Hydrogen Electrical Vehicles E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Advances in Hydrogen Production and Storage (AHPS)
- Sprache: Englisch
HYDROGEN ELECTRICAL VEHICLES Hydrogen electrical vehicles are an essential component of the "Green New Deal" and this book covers cutting-edge technologies designed for fuel-cell-powered cars. The realization of the decision of 28 countries to keep global warming at 2 degrees and below, which is stated in the Paris Agreement, and the achievement of minimizing CO2 emissions, can only be accomplished by establishing a hydrogen ecosystem. A new geopolitical order is envisaged, in which sectors dealing with energy production, distribution, and storage, thus decreasing the carbon footprint, are reconstructed. In short, an economic order with new tax regulations is being created in which the carbon footprint will be followed. This global effort called the "Green Deal" is defined as a new growth strategy aiming at net-zero CO2 emissions. We know that the total share of transportation in CO2 emissions is about 24%. Therefore, efforts for reducing emissions must include utilizing hydrogen in transport. The subjects covered in the book include: * An introduction to hydrogen and electrical vehicles; * Hydrogen storage and compression systems; * Hydrogen propulsion systems for UAVs; * Test and evaluation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles; * Hydrogen production and PEM fuel cells for electrical vehicles; * The power and durability issues of fuel cell vehicles. Audience The book will attract readers from diverse fields such as chemistry, physics, materials science, engineering, mechanical and chemical engineering, as well as energy-focused engineering and hydrogen generation industry programs that will take advantage of using this comprehensive review of the hydrogen electrical vehicles.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Hydrogen Electrical Vehicles
1.1 Hydrogen Usage in Electrical Vehicles
1.2 Hydrogen Production for Electrical Vehicles
1.3 Hydrogen Storage Methods
1.4 State-of-the-Art for Hydrogen Generation and Usage for Electrical Vehicles
1.5 Conclusions
References
2 Study on a New Hydrogen Storage System – Performance, Permeation, and Filling/Refilling
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Outline of the New Storage System
2.3 Results
2.4 Conclusions
Abbreviations
References
3 A Review on Hydrogen Compression Methods for Hydrogen Refuelling Stations
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Mechanical Compressors
3.3 Non-Mechanical Compressors
3.4 Electrochemical Compressors
References
4 Current Technologies and Future Trends of Hydrogen Propulsion Systems in Hybrid Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
4.1 Introduction of Fuel Cell-Based Propulsion for UAVs
4.2 Unified Classification of the Components | of a Hybrid Electric Power System in UAVs
4.3 Fuel Cell-Based Hybrid Propulsion System Architectures
4.4 Experiments on Fuel Cell-Based UAVs
4.5 Energy Management Strategies of Fuel Cell-Based Propulsion
4.6 Conclusions and Future Trends for Fuel Cell-Based Propulsion of UAVs
References
5 Test and Evaluation of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Test and Evaluation System
5.3 Safety Performance Requirements for FCVs
5.4 Hydrogen Leakage and Emission Test
5.5 Test for Energy Consumption and Range of FCVs
5.6 Subzero Cold Start Test for FCVs
5.7 Conclusion
References
6 Hydrogen Production and Polymer Electrode Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells for Electrical Vehicles
6.1 Introduction
6.2 PEMFC Technology
6.3 Hydrogen Storage for FCs and On-Demand Hydrogen Generation
6.4 FCs and Automotive Applications
Summary and Concluding Remarks
References
7 Power Density and Durability in Fuel Cell Vehicles
7.1 Fuel Cell Performance and Power Density
7.2 Fuel Cell Degradation Mechanisms
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Current and future development plan for ZEB in regions other than US...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Values of PF for several situations [44–48].
Table 2.2 Properties of the materials for the sphere and chip [51–58].
Table 2.3 Combinations of materials for the storage system (CFEP for all struc...
Table 2.4 Scenarios for domestic garages with parked vehicles, adapted from Ad...
Table 2.5 Time to get 20 bar in the envelope tank and values of C
%
for the sce...
Table 2.6 Characteristics of the storage system (envelope tank + spheres + chi...
Table 2.7 Data for the evaluation of energy consumption during refilling.
Table 2.8 Energy consumption during refilling.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Comparison of fuel cell types used in UAVs [24, 55, 56].
Table 4.2 Comparison of energy components used in UAVs [20, 24, 50, 71].
Table 4.3 Power and energy density of energy sources [71].
Table 4.4 Examination of UAVs with fuel cells [74–79].
Table 4.5 Example of energy management strategies (EM) in UAVs.
Table 4.6 Studies on energy management (EM) in UAVs.
Table 4.7 Some patent studies in small UAVs with the hybrid propulsion system.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Main items of test and evaluation system for FCVs.
Table 5.2 Main test and evaluation items for the FCEs.
Table 5.3 Main test and evaluation items for accessory components.
Table 5.4 Estimation results of hydrogen leakage of vehicle A and B (reprinted...
Table 5.5 Results of hydrogen consumption and range of a plugin fuel cell car ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Comparison of FC technologies.
Table 6.2 Comparative characteristics of some proton-conducting polysulfone co...
Table 6.3 Several coating materials and their properties recently reported in ...
Table 6.4 Different bipolar plate flow channels design and properties recently...
Table 6.5 Commercialized FCEVs and their configurations [58, 175–184].
Table 6.6 FCEBs available in Europe and US [58, 186].
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Hydrogen as a source of fuel future development plan. (Net Zero by ...
Figure 1.2 Components of FCEV (U.S. Department of Energy).
Figure 1.3 Current and future development plan for ZEB in California-USA (Fuel...
Figure 1.4 Current status of water electrolysis projects (Hydrogen: A Renewabl...
Figure 1.5 Prices of electrolyzers (Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective).
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 New system for hydrogen storage.
Figure 2.2 Charging chamber process – first alternative.
Figure 2.3 Charging chamber process – second alternative, TPS; Tank pressure s...
Figure 2.4 Pressure inside the spheres and in the envelope tank, combination 1...
Figure 2.5 C
%
in the garage, combination 1 from Table 2.5.
Figure 2.6 GED of spheres made of several materials with ID from 10 up to 70 m...
Figure 2.7 VED of spheres made of several materials with ID from 10 up to 70 m...
Figure 2.8 Comparison between the system under study and the storage systems o...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Components of a typical reciprocating piston compressor [3].
Figure 3.2 Visualization of the operation of a reciprocating compressor stage ...
Figure 3.3 Components of a diaphragm compressor stage [7].
Figure 3.4 Visualization of the operation of a reciprocating compressor stage ...
Figure 3.5 A metal hydride compressor stage utilizing an outer shell heating/c...
Figure 3.6 A metal hydride compressor stage utilizing a spiral finned heat exc...
Figure 3.7 Components of electrochemical compressors [19].
Figure 3.8 Visualization of the operating principle of electrochemical compres...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Basic structure of a fuel cell.
Figure 4.2 Comparison of energy components in terms of efficiency, lifetime, g...
Figure 4.3 Demonstration of an energy management unit and energy components in...
Figure 4.4 Classification of hybridization schemes according to the control of...
Figure 4.5 Classification of hybridization schemes according to the control of...
Figure 4.6 Classification of energy management strategies.
Figure 4.7 Comparison of energy management strategies according to performance...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Difference of FCVs, PHEVs and BEVs (reprinted with permission [1]).
Figure 5.2 Sealed test chamber for FCV hydrogen safety test (reprinted with pe...
Figure 5.3 Hydrogen concentration changing in the parked state for vehicle A (...
Figure 5.4 Hydrogen concentration changing in the parked state for vehicle B (...
Figure 5.5 In-chamber hydrogen concentration under combined operating conditio...
Figure 5.6 In-chamber hydrogen concentration under combined operating conditio...
Figure 5.7 Fuel cell stack power change under two different driving cycles (re...
Figure 5.8 Battery power change under two different drive cycles (reprinted wi...
Figure 5.9 Energy flowing schematic of the HCVs in starting process (reprinted...
Figure 5.10 Software frame for subzero cold start test of FCVs (reprinted with...
Figure 5.11 Power supplied by fuel cell stack and traction battery (reprinted ...
Figure 5.12 Power consumed by air conditioner and PTCs for fuel cell and tract...
Figure 5.13 Hydrogen concentration of emission from tailpipe during start proc...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The grants for energy sector by US government (Reproduced from the ...
Figure 6.2 Categorization of the Fuel Cells Market based on type, region, cust...
Figure 6.3 The sales of global hydrogen FCV yearly and cumulative between the ...
Figure 6.4 (a) Schematic representation of a typical PEMFC; HOR takes place at...
Figure 6.5 Transport of water within a PEMFC [18].
Figure 6.6 The timeline of the BPs developments in PEMFC EVs.
Figure 6.7 The hydrogen storage tank installed in a Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen car [8...
Figure 6.8 Hydrogen storage techniques with comparative volumetric (MJ/L) and ...
Figure 6.9 Hydrogen storage materials listed by FCTO [94].
Figure 6.10 Schematic representation of NaBH
4
hydrogen generator attached to F...
Figure 6.11 Classification of hydrogen (International Renewable Energy Agency,...
Figure 6.12 The proposed design for 100% renewable system that is applied to t...
Figure 6.13 Classification of vehicles in transport industry (Reproduced from ...
Figure 6.14 FC stack with BOP components in Toyota Mirai [58, 185].
Figure 6.15 FC buses (FCBs) in California: Zero Emission Bay Area Demonstratio...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 A schematic view of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC).
Figure 7.2 The effect of blockages on heat and mass transfer improvement; (a) ...
Figure 7.3 Different configurations of blockages along with the parallel flow ...
Figure 7.4 Different convection mechanisms for in-line and staggered configura...
Figure 7.5 (a) Interdigitated flow field with constant channel width, (b) non-...
Figure 7.6 (a) Schematically comparison between conventional fuel cell based o...
Figure 7.7 Reducing the cell thickness by replacing both the rib-channel and G...
Figure 7.8 Comparing conventional parallel flow field in the fuel cell of Mira...
Figure 7.9 Honda Clarity flow field modifications, (a) stack thickness reducti...
Figure 7.10 Automotive conditions for a fuel cell vehicle.
Figure 7.11 The electrochemical reactions during start-stop cycles and the pot...
Figure 7.12 Schematic of the triple-phase zone (TPZ) on the surface of Pt part...
Figure 7.13 The structural formula of PFSA ionomer.
Figure 7.14 (a) Ostwald ripening mechanism, (b) Ostwald ripening timeline, (c)...
Figure 7.15 Pt coalescence via crystallite migration.
Figure 7.16 Summary of automotive degradation mechanisms.
Guide
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Advances in Hydrogen Production and Storage
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Hydrogen Electrical Vehicles
Edited by
Mehmet Sankır
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey
and
Nurdan Sankir
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-16638-1
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
The decision of 28 countries to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees celsius in accordance with the Paris Agreement, can be realized by minimizing CO2 emissions, which can only be accomplished by establishing a hydrogen ecosystem. A new geopolitical order is envisaged, in which sectors dealing with energy production, distribution, and storage, and thus an increasing carbon footprint, are reconstructed. In short, an economic order with new tax regulations is being created in which carbon footprints will be followed. This effort, which is called the “Green Deal,” is defined in Europe as a new growth strategy aiming for net-zero CO2 emissions. We know that transportation is responsible for about 24% of all CO2 emissions. Therefore, any efforts to reduce emissions must include utilizing hydrogen in the transportation sector.
Fuel cells use hydrogen directly in most types of vehicles—from passenger cars to trains—without some of the disadvantages of batteries such as low energy density, high initial costs, and a slow charge. Therefore, the number of hydrogen filling stations required for fuel cells, about one-tenth of the number of fast-charging stations, can meet the same needs as batteries. Additionally, hydrogen charging is at least three times faster. Therefore, it is essential to emphasize that hydrogen-powered transportation is still the most reasonable way to reduce emissions.
As part of our “Advances in Hydrogen Productıon and Storage” series, this volume covers the cutting-edge technologies used in fuel cell-powered cars. Additionally, it highlights the research efforts presented in the literature while adding a valuable component to the area. It also discusses basic as well as advanced engineering details for both scientists and engineers in academia and industry.
There are seven chapters in the book. Chapter 1 introduces hydrogen and electrical vehicles. Hydrogen storage and compression systems are analyzed in Chapters 2 and 3, respectively. Chapter 4 discusses hydrogen propulsion systems for UAVs. The testing and evaluation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are covered in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 focuses on hydrogen production and polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells for electrical vehicles. The final chapter, Chapter 7, covers the issues concerning the power and durability of fuel cell vehicles.
In closing, we wish to thank the distinguished authors for their valuable contributions in reviewing the efforts made towards using hydrogen in electrical vehicles.
Editors
Dr. Mehmet Sankır and Dr. Nurdan Demirci Sankır
Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology Engineering,
TOBB University of Economics and Technology
1Hydrogen Electrical Vehicles
Ameen Uddin Ammar, Mohamad Hasan Aleinawi and Emre Erdem*
Sabanci University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Materials Science and Nano Engineering, Orhanli, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
Hydrogen usage in electric vehicles is one of the domains which provide immense potential to explore in the race of energy efficient vehicles. As the world continuously moves towards clean and green environment, where all possible measures are been taken to minimize the carbon emission. Discussed here are the following: the numbers of hydrogen-utilized projects for energy, reducing prices of clean energy production facilities, and researching new methods to store hydrogen. Fuel cells which use hydrogen as the source of energy are proving themselves to be a serious candidate in this cause with numerous research are taking place to avail this opportunity.
Keywords: Hydrogen electrical vehicles, zero carbon emission, hydrogen storage, green environment, hydrogen production, carbon capture, electrolysis, fuel cells
1.1 Hydrogen Usage in Electrical Vehicles
Probably the most crucial and challenging issue the world is facing nowadays is carbon emission. It has effects over several aspects, from environmental problems, power generation, economy, and many others. The world has reached the “no going back” point with carbon emissions, and we have to take effective measures in dealing with this challenge. Luckily, many nations and agencies started to intensify their efforts in order to face this problem. This can be sensed from International’s Energy Agency (IEA) “net zero emission by 2050 roadmap” report [1]. IEA plans to make drastic changes to fuel sources and replacing fossil fuels which have a high carbon emission with hydrogen from pure hydrogen sources such as electrolysis or low carbon hydrogen sources such as methane and ammonia. Figure 1.1 above displays the future development plan for hydrogen usage as a fuel in different sectors.
Figure 1.1 Hydrogen as a source of fuel future development plan. (Net Zero by 2050).
We can see how the plan is to grow from below 100 Mt to greater than than 500 Mt between 2020 and 2050. We can also notice that using hydrogen as a fuel in transportation also plays a crucial rule in the upcoming years.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV) uses energy extracted from hydrogen fuel cell as a source of fuel [2]. FCEV has zero carbon emissions, and the only emissions are water and heat. FCEV also has a higher efficiency compared to conventional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) cars. Thanks to the regenerative braking system, a battery can be connected to brakes in order to store lost energy due to braking and use it elsewhere. FCEV has some advantages over all electric vehicles. First of all, FCEV takes its power from hydrogen tanks, which means it doesn’t require long charging times like electric vehicles. Another clear advantage is that FCEV power is dependent on the hydrogen tank size, while electric vehicle’s power depends on the size of the battery.
Figure 1.2 below shows the main components of FCEV [3]. A stack of fuel cells provides the required energy extracted from the hydrogen tank, and of course the output of this reaction is energy plus water without any carbon emissions. The battery at the back of the vehicle is connected to the braking system in order to harvest the lost energy due to braking and store it for future use.
Figure 1.2 Components of FCEV (U.S. Department of Energy).
Bear in mind that FCEV is not only limited to cars. It can be used in busses, trains, or even as a source of power for space missions. The latter is actually very important since the output water can be of great use in space missions where there is no source of water. Figure 1.3 below shows the current and future development of Zero Emission Busses (ZEB) in California, USA.
Figure 1.3 Current and future development plan for ZEB in California-USA (Fuel Cell Buses in U.S.).
Table 1.1 Current and future development plan for ZEB in regions other than USA (Fuel Cell Buses in U.S.).
Region
Number of ZEBs
Europe
1467
Asia
2518
Australia
100
South America
2
Total
4087
In the USA alone, the estimated number of ZEB between 2020 and 2040 is 7000, between Fuel Cell Electric Busses (FCEB) and Battery Electric Busses (BEB). Table 1.1 above shows the same development plan for regions other than the USA [4].
1.2 Hydrogen Production for Electrical Vehicles
Obviously, fuel cells need hydrogen in order to operate, and the process is 100% carbon free. However, the pure hydrogen sources so far haven’t been carbon free. In fact, carbon emissions involved in hydrogen production from fossil fuels and coal are matched to and sometimes higher to carbon emissions from IC vehicles [5]. It is not enough to shift into hydrogen as a fuel to cut down carbon emissions. Hydrogen sources should also be carbon free in order to optimize this technology. Germany has proposed a 150 Million EUR project of 100 MW water electrolyzer that uses wind energy in order to produce pure hydrogen from water electrolysis. Producing hydrogen from renewable sources such as wind or solar energy is the key of success for this approach. Netherlands also is studying a 2 GW project similar to Germany. Austria is currently producing pure hydrogen from a 6 MW water electrolyzer. Japan, Canada, China, USA and many other countries are also investing in similar projects.
Figure 1.4 below shows the current status of water electrolysis projects.
An alternative and less costly solution is to use “Blue hydrogen production” which is producing pure hydrogen from fuel fossils with capturing CO2 emissions. Of course, blue hydrogen is not CO2 free. In fact, CO2 capture efficiency is estimated at 85–90% at best. However, it is still a good option to reduce carbon emissions and to provide pure hydrogen for use as a fuel. Figure 1.5 below shows the expected fall of price of electrolyzers between now and 2050.
Figure 1.4 Current status of water electrolysis projects (Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective).
Figure 1.5 Prices of electrolyzers (Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective).
1.3 Hydrogen Storage Methods
Pure hydrogen can be stored in two main methods [6]:
Physical storage.
Chemical storage.
Physical storage implies that hydrogen atoms do not interact with the storing medium. It can be either compressed or liquefied cryogenically. Compressed hydrogen can be stored in gas cylinders, stationary storage systems such as underground reservoirs, glass microsphere, pipelines, and other methods.
Chemical storage on the other hand occurs when hydrogen atoms interact with the storage medium. It can be categorized as adsorption, such as adsorption by zeolites and metal-organic materials. It can be also categorized as absorption, such as metal hydrides. Finally, it can also be categorized as chemical interactions with storage materials such as liquid organic hydrides, ammonia and methanol, water reacting metals.
Each of the aforementioned methods has its pros and cons. Storing hydrogen physically is the simplest method. However, it requires a considerable amount of energy to compress the hydrogen or liquefy it. Chemical storage methods are effective, but still under development in order to optimize an efficient way to store pure hydrogen for usage as a fuel.
1.4 State-of-the-Art for Hydrogen Generation and Usage for Electrical Vehicles
Xu et al. [7] designed a liquid hydrogen storage tank to be used in remotely operated aircraft which will have increased endurance and will fly at high altitude. The work reported the basic structural design and analysis of the cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank, a thermal model was established for the tank and heat leakage of the support system was reduced by building insulating support. The result obtained shows the feasibility of the design and analysis method with stable structure and required mechanical strength.
Aceves et al. [8], showed that the cryogenic capable pressure vessels integrated within a cryo-compressed storage system can store high-density hydrogen, they have high thermal endurance compared to conventional liquid hydrogen tanks, and can improve the evaporative losses in automobiles. The developed system store hydrogen more efficiently, provide fast refueling, and are light in weight. The system developed was demonstrated on the hydrogen hybrid vehicle which enhanced the driving range on a single fuel tank with high thermal endurance.
Okumus et al. [9], developed a hydrogen generation system (HGS) using borohydride and a fuel cell system (FCS) to power and manufacture an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The research works on preparing an economical and durable hydrogen generation catalyst through sodium borohydride solution by keeping it under high pressure in the reaction chamber and by controlling the flow rate of the fuel pump and heating device power. While for the fuel cell system of the UAV, a high-rate hydrogen generation system catalytic hydrolysis of NaBH4 through transition metal catalysts was developed. The developed HGS and FCS generate 218 W power and show an energy density value of about 325 Wh/kg.
Ahluwalia et al. [10] performed the technical assessment of the onboard and off-board performance of cryo-compressed hydrogen storage tank which will be used in automotive applications. The on-board performance assessment includes weight, volume energetics, and refueling while the off-board assessment includes thermal management greenhouse gas emissions and energy efficiency, etc. The works show that a cryo-compressed storage system has the potential to meet the required target which has the appropriate gravimetric capacity, volumetric capacity, and in control hydrogen loss during dormancy under certain conditions of minimum daily driving.
Yamashita et al. [11], reported the manufacturing of a high-pressure hydrogen storage system which will be used in Toyota Mirai. The new hydrogen storage system used incorporated new components such as valves, regulators, and tanks which will provide increased hydrogen capacity without compromising on the interior space. The weight of the new storage system was reduced by using improved Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) and refueling performance was also improved on the developed hydrogen storage system by ensuring compatibility with the SAE J2601 and J2799 standards for communication between the hydrogen station and vehicle.
Zhang et al. [12], presented a thorough system design and control strategy of the vehicles that are utilizing hydrogen energy. The work presented hydrogen supply, hydrogen storage method, safety protocols of the hydrogen vehicle system. In the hydrogen vehicle, three different types of the fuel storage system are used for a brief period, that are high pressure, liquid storage, and metal oxide storage system to see compare performance. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is used as fuel cells and the driving form and intelligent control of the PEMFC hybrid vehicle are analyzed.
Gany et al. [13], showed the benefits of utilizing electric power and using onboard hydrogen generation storage for marine vehicles. Aluminum– water reaction is carried out for the generation of hydrogen and electric energy vehicles, the method used shows a high reaction rate and increased hydrogen production at room temperature. The use of this storage system with PEM fuel cell provides a compact method for electrical energy storage which was feasible for long duration and long-range. A model boat equipped with a hydrogen reactor, fuel cell, and electric motor has been constructed and operated, demonstrating the technology.
Ananthachar et al. [14], showed the comparison of energy efficiencies of different types of the hydrogen storage system used in a fuel cell vehicle, the work also analyzed the reformer system in a fuel cell vehicle. Three of the most used fuel storage methods on fuel cell vehicle were compared which includes (a) compressed hydrogen gas storage, (b) metal hydride storage, and (c) onboard methanol-reformer system. The compressed hydrogen gas stored fuel cell vehicle was concluded to be the most energy-efficient vehicle. The compressed hydrogen gas tank vehicle storage at 33% is either slightly above or equal to the battery-electric car depending on the source of fuel in the power plant producing electricity for the battery charging. The compressed gas system is simple in design; lighter in weight compared to the other system, and is far more energy-efficient.
Deluchi et al. [15], showed an analysis of the performance, technology, safety, and environmental aspects of the solar-hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, a fuel cycle where hydrogen is generated by the solar-electrolysis of water and after that used in a fuel-cell-powered electric motor vehicle. The developed vehicle will produce very little pollution. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle shows the best feature from both battery-powered and fossil fuel vehicles, which includes zero-emission, quiet operation, high efficiency, fast refueling time, and long life with long-range.
1.5 Conclusions
In short, in the year of 2022 it is possible to say that Hydrogen is the next wave for electrical vehicles due to its numerous advantages. Therefore in very near future Hydrogen will play the key role in the mobility which uses renewable energy systems. Recently the fuel cell research and its industrial applications gained enormous momentum and one of the best ways to use the hydrogen as energy source is to build smart fuel cell systems having high energy efficiency and zero CO2 emission. Using of such systems will serve the decarbonization both in industry and transport. In addition, it is envisaged that in near future fuel cells may complement batteries and supercapacitors to decarbonize energy storage systems. By this in case of transportation it is possible to predict that in about 50 years zero emission vehicles will be mobile on the roads. Further Hydrogen busses and trucks, and fuel cell trains (hydrail) are next applicable vehicles having heavy loads and long distances.
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