Industrial High Pressure Applications E-Book

• Herausgeber: Wiley-VCH
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 638

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Industrial high pressure processes open the door to many reactions that are not possible under 'normal' conditions. These are to be found
in such different areas as polymerization, catalytic reactions, separations, oil and gas recovery, food processing, biocatalysis and more.
The most famous high pressure process is the so-called Haber-Bosch process used for fertilizers and which was awarded a Nobel prize.

Following an introduction on historical development, the current state, and future trends, this timely and comprehensive publication goes on to describe different industrial processes, including methanol and other catalytic syntheses, polymerization and renewable energy processes, before covering safety and equipment issues.

With its excellent choice of industrial contributions, this handbook offers high quality information not found elsewhere, making it invaluable
reading for a broad and interdisciplinary audience.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Related Titles

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

List of Contributors

Part I: Introduction

Chapter 1: Historical Retrospect on High-Pressure Processes

References

Chapter 2: Basic Engineering Aspects

2.1 What are the Specifics of High-Pressure Processes?

2.2 Thermodynamic Aspects: Phase Equilibrium

2.3 Software and Data Collection

2.4 Phase Equilibrium: Experimental Methods and Measuring Devices

2.5 Interfacial Phenomena and Data

2.6 Material Properties and Transport Data for Heat and Mass Transfer

2.7 Evaporation and Condensation at High Pressures

2.8 Condensation

References

Part II: Processes

Chapter 3: Catalytic and Noncatalytic Chemical Synthesis

3.1 Thermodynamics as Driver for Selection of High Pressure

3.2 Ammonia Synthesis Process

3.3 Urea Process

3.4 General Aspects of HP Equipment

References

Chapter 4: Low-Density Polyethylene High-Pressure Process

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Reaction Kinetics and Thermodynamics

4.3 Process

4.4 Products and Properties

4.5 Simulation Tools and Advanced Process Control

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5: High-Pressure Homogenization for the Production of Emulsions

5.1 Motivation: Why High-Pressure Homogenization for Emulsification Processes?

5.2 Equipment: High-Pressure Homogenizers

5.3 Processes: Emulsification and Process Functions

5.4 Homogenization Processes Using SEM-Type Valves

5.5 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 6: Power Plant Processes: High-Pressure–High-Temperature Plants

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants

6.3 Steam Generator

6.4 High-Pressure Steam Turbines

6.5 Summary and Outlook

References

Chapter 7: High-Pressure Application in Enhanced Crude Oil Recovery

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Fundamentals

7.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery

7.4 Oil Reservoir Stimulation

7.5 Heavy Oil Recovery

7.6 Hydrates in Oil Recovery

7.7 Equipment

References

Chapter 8: Supercritical Processes

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Processing of Solid Material

8.3 Processing of Liquids

8.4 Future Trends

References

Chapter 9: Impact of High-Pressure on Enzymes

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Influence of Pressure on Biomatter

9.3 Influence of Pressure on the Kinetics of Enzyme Inactivation

9.4 Technological Aspects

9.5 Summary

References

Chapter 10: High Pressure in Renewable Energy Processes

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Thermochemical Processes

10.3 Hydrothermal Processes

References

Chapter 11: Manufacturing Processes

11.1 Autofrettage: A High-Pressure Process to Improve Fatigue Lifetime

11.2 Waterjet Cutting Technology

References

Part III: Process Equipment and Safety

Chapter 12: High-Pressure Components

12.1 Materials for High-Pressure Components

12.2 Pressure Vessels

12.3 Heat Exchangers

12.4 Valves

12.5 Piping

References

Further Reading

Chapter 13: High-Pressure Pumps and Compressors

13.1 Selection of Machinery

13.2 Influence of the Fluid on Selection and Design of the Machinery

13.3 Design Standards for High-Pressure Machines

13.4 Materials and Materials Testing

13.5 High-Pressure Centrifugal Pumps and High-Pressure Turbocompressors

13.6 Rotating Positive Displacement Machines

13.7 Reciprocating Positive Displacement Machines

References

Chapter 14: High-Pressure Measuring Devices and Test Equipment

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Process Data Measuring – Online

14.3 Lab Determination – Additional Offline Test Equipment

14.4 Safety Aspects

14.5 Future

References

Chapter 15: Sizing of High-Pressure Safety Valves for Gas Service

15.1 Standard Valve Sizing Procedure

15.2 Limits of the Standard Valve Sizing Procedure

15.3 Development of a Sizing Method for Real Gas Applications

15.4 Sizing of Safety Valves for Real Gas Flow

15.5 Summary

Appendix 15.A Calculation of Sizing Coefficient According to EN-ISO 4126-7 and a Real Gas Nozzle Flow Model

Appendix 15.B List of Symbols

References

Appendix: International Codes and Standards for High-Pressure Vessels

Introduction

Abbreviations

Corresponding International Codes and Standards for Unfired Pressure Vessels

Special Aspects for Test Pressure Definition for High-Pressure Vessels

References

Index

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Preface

In 2010, when Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH asked me to edit a new book on high-pressure applications, the first thought that came to my mind was whether there was really a requirement for compiling such a reference book. In fact, numerous conference proceedings and even some textbooks were available that illustrated the state of the art and special applications of high-pressure processes in detail, offering support for production of innovative products. However, the application of high pressure covers many different industries – from basic material production, mechanical engineering, energy management, chemical engineering to bioprocessing and food processing. In engineering education, these applications even postulate different courses of study.

Based on this background, it is not surprising that a general and comprehensive description of industrial high-pressure processes is hardly possible. Next to basic knowledge, the aim was now to especially include overall aspects such as the need for applying high pressure, desirable and undesirable effects, and prospects and risks of high-pressure processes. In this respect, my activities on high-pressure engineering in industry and university since 1977 facilitated access to experts from various different fields of industrial applications and scientific research who were willing to contribute with their knowledge to special high-pressure applications.

The book is structured in three main parts. Part One is an introductory section dealing with the history and the engineering basics of high-pressure techniques. Part Two demonstrates classical and more recent high-pressure applications from chemical engineering, energy management and technology, bioengineering and food engineering, and manufacturing techniques. Part Three concentrated on equipment, measurement, and safety devices in high-pressure processes. The book concludes with a short survey and an evaluation of international rules that are valid for the calculation and design of high-pressure vessels.

It is my pleasure to thank all the authors for their commitment and their highly valuable and professional contributions. I also thank Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH for consistent assistance and patience.

Hamburg, June 2012

Rudolf Eggers

List of Contributors

Mohammed B. Alotaibi

Petroleum Engineer

Saudi Aramco

P.O. Box 10311 Dhahran 31311

Saudi Arabia

Diego Mauricio Castaneda-Zuniga

Lyondell Basell GmbH

Gebäude B 852

65926 Frankfurt

Germany

Nicolaus Dahmen

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Institute for Technical Chemistry

Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1

76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen

Germany

Antonio Delgado

Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Lehrstuhl für Strömungsmechanik

Cauerstr. 4

91058 Erlangen

Germany

Rudolf Eggers

Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg

Institut für Thermische Verfahrenstechnik/Wärme und Stofftransport

Eißendorfer Str. 38

21073 Hamburg

Germany

Marion Gedrat

Uni Karlsruhe

Institut für Bio- und Lebensmitteltechnik (BLT)

Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Geb. 30.44

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Lena L. Hecht

Uni Karlsruhe

Institut für Bio- und Lebensmitteltechnik (BLT)

Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Geb. 30.44

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Klaus Heinrich

Uhde GmbH

Friedrich-Uhde-Str. 15

44141 Dortmund

Germany

Waldemar Hiller

Uhde High Pressure Technologies GmbH

Buschmuehlenstr. 20

58093 Hagen

Germany

Philip Jaeger

TU Hamburg–Harburg

Institut für Thermische Verfahrenstechnik/Wärme und Stofftransport

Eißendorfer Str. 38

21073 Hamburg

Germany

Née Karbstein

Uni Karlsruhe

Institut für Bio- und Lebensmitteltechnik (BLT)

Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Geb. 30.44

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Andrzej Karpinski

Uhde High Pressure Technologies GmbH

Buschmuehlenstr. 20

58093 Hagen

Germany

Alfons Kather

TU Hamburg–Harburg

Institut für Energietechnik

Denickestr. 15

21073 Hamburg

Germany

Karsten Köhler

Uni Karlsruhe

Institut für Bio- und Lebensmitteltechnik (BLT)

Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Geb. 30.44

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Andrea Kruse

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)

Institute for Technical Chemistry

Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1

76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen

Germany

Leszek Kulisiewicz

Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Lehrstuhl für Strömungsmechanik

Cauerstr. 4

91058 Erlangen

Germany

Eduard Lack

NATEX Prozesstechnologie GesmbH

Werkstr. 7

Ternitz

2630 Österreich

Germany

Dieter Littmann

Lyondell Basell GmbH

Gebäude B 852

65926 Frankfurt

Germany

Gerd Mannebach

Lyondell Basell GmbH

Gebäude B 852

65926 Frankfurt

Germany

Christian Mehrkens

TU Hamburg–Harburg

Institut für Energietechnik

Denickestr. 15

21073 Hamburg

Germany

Giulia Mei

Lyondell Basell GmbH

Gebäude B 852

65926 Frankfurt

Germany

Ivo Müller

Uhde GmbH

Friedrich-Uhde-Str. 15

44141 Dortmund

Germany

Hisham Nasr-El-Din

Texas A&M University

Dwight Look College of Engineering

401L Richardson Building, 3116 TAMU

College Station, TX 77843-3116

USA

Arne Pietsch

Eurotechnica GmbH

An den Stuecken 55

22941 Bargteheide

Germany

Cornelia Rauh

Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Lehrstuhl für Strömungsmechanik

Cauerstr. 4

91058 Erlangen

Germany

Joachim Rüther

Uhde GmbH

Friedrich-Uhde-Str. 15

44141 Dortmund

Germany

Eberhard Schluecker

Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Lehrstuhl für Prozessmaschinen und Anlagentechnik

Cauerstr. 4, Haus 5

91058 Erlangen

Germany

Christian-Ulrich Schmidt

Lyondell Basell GmbH

Gebäude B 852

65926 Frankfurt

Germany

Jürgen Schmidt

BASF SE

Safety & Fluid Flow Technology

GCT/S-L511

67056 Ludwigshafen

Germany

Heike P. Schuchmann

Uni Karlsruhe

Institut für Bio- und Lebensmitteltechnik (BLT)

Fritz-Haber-Weg 2, Geb. 30.44

76131 Karlsruhe

Germany

Ralf Trieglaff

TÜV NORD SysTec GmbH & Co. KG

Große Bahnstraße 31

22525 Hamburg

Andreas Wierschem

Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Lehrstuhl für Strömungsmechanik

Cauerstr. 4

91058 Erlangen

Germany

Rolf Wink

Uhde High Pressure Technologies GmbH

Buschmuehlenstr. 20

58093 Hagen

Germany

Matthias Zeiger

Uhde High Pressure Technologies GmbH

Buschmuehlenstr. 20

58093 Hagen

Germany

Part I

Introduction

Chapter 1

Historical Retrospect on High-Pressure Processes

Rudolf Eggers

The historical development of high-pressure processes since the beginning of the industrial period is based on two concepts: first, the transfer of the inner energy of water vapor at elevated pressures into kinetic energy by the invention of the steam engine; second, the movement of gas-phase reaction equilibrium at high pressures enabling the production of synthetic products like ammonia. Thus, the industrial use of high-pressure processes goes back to both mechanical and chemical engineering. Beginning in the second half of the eighteenth century, the need of safe and gas-tight steam vessels up to few megapascals became essential because that time many accidents happened by bursting of pressure vessels. Chemical industry started high-pressure synthesis processes in the early twentieth century. Compared to moderate working pressures of steam engines, the pressure range now was extremely high between 10 and 70 MPa. As a consequence, a fast growing requirement for high-pressure components like high-pressure pumps, compressors, heat transfer devices, tubes and fittings, reliable sealing systems, and in particular new pressure vessel constructions developed.

Besides, mechanical and chemical engineering material science has promoted the development of new high-pressure processes by creating high ductile steels with suitable strength parameter.

Finally, the safety of high-pressure plants is of outstanding importance. Thus, in the course of development, national safety rules for vessels, pipes, and valves have been introduced by special organizations. For example, in 1884, the American Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME) launched its first standard for the uniformity of testing methods of boilers. The German society TÜV was founded in 1869 in order to avoid the devastating explosions of steam vessels.

The following list of year dates shows essential milestones of high-pressure processes concerning their development and technical design:

1680: Papins construction of the first autoclave for evaporating water. The design shows the idea of an early safety valve working on an adjustable counterbalance.

1769: James Watt introduced the steam engine transferring thermal energy in motive power.

1826: Jacob Perkins demonstrated the compressibility of water by experiments above 10 Mpa. Caused by the increasing application of steam engines, the boiling curve of different media became of interest. It was observed that boiling temperatures increase with rising pressure. That time one assumes a remaining coexistence of liquid and gas phase up to any high pressure. It was the Irish physicist and chemist Thomas Andrews who in 1860 disproved this assumption. On the basis of experiments with carbon dioxide, he was able to demonstrate a thermodynamic state with no difference between liquid and gas phase characterized by a distinct value of temperature, pressure, and density. This point has been called the “critical point.”

1852: J.P. Joule and W. Thompson discovered the cooling effect caused by the expansion of gases during pressure release.

1873: J.D. van der Waals gives a plausible explanation for the behavior of fluids at supercritical condition.

1900: W. Ostwald claimed a patent on the generation of ammonia by the combination of free nitrogen and hydrogen in the presence of contacting substances.

1913: F. Haber and C. Bosch: First commercial plant synthesizing ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen at 20 Mpa and 550 °C. The reactors were sized at an inner diameter of 300 mm and a length of 8 m. The productivity of one reactor was 5 ton/day [1]. The pressure vessel was equipped with an in-line tube made from soft iron and degassing holes in order to protect the pressure-resistant walls against hydrogen embrittlement. This process was the forerunner of many others that have been developed into commercial processes [2].

1920: First application of methanol synthesis as a conversion of carbon monoxide and hydrogen at a pressure of 31 MPa and temperatures between 300 and 340 °C.

1924: First industrial plant for direct hydrolysis of fuel from coal at 70 MPa based on the Bergius process, which was claimed at 1913.

1953: Initiation of a polyethylene production at about 250 MPa.

1978: First commercial decaffeination plant using supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent.

The development of high-pressure vessel design is characterized by the initiation of seamless and forged cylindrical components. The two versions are the forged solid wall construction and a group of different layered wall constructions. Among these, the BASF Schierenbeck vessel plays an important role, because these vessels are manufactured without welding joints. Figure 1.1 presents an overview.

Figure 1.1 Survey on high-pressure vessel design [3].

Special high-pressure closures have been developed equipped with single or double tapered sealing areas. A breakthrough toward leak-tight high-pressure devices was without doubt the “principle of the unsupported area” from Bridgman [2]. His idea extended the accessibility of pressures up to 10 000 MPa. Another concept is that the metallic lens ring enabled safe connections of high-pressure tubes and fittings.

Up to now new high-pressure processes have been introduced constantly. Materials like ceramics, polymers, or crystals having special properties are generated and formed in high-pressure processes. The current increase in liquid natural gas (LNG) plants is not possible with safe high-pressure systems. Also, the enhanced recovery of oil and gas by fluid injection at very high pressures requires qualified compressors, tubes, and safety valves. High-pressure fuel injection decreases the efficiency of combustion engines.

An example of current development is the investigation of processes aiming homogenization and even sterilization in industrial scale at high pressures up to 1000 MPa. Figure 1.2 illustrates the pressure regimes of currently operated high-pressure processes.

Figure 1.2 Working pressures of currently used high-pressure processes.

References

1. Witschakowski, W. (1974) Hochdrucktechnik, Schriftenreihe des Archivs der BASF AG, Nr. 12.

2. Spain, I.L. and Paauwe, J. (eds.) (1977) High Pressure Technology, vol. I, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.

3. Tschiersch, R. (1976) Der Mehrlagenbehälter. Der Stahlbau, 45, 108–119.

Chapter 2

Basic Engineering Aspects

Rudolf Eggers

2.1 What are the Specifics of High-Pressure Processes?

It is obvious that with increasing process pressure, the distances between molecules of solid, liquid, or gaseous systems become smaller. Generally, such diminishing of distances results in alterations of both the phase behavior of the system and the transport effects of the considered process. Consequently, in designing the high-pressure processes, not only the knowledge of phase equilibrium data for pure and heterogeneous systems is needed from thermodynamics but also the reliable data for material and transport properties at high pressures are of high importance, because these can fluctuate strongly especially in the near-critical region of a medium.

In Figure 2.1, an easily interpreted image illustrates the molecule distances depending on pressure and temperature. The three phases – solid, liquid, and gas – are differentiated by the phase transition lines for melting, evaporation, and sublimation. At the critical point, the processes of condensation and evaporation merge.

Figure 2.1 Molecule distances dependent on pressure and temperature.

Besides the decreasing molecule distances at enhanced pressures, the diagram reveals the continuous transfer from the gas phase into the liquid region by passing the so-called supercritical region without any crossing of a phase change line. Because this region is connecting the low-density region of gas and the high-density region of liquid state, it is evident that the corresponding density gradients without phase change are highest in the near-critical region. As a consequence, high pressure enables the use of fluid phases as solvents with liquid-like densities and gas-like diffusivities. Table 2.1 exemplifies that the basic engineering aspects of high-pressure processes are based on phase equilibrium data and material properties for both single and multicomponent systems and further they will be influenced by relevant transport data.

Table 2.1 High-pressure phase equilibrium: material properties and transport data in corresponding phase state.

Of course, plant engineering and vessel design are also basic aspects of high-pressure processes. Due to their significance in industrial applications of high-pressure processes, these aspects are discussed in Chapter 12. Nevertheless, this chapter focuses on the thermodynamic aspects of high-pressure phase equilibrium and the influence of pressure on material and transport data for heat and mass transfer at high pressures, including some information on basic measuring principles, which are given in detail in Chapter 14.

2.2 Thermodynamic Aspects: Phase Equilibrium

In many industrial high-pressure processes, the involved mass flows are getting in direct contact in order to enable heat and mass transport. The well-known examples are extraction processes using supercritical fluids (see Chapter 8) or liquefying processes of gas mixtures under pressure in combination with transport and storage of natural gas [1]. Further examples are the carbon capture and storage technology (CCS) (see Chapter 6), enhanced oil recovery processes (see Chapter 7), refrigeration cycles, and renewable energy processes (see Chapter 10).

Transport processes across phase boundaries of contacting phases are controlled by driving gradients of pressure, temperature, and chemical potential of each component inside a phase as long as phase equilibrium is not established and these gradients are existing. A phase is defined as a homogeneous region without discontinuities in pressure, temperature, and concentration. Thus, phase equilibrium is accomplished when the corresponding phases are of the same pressure (mechanical equilibrium), of the same temperature (thermal equilibrium), and of the same chemical potential (material equilibrium) for each component the system contains [2]. The chemical potential of a single component represents the change of internal energy of a system when the molar mass of this component varies. Instead of using the relative inaccessible chemical potential, it is possible to equalize the fugacities of the different phases. As the fugacity demonstrates an adjusted pressure considering the forces of interaction between the molecules in a real system, this quantity is of high importance for phase equilibrium especially in heterogeneous high-pressure systems [3]. The Gibbs phase rule predicts the number of degrees of freedom for a mixture of coexisting phases and components: