Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Mycorrhiza and its Applications in Agriculture and Forestry
Abstract
INTRODUCTION (SOIL, PLANTS, AND MICROBES)
Soil and the Environment
Soil Organisms and Microbes
Soil-Plant-Microbe Interrelationships
GLOBAL FUNGAL BIODIVERSITY
Phylum Chytridiomycota (Chytrids)
Phylum Zygomycota (Conjugate Fungi)
Phylum Glomeromycota (Arbuscular Fungi)
Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)
Phylum Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)
MYCORRHIZA
Rhizosphere
Mutualist Dyanamics
Mycorrhizae
Structures and Characteristics of Mycorrhizae
Types of Mycorrhizae
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF MYCORRHIZAE
Ectomycorrhiza or Ectotrophic Mycorrhiza (ECM)
Ecto-endomycorrhiza or Ectendomycorrhiza (ECNM)
Endomycorrhiza or Endotrophic Mycorrhiza (ENM)
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM)
Orchid Mycorrhiza (OM)
Ericoid Mycorrhiza (EM)
Monotropoid Mycorrhiza (MM)
Arbutoid Mycorrhiza (Arb. M)
Miscellaneous Types of Mycorrhiza (Misc M)
BENEFITS OF MYCORRHIZAE IN AGRICULTURE AND FOREST SYSTEM
Interchange Water-Mineral-Sugar
Increased Nutrient and Water Absorption
Increased Tolerance to Drought, Salinity, and Adverse Conditions
Improved Plant Transplantability
Applications in Forestation
Improved Rhizosphere with Beneficial Microbiota
Resistance to Insect Pests
Resistance to Toxicity
Reduced Susceptibility and Resistance to Diseases
Mycorrhizae and Climate Change
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Mycorrhiza-The Multifunctional Biofertilizer
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
History
Classification
Endomycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza
FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICITY OF AM TO CROP PLANTS
Favourability of AM
APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY FOR MYCORRHIZA (AM)
Nursery Application
Poly Bag Application
MODE OF ACTION
ISOLATION OF MYCORRHIZA
Strain Isolation and Identification
PRODUCTION OF MYCORRHIZA INOCULUMS
Pot Culture Technique
Solution Culture
Root Organ Culture
Other Methods
ANALYSIS OF MYCORRHIZA BIOFERTILIZER
Estimation of pH
Estimation of Moisture Content
Measurement of Total Viable Propagules/Spores in the Finished Product
Harvesting of Spores by Sieving
Types of Equipment
Procedure
Assessment of Spore Infectivity Potential
Procedure
APPLICATION OF MYCORRHIZAE TO HORTICULTURE
Commercial Benefits of AM Fungi
Crop Response to Mycorrhiza Inoculation
BENEFITS OF MYCORRHIZA IN AGRICULTURE
AMF’s FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Soil Mycorrhizae and Their Industrial Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAE
Arbuscular Mycorrhizae
Ectomycorrhizae
Ectendomycorrhizae
Ericoid Mycorrhizae
Orchidaceous Mycorrhizae
IMPORTANCE OF MYCORRHIZAE IN ECOSYSTEMS
Nutrient Cycling
Plant Pathogen Control
Reclamation of Metal Pollution
Enhancing Nutrient Use Efficiency
Soil Aggregation
Ecological Restoration
Interconnecting Root Ecosystems in the Forest
Importance of Mycorrhizae in Industry
POTENTIAL FOR THE FUTURE
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Herbicide Effects on Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and their Symbiosis with Weeds and Crop Plants
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Effects of AMF on Weeds
Influence of Herbicides on AM Symbiosis
Influence of Herbicides on Weed-Crop Interactions Mediated by AMF
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Mycorrhiza and its Ecological Significance
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
TYPES OF MYCORRHIZA
Ectomycorrhiza
Endomycorrhiza
Ericoid Mycorrhiza
Orchidaceous Mycorrhiza
Arbutoid Mycorrhiza
Monotropoid Mycorrhiza
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
Ectendomycorrhiza
ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATION
APPLICATION OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Mycorrhiza Fungi as a Potential Bioprotectant Against the Plant Pathogens of Chilli
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
MECHANISMS OF MYCORRHIZA
Enhanced Nutrition
Physiological Alterations in the Roots of the Host Plant
Changes in Root Morphology of the Host Plant
Changes in Root Exudates of the Host Plant
Competition for Space and Infection Sites
Enzyme Production
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF MYCORRHIZA
METHODS OF RECOVERY AND QUANTIFICATION OF VAM PROPAGULES FROM SOIL
Wet Sieving and Decanting Technique
Floatation- Bubbling Method
Density Gradient Centrifugation
Second Alternative Method
Third Alternative Method
Sucrose Centrifugation
Airstream Fractionation
Mass Collection of VAM Spores
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT AND QUANTIFICATION OF VAM FROM ROOTS
Observations on VAM Infection in Mycorrhizal Roots
Collection and Preservation of Root Samples
Processing Root Samples
Clearing and Staining the Specimen
Colorimetric Method for Estimating VAM Infection
Isolation of Intramatrical Vesicles from VAM Fungi
Morphological Observation of VAM
Assessment of Colonization after Clearing and Staining
Non-systemic Methods
Systemic Methods
Gridline Intersect Method
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Role of Mycorrhiza Fungi in Production Agriculture
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Types Of Mycorrhiza
Ectomycorrhiza
Endomycorrhizza
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM)
Ericoid Mycorrhiza
Orchid Mycorrhiza
Monotropoid Mycorrhiza
MECHANISM OF SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNGI AND ROOTS
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MYCORRHIZA ON ECOSYSTEM, PLANT AND SOIL HEALTH
GLOBAL MARKET UNDER AM FUNGI
APPLICATIONS OF AMF TO CROPS
Effect on Plant Defense and Disease Resistance
Impact on Pest and Insect Resistance
MECHANISM FOR CONVERSION OF DEGRADED ECOSYSTEM INTO PRODUCTIVE LAND
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Soil Mycorrhiza: Overview, Evolution, Agricultural, and Commercial Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Mycorrhiza-an Overview
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MYCORRHIZA
Paleontological Evidence of Mycorrhizal Evolution
Phylogenetic Analysis of Mycorrhizal Evolution
MYCORRHIZAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
Plant Nutrition and Crop Productivity
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Stress Tolerance and Resistance
Phytoremediation
Soil Structure and Fertility
Soil Health and Soil Quality
COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF MYCORRHIZA
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Soil Inhabitant Bacteria: Journey from Rhizosphere to Eco-Holobiont Approach
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF RHIZOSPHERE
IMPORTANCE OF RHIZOSPHERE
RHIZOSPHERE ENGINEERING
Role of Trichoderma in Engineering Rhizosphere
Holobiont Approach
Rhizophagy
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Cyanobacterium: Uses as a Biocontrol Agent, Biofertilizer, and Plant Growth Promoter in Agriculture and Environmental Sustainability
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Cyanobacteria in Sustainable Management
Cyanobacteria in Extreme Environments
Cyanobacteria as BioFertilizers
Cyanobacteria as BioControl Agents
Cyanobacteria in the Reclamation of Salt Affected Soils
Cyanobacteria as Plant Growth Promoters
Cyanobacteria in CO2 Sequestration and Climate Change Mitigation
Cyanobacteria in the Reduction of Methane Emissions
Cyanobacteria as Food Supplements
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Industrial Aspects of Soil Microbes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BACTERIA
Biocontrol Agent
Production of Gums (Xanthan Gum)
Production of Organic Compounds
Microbial Decomposition of Petroleum Products
Waste Processing for Bio-Fuel Production
ACTINOMYCETES
Commercial Production of Useful Compounds by Actinomycetes
Enzymes
Antibiotics
Transformation of Xenobiotics
Immuno-Modifiers
Biosurfactants
FUNGI
In Food Industry
Production of Organic Acids
Production of Enzymes
Production of Biocontrol Agent
Biodegradation of Petroleum, Pesticides, and Toxic Chemicals
PROTOZOA
Waste Water Treatment
Oil Degradation
NEMATODES
MYCORRHIZAE
Forestry
Germination of Seedlings
Land Reclamation
Cycling of Nutrients
Production of Single Cell Protein
The Nutritional Benefits of SCP
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Microbial Biotransformation in Steroids Production
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
CHEMISTRY OF STEROIDS
TYPES OF STEROIDAL TRANSFORMATION
COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT
STEROID HORMONE BIOSYNTHESIS IN THE ADRENALS
STEROID BIOSYNTHESIS IN THE PLACENTA
FORMATION OF STEROID HORMONES IN PERIPHERAL TISSUES
The Alternative Pathway to Dihydrotestosterone
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BIOTRANSFORMATION AND BIOCONVERSION PROCESSES
Advantages
Disadvantages
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Endophytes as an Alternative Source for Anticancer Agents
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Endophytic Fungi as Anticancer Compounds
Alkaloids
Camptothecin
Vincristine and Vinblastine
Chaetoglobosins
Chromones
Coumarins
Taxol
Podophyllotoxin
Cytochalasins
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Carotenoids in Microorganisms and Their Applications
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
APPLICATIONS OF CAROTENOIDS
Pharmaceutical Values
Food or Feed Supplements
Aesthetic Value
Food Colourants
MOLECULAR BREEDING OF CAROTENOID BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS
METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF MICROBIAL CAROTENOID PRODUCTION
FUTURE PROSPECTS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Interaction of Plant-parasitic Nematode and Filamentous Fungi: an Insight Story of Mechanism Involved and Tool for Sustainable Agriculture
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
INTERACTION OF PLANT-PARASITIC NEMATODES WITH DIFFERENT FUNGI
Trichoderma Spp.
Endophytic Fungi
Mycorrhizal Fungi
Enhance Tolerance and Growth
Root Exudation and Changes in Root Metabolism
Competition for Resources
Enhancement of Plant Defense and Induce Systemic Resistance
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Role of Endophytes in the Development of Sustainable Agriculture
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ENDOPHYTES
Endophytic Fungi
Endophytic Bacteria
BENEFITS OF ENDOPHYTES AND HOST PLANT INTERACTION
Nutrient Availability
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Iron (Fe)
Phytohormone Production
INDIRECT BENEFITS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Industrial Applications of Soil Microbes
(Volume 3)
Edited by
Ashutosh Gupta
Department of Agriculture Science
AKS University, Satna (MP)-485001
India
Shampi Jain
Department of Agriculture Science
AKS University, Satna (MP)-485001
India
&
Neeraj Verma
Department of Agriculture Science
AKS University, Satna (MP)-485001
India
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
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FOREWORD
A holistic approach is particularly needed to understand soil microbes and their products, which secrete or change the chemicals present in the soil by their biological processes. These soil microorganisms are not only directly or indirectly influenced by environmental conditions, fundamental soil characteristics such as moisture, oxygen and chemistry and also by each other in both beneficial and predatory ways. By studying all components in all-inclusive means, we can learn how to manage soil in a way that enhances the benefits provided by soil organisms and, ultimately enhances the fertility of the soil.
The soil microorganisms live on organic matter, make an association with other organisms and perform significant vital processes in the soil. Of these microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, algae and nematodes are the most important ones. Some of them perform critical functions in nitrogen and carbon cycles. Mostly the soil organisms are friendly except for a few. These microbes carried out various ecological processes, necessarily not only essential for plants but significant for animals and humans. They also carried out the degradation of organic material and suppressed soil-borne plant diseases.
The present book "Industrial Applications of Soil Microbes" Vol 3 presents the basic information about these microbes, especially on mycorrhiza and soil-borne bacteria. The different chapters written by eminent subject experts will not only provide the basics about soil microbes but also their products, which are of importance to humankind. I am sure that the knowledge given in the form of the book will be not only helpful to the students but also to the scientists, academicians and industrialists. I, personally hope that the book will be helpful in giving an idea for the future direction of research.
I congratulate all the contributors of this book and the editorial board members for bringing up such an important book for microbiologists.
Vipin Kumar
Director, National Innovation Foundation
Grambharti, Amrapur, Gandhinagar-Mahudi Road
Gandhinagar 382650
India
PREFACE
Soil is a home of various living microorganisms, such as algae, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, etc., that live and carry out their activities. A handful of soil contains billions of bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. They play important roles in the nutrient cycle and make the availability of nutrients to plants. These microorganisms also degrade the dead and decaying parts of plants and animals that ultimately break up into minerals and make the soil healthy and fertile for crops to be grown there. These microorganisms not only interact with each other but also with the rhizosphere of the plant. The plant root exudates also influence the population of microorganisms.
Some microorganisms are found to be associated with particular plants and help those plants specifically. Microorganisms secrete chemicals or metabolites such as enzymes, which are helpful to plants and mankind in several ways. They may help plants to reduce stress and also increase the metabolic reactions to produce specific chemicals that may help for industrial purposes. These chemicals, secreted by microorganisms of plants in the presence of microorganisms, may be used by industries like pharmacy, leather, soaps, food, agriproducts, etc.
In the present volume 3 of the book, emphasis is being given to various soil microorganisms, including bacteria and mycorrhiza. The chapters contributed by eminent scientists and researchers have emphasized not only the introduction of these microorganisms but also their industrial uses as well as the effect on the plants. The chapters are written to provide information to the graduate and research students and for the scientists and academicians to get up-to-date knowledge of the subject. The authors have tried to provide the recent developments in the subject.
With positive hope, the editors of the book will be happy to receive suggestions and comments to improve the information for further editions.
Ashutosh Gupta
Department of Agriculture Science
AKS University, Satna (MP)-485001
IndiaShampi Jain
Department of Agriculture Science
AKS University, Satna (MP)-485001
India
&Neeraj Verma
Department of Agriculture Science
List of Contributors
Abir DeyDivision of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR – IARI, Pusa, New Delhi – 110012, IndiaAlberto BagoDepartment of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, [CSIC], calle Profesor Albareda 1, 18008-Granada, SpainArchana MeenaDepartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, IndiaArchana RawatForest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, IndiaApexa PareekDepartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, IndiaAlok Kumar VarshneyBirla Institute of Scientific Research, Statue Circle, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Department of Bioengineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jaipur Campus, Jaipur, Rajasthan, IndiaB. PrasanthDepartment of Agronomy, Sri Kinjarapu Yerran Naidu College of Agricultural Sciences (Affiliated to ANGRAU), Etcherla, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaB. HimasreeDepartment of Agronomy, Sri Venkateswara Agricultural College (Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University), Tirupati, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaBalaji VikramDepartment of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture Science, AKS University, Satna, M.P., IndiaCustodia CanoDepartment of Soil Microbiology and Symbiotic Systems, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, [CSIC], calle Profesor Albareda 1, 18008-Granada, SpainDebarshi DasguptaDivision of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR – IARI, Pusa, New Delhi – 110012, IndiaDiwakar BahukhandiFormer Principal Scientist (Mycology-Mushroom), Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi 110012, IndiaDeepthi VarierDepartment of Microbiology, The Oxford College of Science, Bangalore, India.Dinesh JingerICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, RC-Vasad, Anand, Gujarat, IndiaDarshana SalaskarNuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, IndiaEkta JoshiRajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, IndiaHarshada ZodgeNuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, IndiaK.S. KarthikaICAR -NBSS &LUP Regional Centre, Bangalore-560 024, IndiaMohammad DanishDepartment of Botany, A.M.U., Aligarh -202001 (UP), IndiaMahesh C. MeenaDivision of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR – IARI, Pusa, New Delhi – 110012, IndiaM. ChandrakalaICAR -NBSS &LUP Regional Centre, Bangalore-560 024, IndiaMukul SharmaFaculty of Pharmacy, Medi-Caps University, Indore, M.P., India.Neeraj VermaDepartment of Agriculture Science, AKS University, Sherganj, Satna, MP, IndiaNeelam PoonarDepartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, IndiaPoonam MeenaDepartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, IndiaPayal LodhaDepartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, IndiaPramod Kumar FatehpuriaRajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, IndiaPrabha Susan PhilipICAR -NBSS &LUP Regional Centre, Delhi, IndiaPallavi KoyandeChemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, IndiaPurnima Singh SikarwarDepartment of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture Science, AKS University, Satna, [M.P.], IndiaParul Bhatt KottiyalForest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, IndiaP.C. TrivediDeptartment of Botany, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, IndiaP. GhoshBirla Institute of Scientific Research, Statue Circle, Jaipur, Rajasthan, IndiaRaj Kumar GothwalBirla Institute of Scientific Research, Statue Circle, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Department of BioEngineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jaipur Campus, Jaipur, Rajasthan, IndiaRakesh Kumar ChughDepartment of Plant Pathology, CCS Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar (Haryana)-125004, IndiaR.P. Raji MolAICRP on MSPE, Radiotracer Laboratory, Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala-680 656, IndiaRashid PervezDivision of Nematology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-11012, IndiaS. HemalathaDepartment of Agronomy, Sri Venkateswara Agricultural College (Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University), Tirupati, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaSayaji MehetreNuclear Agriculture & Biotechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, IndiaSaritaDepartment of Plant Pathology, CCS Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar (Haryana)-125004, IndiaShivani DubeyAcropolis Institute of Management Studies and Research, Indore, M.P., IndiaS. BharathiDepartment of Microbiology, The Oxford College of Science, Bangalore, IndiaSoni SinghForest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, IndiaS. Vijay KumarICAR-National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Orissa, IndiaSampat NehraBirla Institute of Scientific Research, Statue Circle, Jaipur, Rajasthan, IndiaVibha SinghalICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, IndiaYevgeniy MordererDepartment of Physiology of Herbicides Action, Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Vasylkivska, UkraineZhanna GuralchukDepartment of Physiology of Herbicides Action, Institute of Plant Physiology and Genetics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Vasylkivska, Ukraine
Mycorrhiza and its Applications in Agriculture and Forestry
Diwakar Bahukhandi1,*
1 Former Principal Scientist (Mycology-Mushroom), Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi 110012, India
Abstract
The symbiotic association between green plants and fungi is called mycorrhiza. The plant makes organic products by photosynthesis and supplies them to the fungus, and the fungus from the soil supplies water and mineral nutrients, such as phosphorus, etc., to the plant. These fungi establish a mild form of parasitism, a form of mutualism, where both the plant and the fungus benefit from the association. Mycorrhizal fungi are soil fungi that play an important role in plant growth, protection of plants from pathogens, and improving the quality of the soil. Abiotic components and living communities of soil and soil organisms, particularly microbes, can have direct and indirect impacts on land productivity. Direct impacts are those where specific organisms affect the crop yield immediately. Indirect impacts that affect the functions include those provided by soil organisms participating in carbon and nutrient cycles, soil structure modification, and food web interactions that generate ecosystem services that ultimately affect plant productivity. Selected organisms from different functional groups, like microsymbionts (symbiotic fungi, bacteria, etc.), decomposers, elemental transformers, soil ecosystem engineers, soil-borne pests and pathogens, and micro regulators, are used to illustrate the linkages between soil biota and ecosystem processes. There are various groups of fungi that form different types of symbiotic associations with almost all groups of plants, from bryophytes to seed plants, i.e., gymnosperms and angiosperms, on the earth. Out of the seven types of mycorrhizae (ectomycorrhizae, ectendomycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae, arbuscular mycorrhizae, orchidoid mycorrhizae, arbutoid mycorrhizae, and monotropoid mycorrhizae), the endomycorrhizae (arbuscular) and ectomycorrhizae are the most abundant and widespread. The molecular basis of nutrient exchange between ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and host plants proved the role of mycorrhizal fungi in disease control, the alleviation of heavy metal stress, and increasing production in sustainable agriculture, horticulture, and forest plants or trees, etc. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play a major role in the restoration of native ecosystems, and mycorrhizae transform a disturbed ecosystem into productive land. Ectomycorrhizae play an important role in forestation, forest ecosystems, and horticultural systems, and they maintain monodominance in tropical rainforests. Apart from the nutrient benefits to the plants,the mycorrhizae are presently employed in the colonization of barren soil
and improving the transplantability of forest plants. Mycorrhizae create resistance against insect pests, various root diseases, toxicity, and reduced susceptibility in plants. The presence of mycorrhizae also favours the growth of beneficial microbiota, converting the rhizosphere into a mycorrhizosphere and increasing tolerance to adverse conditions like drought, salinity, and stress in the plants.
Keywords: Agriculture, Disease Resistance, Drought Stress, Forestry, Fungal Biodiversity, Host Plant Interactions, Mycorrhizae, Mineral Uptake, Rhizosphere, Saline Tolerance, Soil Components, Symbiotic Association.
*Corresponding author Diwakar Bahukhandi: Former Principal Scientist (Mycology-Mushroom), Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-IARI, Pusa, New Delhi 110012, India;
E-mail:
[email protected]
