritional content is the main problem associated with this weed. It is necessary to use the appropriate techniques to reduce the anti-nutritional content to an acceptable level or minimum dose that it should not be toxic to humans [37, 40].
1.6.1 Oxalic Acid
Oxalic acid plays a major role in the formation of oxalates as combination of oxalic acid and its salts form oxalates. Many green leafy vegetables contain oxalic acid in their cell sap in three forms like magnesium salts, which are insoluble, iron, calcium, potassium, and soluble sodium salts or mixer of these two form depending on plant species [40]. Among three forms, soluble oxalates are more dangerous for human health and other minerals preventing absorption of complexes [44]. It is important to take into consideration what amount of oxalates we are getting from our diet. If the oxalate–calcium ratio is greater than 9:4, the detrimental effect of calcium absorption is greater [42, 44].
Figure 1.5 Nutritional and phytochemical composition of C. album plant [15, 20, 21, 27, 28, 30, 32].
1.6.2 Phytate
Phytic acid, also known as phytate, is a natural substance found in green leafy vegetables that serves as a major source of phosphorus storage. Phytic acid is present in plant tissues in the form of potassium, calcium, and magnesium cation salts [37, 38]. The presence of a phosphate group (negatively charged) in phytic acid chelates, and important minerals in human body hinders its absorption. 4 to 9 mg/100 g consumption of phytic acid reduces the absorption of iron by four to five times in the human body [40, 44].
1.6.3 Saponins
Saponins are nonvolatile, surface-active secondary compounds. Saponin word is derived from word sapo, meaning soap, since when shaken with water, saponin molecules form soap-like foams. They are structurally complex compounds called triterpene and steroid glycosides [38, 39]. Bitterness is the major limiting factor of saponins, as bitterness will increase with increase in the concentration of saponins. Saponins may not cause any harm to the human body when consumed in low amounts, the study has been conducted to check the bearable amount of saponins, and it was observed that the number of saponins is more than 150 mg/ kg body weight was found in fetal for sheep [40, 41]. As saponins hinder the absorption of vitamins, saponins have the ability to interact with cholesterol group on the membranes of the erythrocyte, inducing hemolysis. Saponins are thought to form complexes with different sterols that have structures similar to fat-soluble vitamins, interfering with sterol activity and absorption [42–44].
1.7 Methods of Elimination of Anti-Nutritional Factors
Heat treatment has proven to be the most successful method for reducing the anti-nutritional factors found in green leafy vegetables. Blanching and cooking extract anti-nutrients by rupturing the plant cell wall and allowing soluble compounds to leach into the blanching media. Cooking and blanching techniques can effectively decrease phytic acid and oxalic acid levels [40, 45]. A study has been conducted to investigate the effect of blanching anti-nutritional factors of amaranth, bathua, fenugreek, and spinach leaves. It was reported that a combination of blanching and cooking was highly effective in reducing oxalic acid content; however, reduction in phytic acid can be achieved with 10 and 15 minutes of blanching [37, 44].
1.7.1 Drying
Antinutritional factors can be reduced with the help of drying techniques like cabinet drying, sun drying, solar drying, shade drying [45]. The impact of various drying treatments on the anti-nutritional factor of C. album were assessed and observed that cabinet dried C. album leaves shown significant decrease in antinutritional factors [46]. The impact of antinutritional factors of human health is total dependent on their consumption limit. More intake will cause serious health problems.
Figure 1.6 Health benefits and adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors on human health [41–45].
1.8 Traditional Food Products
Traditionally, C. album has been used for the preparation of various food products to enhance the flavor and nutritional value of food products. The leaves of this plant have been incorporated into food products in different forms (powdered and liquid) and in blanched form, primarily for better retention of color and nutrients [4]. C. album when combined with cereals could result in nutritious food product with better susceptible response for all age groups [25].
Series of different food products prepared from bathua are: bathua dosa, [21] bathua potato curry (very popular in West Bengal), [24] bathua corn salad [21], bathua saag (a traditional dish of Punjab and Haryana. It is prepared on a stove made up of bricks and soil), bathua prantha or flat bread (chapatti). The ingredients used are wheat flour, bathua leaves, salt, oil, and water, bathua mathi (salted snack or flaky biscuit) [49, 50]. From raw and germinated Chenopodium flour, gluten-free cookies were prepared. Bathua pancake and boondi is prepared by using bengal gram flour and C. album flour [52, 53]. The physicochemical and morphological properties of prepared cookies were studied and compared with wheat flour cookies. The results clearly showed that germination increased the protein content of flour from 13.12 g/100 g to 15.45 g/100 g and reduced the fat content from 6.5 g/100 g to 4.14 g/100 g. Sweets are the best way to celebrate with friends and family during the festive season. Fortification with green leafy vegetables will add a new variety to sweets. Laddoo prepared from popped amaranth grain and C. album seeds are a good example of nutritious sweet balls. For its preparation, the mixture of popped amaranths grains and C. album will be added into the jaggery syrup up to one-third its consistency [47]. Functional properties have been improved by germination. In contrast to raw C. album and wheat flour cookies, germinated C. album flour cookies revealed 23.97/100 g highest antioxidant activity, total phenolic 671 mg/100 g, and total dietary fiber 38.77 g/100 g [49]. In order to enhance nutrition and strength in immune functions, a high intake of C. album should be encouraged. Preparation of new products with bathua could be a good strategy to provide the nutrition of green leafy vegetables to kids in the form of their favorite products, such as fried noodles, extruded snacks, and fermented foods (dosa, idli, bread). The food industry may use the ability of C. album as antioxidants. This can also provide a crucial substitute of synthetic antioxidant. A study has been done wherein cookies were prepared by supplementing C. album flour along with wheat flour at different levels, such as 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The mixed flour was studied for physicochemical properties. The prepared cookies were examined for physical, textural, and sensorial characteristics. It was observed that the cookies prepared with 40% addition of chenopodium flour have the highest consumer acceptability. It can be inferred from the analysis that with C. album, functional and nutritive improvement is possible [48].
1.8.1 Conventional Food Products Supplemented with Bathua
Bathua (C. album) leaves were dried at 50°C to 60°C for 3 to 4 hours until 6% to 7% moisture was reached. These dehydrated leaves were integrated into two traditional foods, green gram dal and parantha, at 3% to 15% level. Results have shown that dehydrated leaves are abundant in ash, protein, and carbohydrate. The incorporation of 7% to 5% of chenopodium dehydrated leaves into green gram dal and parantha was highly acceptable. Enriched parantha (4255.66±0.6 µg/100 g) and green gram dal (984±.1.8 µg/100 g) had higher carotene content compared to control [47, 48, 52].
1.9 Future Scope
Weedy plants are not just waste but these plants can provide a wide range of various food products in affordable prices. As C. album is highly nutritious, it can give full nutrition to the poor population also the only thing that needs more attention is proper processing technique, which can deliver all the nutrient in the final product as well. Incorporation of bathua in fresh form or in dried form in food products like bathua parantha, bathua dosa, bathua laadoo, bathua cookies will give new taste and variety of foods. Researchers are not focusing on new approach as discussed in this chapter various extracts of this plant are showing therapeutic properties. This extract can be used to produce herbal medicines with techniques like nano-encapsulation or microencapsulation, which are new possibilities for future and can be proven as novel techniques for our new generation with cheapest source of nutrition, i.e., weeds. To maintain good physical and mental health, everybody requires a balanced diet consisting of proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates, meat, calcium. Increasing awareness of health, quality of life and nutritional insecurity leads to a shift in food consumption patterns involving more vegetables in both fresh and value-added forms.
1.10 Conclusion
Green leafy vegetables and weedy plants supply essential nutrients for human health. Vitamins, dietary fiber, amino acids are among them but lack of awareness is the key factor that people deny eating traditional foods, as well as the weedy crops. Increased awareness among the people about this crop can help in adding this plant into their daily dietary intake in different form viz simple and processed form depending on the taste of individuals. But in certain parts of the world, industrial exploitation of C. album is still a long way off. Bathua should be prescribed and must be taken as a part of our regular diet based on the numerous health benefits mentioned in this segment, as well as multiple past confirmed research studies, as its liberal usage is healthy and various health benefits can be derived from this natural herb. The mechanical, dietary, and medicinal properties of bathua can be further exploited in the production of healthier products, according to the studies on bathua described above.
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2Herbs of Asteraceae Family: Nutritional Profile, Bioactive Compounds, and Potentials in Therapeutics
Chinaza Godswill Awuchi1 and Sonia Morya2*
1School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda
2Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India
Abstract
Asteraceae is a large family of flowering plants known as Angiospermae. Asteraceae provides coffee substitutes, herbal teas, sweetening agents, artichokes, sunflower seeds, leaf vegetables, and cooking oils. Plants of Asteraceae with commercial importance include Lactuca sativa, Cynara cardunculus, Carthamus tinctorius (safflower), Smallanthus sonchifolius, Helianthus annuus (sunflower), and so on. Many bioactive compounds including essential oils, polysaccharides, flavonoids, clerodane-type diterpenes, triterpenoid saponines, phenols, salicylic acid derivatives, occur in Asteraceae, and have many biological activities, such as gastroprotective, antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, spasmolytic, and antimicrobial effects. Diuretic activities have been linked with leiocarposide and flavonoids, while anti-inflammatory effects are attributed to phenolic compounds such as leiocarposide, hyperoside, quercitrin, and so on. Cytotoxic activities could be attributed to the terpenic compounds. The energy store in Asteraceae mostly exists as inulin. Asteraceae produces tannins, acetylenes, alkaloids, iso/chlorogenic acid, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, sesquiterpene lactones, and so on. Most of the substances have promising potential in medicine, diet, and therapeutics.
Keywords: Asteraceae, bioactive compounds in Asteraceae plants, medicinal properties of Asteraceae, Asteraceae therapeutics, nutritional properties of Asteraceae plants, phenolic compounds in Asteraceae
2.1 Introduction
Asteraceae, also called Compositae, composite, daisy, aster, orsunflower family, is widespread and large family of Angiospermae (Magnoliophyta or flowering plants) [1, 2
