Intelligent Systems for IoE Based Smart Cities E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Intelligent Systems for IoE Based Smart Cities provides simplified information about complexities of cyber physical systems, the Internet of Everything (IoE) and smart city infrastructure. It presents 11 edited chapters that reveal how intelligent systems and IoE are driving the evolution of smart cities, making them more efficient, interconnected, and responsive to the needs of citizens.
The book content represents comprehensive exploration of the transformative potential and challenges of IoE-based smart cities, fueled by Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) innovations.
Key Topics:
Physical layer design considerations that underpin smart city infrastructure
Enabling technologies for intelligent systems within the context of smart computing environments
Smart sensors and actuators, their applications, challenges, and future trends in IoE-based smart cities
Applications, enabling technologies, challenges, and future trends of IoE for smart cities.
The integration of Artificial Intelligence, Natural Language Processing, and smart cities for enhanced urban experiences
machine learning-based intrusion detection techniques for countering attacks on the Internet of Vehicles
Smartphone-based indoor positioning applications using trilateration and the role of sensors in IoT ecosystems
IoT, blockchain, and cloud-based technology for secure frameworks and data analytics
Blockchain and smart contracts in shaping the future of smart cities.
This is a timely reference for researchers, professionals, and students interested in the convergence
IoT, intelligent systems and urban studies into smart city planning and design.
Audience
Researchers, professionals, and students interested in the convergence of IoT, intelligent systems and urban studies into smart city planning and design.
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Seitenzahl: 446
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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FOREWORD
The continuing dispersal of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies is opening new opportunities, and the foremost amazing application is the smart city concept, which is endlessly progressing in many dimensions. Generally, a smart city can be defined as integrating IoT and other Information Communication Technologies (ICT) into city management, controlling, or monitoring to address the exponential rise in urbanization and population, therefore significantly improving people’s living standards. The smart city model is also strictly associated with the aspects of sustainability. But with the evolution of the Internet of Everything (IoE), which provides connectivity not only among things, but also among people, data, and processes, smart cities will become smarter. The IoE enhances connectivity and intelligence to about every entity in the system, including things, data, processes, and people, giving it special functions. This integration will have a vivid impact on every aspect, from city management to planning, controlling, and health.
Intelligent Systems for IoE-based Smart cities are emerging as a primary need for Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) across the world. Advances in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms have played an important role in the progress and automation of city operations and in supporting the development of CPS in cities. Extensive use of intelligent decision-making and data-driven modelling under uncertainty are establishing the basis for advancements in public services, safety, connectivity, transportation, and health services. The examples include improved public transportation systems, advanced traffic solutions, energy modelling, smart emergency response and autonomous driving, being some of the applications that have benefited from the methodologies of principled decision-making.
This book focuses on the characteristics, requirements, issues, challenges, and development of intelligent systems for smart cities based on IoE. The allied topics, including data science and open-source data sets for IoE-based smart cities, decision-making for IoE-based smart cities, design of intelligent systems for IoE smart cities, and challenges in deployment, equity and fairness in IoE smart cities, and security and privacy in AI for smart cities are being addressed in this book. Since the smart infrastructure paradigm is now shifting from IoT to IoE, this book will certainly be appealing to readers. The fusion of three main technologies, including intelligent systems, smart cities, and IoE, has been presented in this book, which is a relatively unique approach.
PREFACE
There are many challenges affecting decision-making for Cyber-Physical Systems in smart cities. With the initiation of IoT, sensor data is being produced at high speed and in large volume that is hard to process and make conclusions from it. Requirements of the smart cities dictate that a large amount of processing occurs on edge, making it imperative in a way that fast and tractable methods of decision-making are designed. Concurrently, there is an increasing requirement for automated applications to be secure, fair, and resilient. Moreover, with the advent of the Internet of Everything (IoE), which tends to integrate things, people, data, and processes, it is essential to develop smart and intelligent systems that facilitate smart cities in the IoE environment. The book aims at covering all the necessary aspects of the development of intelligent systems for IoE-based smart cities.
This book has been organized into three sections where Section 1 consists of four chapters highlighting the technological aspects related to smart cities, Section 2 presents intelligent systems in IoE/IoT-based smart cities and includes four chapters, and Section 3 comprises three chapters that focus on utilizing cloud and blockchain in IoE/IoT based smart cities.
Chapter 1 of the book first introduces smart cities, and then it elaborates on the technical aspects of the physical layer in a smart city environment, enabling the utilization of the Internet for the operation of various devices. Chapter 2 focuses on identifying the most prominent enabling technologies in making smart computing environments intelligent. The ten foremost intelligence-enabling technologies – predictive analysis, deep learning, artificial neural network, big data analytics, intelligent edge, human-computer interaction, computer vision, explainable artificial intelligence, natural language processing, and robotics in context to a smart computing environment, have been discussed in this chapter. Chapter 3 analyses the role and importance of Smart sensors and actuators along with their applications, challenges, and opportunities, followed by various future trends in the domain of the smart city. Chapter 4 explores numerous IoE applications which are also concerned with smart cities. This chapter discusses existing technologies that have a great contribution to the development of various prominent areas of smart cities. The chapter also identifies and categorizes several challenges that are being faced by the stakeholders and officials in the construction of smart cities.
Chapter 5 focuses on a definite area of AI called Natural Language Processing, which helps and enhances human lives living in smart cities. These use cases and various applications, scopes, techniques, advantages, disadvantages, and future scopes of NLP in the context of smart cities have been discussed in this chapter. The goal of Chapter 6 is two-fold. First, it intends to analyze the security issue in VANET by reviewing the most important vulnerabilities and proposed countermeasures. In a second part, it introduces a comprehensive Machine Learning framework to design VANET IDs. It has used the framework to evaluate the performances of several Machine Learning techniques to detect position attacks using the VeReMi security dataset. In Chapter 7, through the use of trilateration, an application has been devised that takes the help of Wi-Fi signals and does position fixing in an indoor environment. The trilateration method is implemented to calculate the unknown position of a device under the environment. It collects all the Wi-Fi signals and finds the exact matches with the database to calculate the user's actual position on the map. Chapter 8 of the book emphasizes the deep-seated relationship between IoT and sensors from the perspective of state-of-the-art research. It offers discussions on the usage of various types of sensing devices, associated data, and their contribution towards solving specific research problems in the respective IoT-based applications. This includes the Video Camera, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) Sensors, Ultrasonic Sensors, Electrocardiogram (ECG) Sensor, Passive Infra-Red (PIR) Sensor, Electromyogram (EMG) Sensor, and some commonly used sensing devices for Environmental and Agricultural Smart system development. A pertinent case study is also included in this chapter to demonstrate the role of sensors in the development of IoT-based systems.
Chapter 9 focuses on the Internet of Things, cloud computing, and data mining, and tries to find the connection between them in terms of users, services, and applications. The goal is to identify how data analytics can be applied to real-life IoT and cloud-based applications.
Along with explaining the security requirements in smart cities, Chapter 10 proposes a security framework focused on providing secure access control and authentication services delivered over the cloud-based system used in smart cities. This chapter also covers the concepts on convergence of IoE and cloud computing in smart cities and challenges faced by future generation cities employing IoE.
Chapter 11 here provides an insight into how blockchain technology works for smart contracts, which deliver numerous services in Smart cities ecosystems in more reliable, data secured, and beneficial for the population in Smart cities. The chapter has contributed to the planning of Smart cities planners, developers, architects, and thinkers for the usage of smart contracts for delivering various services in the smart city’s governance.
List of Contributors
On Physical Layer Design for Smart Cities
Jayanta Kumar Ray1,*,Rabindranath Bera1,Sanjib Sil2,Quazi Mohmmad Alfred3Abstract
In the future, the real world will convert to a smart world around 2025. One could predict that there will be a changeover from 4G LTE to 5G NR. In pandemic conditions, 4G LTE has been found to provide good online support, such as accessing the Internet for education, administration, banking, official works, etc., anywhere in the real world. But there are some limitations, such as operating machines in industries, and driving vehicles on the road with the help of the Internet. These facilities will be provided by 5G NR as there is a large difference between 4G LTE and 5G NR. In 4G LTE, only Mobile Broad Band (MBB) is present, but in 5G NR, there are three terms, i.e., Enhanced Mobile BroadBand (eMBB), Ultra-Reliable and Low Latency Communication (URLLC) and massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC). As a result, the city will convert into a smart city. It is possible by applying intelligence in various technologies. Applying intelligence will lead to the improvement of smartness in the environment, mobility, building, home, administration, health, education, etc. The smartness of the item includes the utilization of the Internet in various devices, which means the Internet of Things (IoT). In previous times, humans communicate with humans, but in IoT, a human will communicate with the device. In the future, it will be realized using NXP Semiconductors. NXP semiconductors manufactured various chips, which should be beneficial for the formation of smart cities. In the near future, facilities will be increased in a more massive manner than the present time. By 2030, the goal will have been fully attained, and IoT will have evolved into the Internet of Everything (IoE), meaning that everything will be made possible by the Internet. Device-to-device communication will be a possibility in IoE side-by-side. This outlines how 5G to 6G will change.
INTRODUCTION
Telia Sonera had previously introduced 4G technology in Finland by the year 2010. Third Generation Project Partnership (3GPP) standardised LTE-Advanced [1]. High data speeds, decreased latency, seamless connections, improved Quality of Service (QoS), distribution across heterogeneous networks, capacity in high network infrastructure, and simple infrastructure are some of the characteristics of LTE [2]. Between 4G and 5G, there is a connection made through LTE-Advanced [2]. High data speeds, decreased latency, seamless connections, improved Quality of Service (QoS), distribution across heterogeneous networks, capacity in high network infrastructure, and simple infrastructure are some of the characteristics of LTE [2].The advancements made possible by Radio Access Networks (RAN) in 5G technologies are basically made possible by LTE-Advanced. Microwave frequency (sub-6GHz) is used for LTE-Advanced. Nevertheless, 5G uses both microwave and millimeter wavelengths, therefore, the range of frequencies is 6 GHz to 100 GHz. By 2020, 5G will be commercially accessible and will essentially be an end-to-end support system. In this place, a society is created where connections and mobility are made possible. Massive MIMO, which is an upgrade of the MIMO seen in 4G LTE-Advanced, is used in 5G technology.
Radio Access Networks (RAN) advancements in 5G technologies are made possible by LTE-Advanced. Microwave (sub-6GHz) frequency is used for LTE-Advanced. In contrast, millimeter and microwave frequencies are used in 5G, resulting in a frequency range of 6 to 100 GHz. A complete support system will be provided by 5G technology, which will be ready in 2020. A civilization that allows for connections and mobility is created in this instance. Massive MIMO, which replaces the MIMO used in 4G LTE-Advanced, is a 5G technical innovation.
There are significant differences between 5G and 4G in terms of several important needs [3]. Whereas 5G's peak data rate is 20 Gbit/sec, 4G LTE's peak data rate is 1 Gbit/sec. In 4G, the user-experienced data rate is 10 Mbit/sec, while in 5G, it is 100 Mbit/sec. Mobility for 4G is 350 km/h, whereas it is 500 km/h for 5G. The required latency for 4G is 10 ms, whereas for 5G, it is less than 1 ms. In comparison to 5G, which has a connection density of 106 devices per square km, 4G has 105 devices per square km (Fig. 1).
The Microwave Horn antenna (Fig. 2a) can be used for 4G LTE's microwave frequency (sub-6 GHz), whilst the Millimeter-wave Dish Antenna (Fig. 2b) can be used for 5G NR's millimeter-wave frequency (28 GHz). The two antennas were compared in SMIT. It has been noted that there is a significant disparity between their received signal strength indicators, which are given in dBm and are, respectively, -97.2 dBm for microwave and -43.8 dBm for millimeter-wave [4]. In comparison, there is also a significant difference in the Signal Noise Ratio (SNR), which is 31 dB for microwaves and 49 dB for millimeter waves [4].
Fig. (1)) 4G vs. 5G. Fig. (2a)) Microwave horn antenna. Fig. (2b)) Millimeter-wave dish antenna.The real world will evolve into a smart world in the future. The equipment in the “smart world” can operate through automation. The center piece of the smart world is the smart city. A “smart city” [5] is essentially a city where technology, government, society, etc., will evolve along with an increase in intelligence for things like the economy, mobility, environment, people, home, administration, etc. Smart data are gathered through a variety of installed devices and sensors on streets, cars, people, etc., in a smart city.
The growth of smart cities is accelerating. Using a smart communication system, which may use wired or wireless media, smart data is transmitted [6]. In this case, the software is being used to execute information [7]. There will be a need for advanced instrumentation, connectivity, and intelligence in the smart city. The built environment, economic development, energy, health, payments, safety and security, telecommunication, transit, waste management, and other areas are all made easier by the smart city [8].
There will be enhanced effects on sustainability, economic development, and quality of life (QoL) as a result of the development of smart cities [9]. Every citizen's quality of life will be raised. According to population, location, and economic development, it varies for different cities. It covers a range of topics such as civic responsibilities, culture, economy, ecology, housing, socialism, technology, etc. The primary network is the Internet. The Internet of Things (IoT) [10] will be introduced once the 4G network has been upgraded to 5G. In contrast to 5G, which combines human-to-human and human-to-machine communication, 4G is a human-to-human network. The term "smart city" can mean many different things, including digital cities, electronic communities, flexi cities, information cities, intelligent cities, knowledge cities, mesh cities, teli cities, wireless cities, etc.
Information and communication technologies (ICT) are used to create smart city globally [5]. A smart city still involves a variety of things, including politics, city administration, business, institutions, buildings, special interest groups, etc. Intelligent data from different industries are gathered, analyzed, and decisions are made. A system of interconnected infrastructure is present in a smart city. The exchange and fusion of smart data is the key component of the smart city. Instrumentation, the availability of real-time data from various sources, data visualization, automation, a network of collaboration spaces, and other traits define smart cities. Better service will be provided by smart cities, and citizens will benefit from it [11]. ICT enhances the smart city to provide services, decision-making, and public engagement. Smart cities have several indicators, such as knowledge workforce, broadband connectivity, digitalization, innovation and marketing [12].
The smart city will offer a variety of services, such as those related to governance, solid waste management, solid waste management, energy, finance, and fire and emergency response. A smart city will have a smart environment, such as the ones shown in Fig. (3) [13], which includes the political and social environment, economic environment, socio-cultural environment, and natural environment. The term “smart city” refers to a place where people, technology, and information are all integrated and where services are reliable and the infrastructure is sustainable and resilient. In a smart institution, the current classroom will be transformed into a smart classroom where different pupils will receive helpful information. Teachers are able to automatically impart knowledge to kids by gathering information from them. On the other hand, the students can attend the class taken by the teacher and become knowledgeable through the automation process.
Fig. (3)) Smart city.As a result, the concept of smart class is specified in the smart institution. In smart institutions and offices, the attendance of the students and office staff can be taken by the process of automation. Smart security is applied to protect the area from unauthorized users during the period of restriction. The smart fire alarm system delivers the message of the incident to the police station and the fire departments about the location of the incident. The building manager manages the smart building.
It carries out the obligation for routine tasks. It is essential for communication that a smart bridge has a variety of sensors to monitor the structure. Smart cities were created as a result of the powering, enabling, and integration done by digital technologies. One of the greatest developments of the twenty-first century is the smart city. As a result, the expectation of the citizens will be fulfilled, and various opportunities will expand. The urban population will increase rapidly. The aim of a smart city is the transformation of lives, comfortability and safety of the citizens [14]. The critical technological and financial developments for the smart city include public-private partnerships, development of emerging technologies, expansion of ICT infrastructure, focus on cyber security, edge computing, big data analytics, etc. The real world is transformed into a smart environment in smart cities. Smart cities are made possible by a number of innovations, including cloud computing, the Internet of Things (IoT) [15, 16], the semantic web, open data, internet technologies, etc. The development, financing, and delivery of the digital infrastructure for smart cities will be carried out using a three-tier development [12]. The aim of Tier 1 is to fulfill the needs for service capability and infrastructure of the smart city. Here, the public group utilizes the private sector to apply the specific technologies or services in which the needs of the city planners will be the main goal. Examples are traffic management, LED street lighting, Wi-Fi connection, and water management. The main characteristics of this tier are that the economic arrangement provided by public organizations gives good support to the private sector so that the services, solutions and technology will be managed. In Tier 2, there will be some additional opportunities required for additional services. There are two functions, i.e., improvement of services to citizens, and verification of expanded digital services. Here the public organization makes an understanding with the private sector, which is called public-private partnership. Examples are the usage of financial items such as payment mechanisms. The private sector has much customer’s support base. In Tier 3, there is the involvement of the new development in smart city projects. The main characteristics of this tower are the development of a digital ecosystem in the digital infrastructure. As a result, various opportunities will be available in the smart system. These opportunities are new services, products, businesses, revenues etc. One such example is smart streetlight, which includes sensors, WiFi, digital display, etc. When these technologies are deployed, a digital platform will be created in which new services are being developed. By following these three-tier development model, six developments take place for smart city development, which are a public partnership, development in emerging technologies, expansion of ICT infrastructure, increased focus on cyber security, edge computing, big data analysis, etc. [12]
The distribution of components occurs at random in a smart city. Smart data presents a number of issues, including those related to analysis, assessment, integration, validation, and visualization. The Internet of Things (IoT) elements create the framework for the smart city [16]. The smart city becomes synchronous when a synchronization procedure is present. The creation of a smart city involves a number of tasks. These various tasks are activation of mobility as a service, utilization of non-motorized transport, involvement of citizens to make decision, diversity in political management, adaptation due to climatic change, reduction of pollution, etc. Smart city needs software-based technology and can be applied with the help of devices such as sensors, analysis tools, and output from machine learning and artificial intelligence [17]. The advantages of a smart city are sustainability, prevention of disaster, business, safety and enhancement of the quality of standard of life. The smart city has six key domains: energy and environment, economy, safety and security, health and living, mobility, education and administration. The term "smart city" primarily refers to the intelligence of numerous components, including the environment, life, water, people, governance, health, waste, etc. Advanced and innovative technologies are used to create smart cities. The initiatives for smart cities will be launched in a number of nations throughout the world, including Kenya and South Africa in Africa, China, Dubai, Hong Kong, and Japan in Asia, Barcelona, Romania, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America in Europe. A smart city is said to be an Intelligent city because Intelligent technologies are being applied. IoT is basically the current communication technologies, which have been launched. In IoT [18], essential things for everyday life, such as home appliances, cameras, sensors, actuators, displays, vehicles, etc., will be embedded with microcontrollers, transceivers for digital communication, suitable protocol stacks which have the ability for communication between each other and help the user to make it easy to access and become an integral part of the Internet. As a result, in a smart city [19], new applications are available which facilitate the residents, organization, etc. These new applications include automation in the home, workplace, medical field, energy and traffic management, as well as smart grids. Urban IoT must be installed for the smart city. Public services, including transportation and parking, lighting, security, preservation, heritage, trash collection, schools, hospitals, and other areas, all benefit from an urban IoT in various ways. Urban IoT gathers an enormous amount of smart data that can be used to improve the signal's dependability [20]. On the other hand, the application of IoT in a smart city makes people attractive. Smart city project is said to be the deployment of the Proof of Concept (PoC). For the realization of the urban scale platform, urban IoT [21] is the main element behind the development. Smart city is created by increasing the smartness, interconnection among various devices, sustainability, availability and gathering of information. In a smart city, there is a combination of various technologies, such as edge computing, blockchain, and artificial intelligence. In urban IoT, there is a processing of massive data. Smart data are not homogeneous, but they are heterogeneous because data are available in heterogeneous elements such as energy, vehicle, home, water, etc.
This chapter is organized as follows:
Technology Evolution towards Smart Cities: Future smart cities will be built with the aid of 5G technologies. As a result, a smart environment is created. The real world will change into a smart world as daily intelligence increases.
Importance of Internet of Thing (IoT) in Smart Cities: The Internet is a crucial component that offers complete facilities and utilities for running various gadgets in smart cities. IoT refers to the operation of things with the assistance of the Internet. IoT will eventually evolve into the Internet of Everything (IoE).
Physical Layer Aspects in Smart Cities: The hardware of the system for smart cities is referred to as the Physical layer. The hardware of the system should be constructed such that it may operate numerous gadgets in the surroundings by using the Internet.
Realization of Smart Cities: Several chips made by NXP Semiconductors will be used in the creation of smart cities.
TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION TOWARDS SMART CITIES
The new secret to fixing many problems is the smart city. These issues include urban ageing, pollution, heavy traffic, a lack of vitality, criminal activity, etc. In essence, a smart city is a massive information system. Large-scale facilities and opportunities are provided by smart cities to the public sector for the development of quality [22]. A smart city integrates several services, as seen in Fig. (4), including health, education, transportation, and power. Smart city basically means smartness in the metropolitan area. The data rate for a smart city is from 10 Gbps to 1 Tbps. Side by side, the spectrum efficiency is from 30 bps/Hz to 100 bps/Hz. The frequency bands are Microwave (Sub-6 GHz), Millimeter-wave and Sub Millimeter-wave.
The broadest possible frequency range is between 90 GHz and 10 THz. Smart data from any domain is used to process the operations in a smart city. Each autonomous device has a central connection to data management platforms that store large amounts of data. Smart cities involve the intelligence of many different things, including economics, governance, mobility, environment, people, and way of life.
Smart Mobility
Smart mobility is applicable to movable devices, i.e., autonomous vehicles. Here, the infrastructure determines the sustainability, innovation and safety of the transport, and the information can be accessed. Smart mobility is one of the important features which have a reduction in pollution, faster activation, cheap transport, green environment. The components of smart cities include sensors, dynamic street lights, global positioning systems, vehicle identifiers, navigation facilities, communication systems, data integration, etc. [23]. The latency should be 1 ms, and the reliability should be 99.99999%. As a result, road safety, traffic management, pollution reduction, user reception, accessibility, etc., can be improved. Smart mobility provides smarter decisions in which the usage of the transport network is possible by delivering the essential message to the user. The mobility support should be 500 km/hr to 1000 km/hr.
Fig. (4)) Smart city with its constituents.Smart vehicles basically mean vehicles interconnected with computing, sensing, processing device, etc. These are used to improve protection, reliability, Quality of Service (QoS). In the Intra Vehicular Sensor Network (IVSN), the wireless mode reduces the vehicle's weight. An IVSN can able to fulfill its targets such as transmission rate, low delay, stationary sensors and robustness. Smart transport is designed to activate traffic management, mode in advanced transport, driving and services in the car. In the smart transport system, Road Side Unit (RSU) is the main term. When the smart transportation system [24] is applied by the vehicle, the vehicle can able to change its communication from one RSU to another RSU given in Fig. (5). In smart transportation, 5G enables a software-defined vehicular network. It is an architecture that has 3 planes, i.e., data plane, social plane and control plane. The smart bus facilitates passengers by delivering high-quality service by applying several transit features and making it possible by using information and communication technology, which integrate and send the service to the user.
Fig. (5)) Smart transportation.Smart Environment
The smart environment determines the conservation of the natural environment, steps for environmental protection, pollution control, resource management, etc. [25]. Here the environmental changes can be verified, and the information about the pollution can be delivered. In the smart environment, the system is equipped with the power required for processing, actuator, sensor, displays, etc. These parts ought to be incorporated into the devices along with other commonplace items. For achieving smart environments, the main requirements are autonomy, adaptability and user interaction [23]. Smart environment communication includes WSNs, RFID tags and mobile networks. The device types are smartphones, sensors, drones, smart implants, DLT devices, CRAS, etc. The service level should be virtual reality, augmented reality and Tactile Internet.
Smart Building and Smart Home
The applications of IoT [26] in homes and buildings are essentially what smart homes and smart buildings refer to. It will encourage homes to use power and water sparingly. The ideal delay is 10 ms. By producing smart data, sensors will manage and keep an eye on the smart home. The key components of smart cities are smart houses and smart buildings. Smart homes have the capacity to provide users with opportunities. The user can design their own level of comfort. There are often two tiers employed in smart buildings.
Physical Level
The efficiency of the wired and wireless network and its integration with a power supply, transportation systems, switching devices, etc., are all included in the physical structure of the building.
Virtual Level
The virtual level refers to the facilities available in virtual mode. It includes the delivery of information, collaboration, intercommunication among people, and its application. The data are rectified by RFID CRC check and collision detection mechanism.
In the smart home, energy management is the main function. With the help of energy management, several devices can be switched on/off according to user needs and the electricity bill can be reduced. Several sensors and actuators control humidity, temperature, light, etc. When these parameters are controlled, the comfortability of life will be achieved. Activation of the alarm is done by the smoke detector when harmful gas is detected.
The smart home leads to smart living. When IoT [27] will be applied in smart homes and buildings, energy consumption, energy analytics, fire safety and environment management will be monitored given in Fig. (6). As a result, a new environment will be created in which the cost will be reduced for any services such heating or cooling and positive return will be obtained.
Smart Administration
Smart administration refers to city management, socialism, mass communication, development strategy, etc. Here urban IoT [28, 29] is the main item that provides various services to achieve perfect administration. The energy consumption should be verified. On the other hand, the detailed report of the energy consumption by different services such as street lights, transportation, traffic lights, camera, buildings, etc. As a result, energy efficiency can be improved. In smart administration, action transparency is mandatory. Using advanced technologies, information can be transferred to citizens by applying efficient, connected systems. Smart infrastructure, where data are generated, is necessary for smart administration [30]. The city authority alters these data in order to produce fresh insights. The goal is to create a viable value chain for these data as well as a business model for the data at various stages. Enabling of big data and analysis can be done through the reduction of tax evasion. Smart administration [31] includes watching of the activities and behavior for the proper administration of the city. The technology includes the LTE Advanced, New Radio, and New Radio Access Technologies. A few elements, such as TeraHertz Communication, Artificial Intelligence, smart cars, haptic communication, satellite integration, etc., ought to be totally applicable. The administrator's primary responsibility is to keep an eye on government services [32]. Electric supply, irrigation, etc., should be controlled for the improvement of efficiency, quality, and equity for the residents. Smart administration generally means smart governance in which political activities, residential facilities, and administrative functions are included. The functions of smart administrations are security, health, education, environment and urban planning, business, water and energy, transportation, etc., as given in Fig. (7). For providing facilities to residents in a region, there is a requirement of computers, devices, internet, etc. This system is called electronic government [33]. On the other hand, in case of natural disaster conditions, there is a need for emergency response. In the case of hospitality, there is a need for emergency response. Its architectures are massive MIMO and Intelligent surfaces. In smart administration [34], one important term is used, which is called public safety. For public safety, residents and organizations need protection against various threats.
Fig. (6)) Smart building. Fig. (7)) Smart administration.Smart Education
Teachers will get great assistance from data and analytics so that the teacher will feel easier for proper guidance to students. Smart education facilitates both teachers and students in a proper manner by providing high-quality teaching. On the other hand, students can able to take high-quality education. As a result, the Quality of Learning (QoL) will be improved [35]. Due to the development of smart education, student performance can be monitored, and development of teaching methods for the improvement of learning outcomes. Smart education is initiated by educated persons. Smart education leads to smart classroom buildings. In smart classroom buildings, the participants are students, teachers, visitors, cleaners, food suppliers, maintenance staff, etc. [36], and the services are IT services, academic services, technology services, etc. In smart classroom buildings, information and communication technologies are applied, which can make connectivity to different systems present in the building and essential information will be sent to different users; as a result, there will be an improvement in the techniques of learning, teaching and service experience. The smart education includes a smart board, video conference, learning, smart control, smart table, etc., given in Fig. (8).
Smart Health
Smart health mainly refers to electronic health and telecare services, and it will provide opportunities for some people like the elderly, the disabled, and disease patients. The use of robotic technology is here. The use of intelligent robots that adhere to patents and provide appropriate direction and information will be undertaken. Big data and artificial intelligence technology are used in smart robots [37]. The creation of smart health care is currently a pressing need. By utilizing sensors and actuators, smart health [38] can raise people's quality of life. Analytics are combined with data. Smart healthcare can be activated when there is a facility to use technology such as big data, which are used for the development of prediction and identification of hotspots. Here, the data refers to health-related data with the help of which digital health records, residential health services, treatment, patient verification systems, etc. The health condition of citizens is monitored by the health care unit using smart and network technologies. The transmission of medical data is from the sensing plane to the data plane. The applications of smart health given in Fig. (9) expand in various behaviors, and social and medical fields. In smart hospitals, three layered architecture will be used: device layer, edge layer and cloud layer. In the device layer, sensors capture the biomedical signals from the human body. These signals are being sent to the gateways through the wireless mode. In the edge layer, smart electronic health gateways are present, which are capable of supporting protocols and device-to-device communication in wireless communication. In the cloud layer, data analytics is performed by cloud computing.
Fig. (8)) Smart education. Fig. (9)) Smart health.IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT) IN SMART CITIES
In order to connect IoT with other devices and perform a variety of operations and services, IoT has the ability to integrate heterogeneous technologies with the communication infrastructure. The Internet of Things (IoT) will expand quickly, converge with other technologies, and large data will be used effectively. IoT is a new item faced by the real world in the future in which usable things are connected to a network. The usage of IoT will be such that specific tasks should be achieved where high intelligence is required. For high intelligence, IoT devices are connected with sensors, actuators, processors and transceivers. IoT is basically the combination of various technologies that can be executed with the help of the Internet. IoT is the main network in which the interconnection and communication between physical devices such as buildings, vehicles, hospitals and other devices will be fulfilled. IoT's primary purpose is to gather data, which residents and government agencies will have simple access to. IoT is essentially a method in which objects are linked together using sensors, actuator processors, and communication lines in order to achieve a goal. IoT forges a connection between the real world and the digital one [39].
The possibility of a relationship between the physical and digital worlds is due to the application of sensors and actuators. Sensors collect data that will be used for storage and processing in an intelligent manner in order to get useful information from it. IoT [40] is the network in which the interconnection and communication between physical devices such as building, vehicles, hospitals and other devices will be fulfilled. IoT [41] is a new platform having the combination of massive devices joined with the Internet and the identification takes place with the help of IP addresses and protocols. The embedding of devices takes place with sensors and actuators, shaving the connectivity to the network in wireless mode. The facilities are provided to the persons with the help of the pattern of connection and communication between sensors and the application of incoming information. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is basically the required item for IoT so that all devices can be identified with the help of radio units. There are varieties of IoT peripheral nodes depending upon many characteristics: powering capacity, network importance, sensor, actuator technologies and link layer technologies [42]. In the future, IoT will be updated to the Internet of Everything (IoE). It is the design, updating and extension for the replacement of IoT. As a result, life comfortability in cities will increase. The facilities present in IoE are much more than that of IoT. IoE can provide massive connectivity to every object with intelligent technologies.
As a result, various advantageous functionalities will be achieved. IoT executes on the massive number of interconnected devices given in Fig. (10). The ability of IoE is to carry the collected and created information by these things and allows communicating with massive things. When there is, an interconnection of intelligent objects and everybody from anywhere can able to access it., then the IoE forms a new and innovative era. In IoE, Internet infrastructure and interconnection of networks are applied. As a result, the incoming information from the devices will be managed. On the other hand, an application will be developed which can fulfill user satisfaction both in the public and private sectors and reduce the complexity of the network by the utilization of API (Application Program Interface).
Fig. (10)) Internet of things.PHYSICAL LAYER ASPECTS IN SMART CITIES
In order to design the physical layer for 5G IoT [43], several features like energy efficiency, reasonable cost, spectral efficiency, Quality of Service (QoS) should be fulfilled. The probability of these features will be successful if there will be the possibility of the removal of interference. The removal of interference is possible with the help of intelligent interference management techniques. In wireless IoT, there are several application areas such as WBAN(Wireless Body Area Network), WSN (Wireless Sensor Network), D2D (Device to Device), M2M (Machine to Machine), Satellite Communications and 5G network. For these applications, we have to undergo the characteristics of the physical layer. In wireless IoT, the different enabling physical layer techniques are cognitive techniques, dynamic carrier allocation, adaptive power allocation, distributed beam forming, adaptive waveforms, Millimeter wave technology, orthogonal/non-orthogonal multiple access, energy harvesting and efficient techniques, low complexity cooperative techniques, compressive and spectrum sensing, interference/fade mitigation techniques and different protocols. The physical layer is the perception layer in which the sensors are used for sensing, collecting and processing information about the environment. Some physical parameters are sensed with the help of a physical layer, and hence the smart objects are identified. IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee) supports low-energy communication at the physical layer.Another physical layer protocol relevant to IoT is IEEE 802.15.6. Bluetooth Low Energy, LTE A, NFC, etc. The sensor is one of the important components in the physical layer of IoT applications because the collection of data is possible with the help of sensors. Side by side, the sensor determines the smartness of the objects. The important feature of the Internet of Things is context awareness which is done by sensor technology. Basically, the sensors are small in size, cheaper, power saving capacity. Context awareness is the procedure of affecting a change in the physical world. It is dependent upon the conditions at that time.
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)
For proper diagnosis and analysis of the body, the WBAN [43
