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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fremdsprachen
- Sprache: Englisch
A comprehensive introduction to TESOL for new and future teachers of English, offering a full and detailed view of the process of becoming a language teacher Introduction to TESOL: Becoming a Language Teaching Professional presents an expansive and well-balanced view of both the interdisciplinary knowledgebase and professional opportunities in the field of language teaching. Written to help aspiring TESOL educators understand how to begin their careers, this comprehensive textbook covers both the foundational linguistic elements of TESOL as well as the practical pedagogical aspects of the discipline. Written with the needs of the introductory student in mind, this book delves into the essentials of Englishas a Second Language (ESL) and Englishas a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching, covering professional organizations, language acquisition theories, instructional practices, professional development, and more. Readers are provided with clear descriptions of recent research and contemporary practices, numerous illustrations and examples highlighting key material, and engaging real-world vignettes from professionals teaching internationally. Offering a coherent overview and contextualized orientation of the field of TESOL, this guide: * Discusses the differences in TESOL approaches in international settings * Addresses the current state and potential future of TESOL with a view for new developments in teaching pedagogy and language research * Explores the history and development of the field, including the political, social, and cultural decisions made about language teaching and learning * Describes the specializations, niches, and subfields within the discipline of TESOL * Explains what, how and why TESOL educators need a working understanding of linguistics and second language acquisition theories * Outlines the scope of the profession and how to engage in professional organizations to grow in expertise Introduction to TESOL: Becoming a Language Teaching Professional is essential reading for students and educators planning to enter this dynamic and rewarding area of language teaching.
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Introduction to TESOL
Becoming a Language Teaching Professional
Kate Mastruserio Reynolds, Kenan Dikilitaş, and Steve Close
This edition first published 2022
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To all the newcomers to teaching and our daughter, Maddy,
“Every great dream begins with a dreamer. Always remember, you have within you the strength, the patience, and the passion to reach for the stars to change the world.”
– Harriet Tubman
Kate Mastruserio Reynolds and Steve Close
To all the teachers shaping the future of children with education and to my son, Derin,
“A good teacher is like a candle—it consumes itself to light the way for others.”
– Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Kenan Dikilitaş
CONTENTS
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Part One: The Field of TESOL
1 What Is TESOL?
2 How Is TESOL an Academic Profession?
3 With Whom and Where Do Those Prepared in TESOL Work?
Part Two: TESOL Professionals’ Knowledge of Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition
4 What Are the Five Areas of Linguistics and How Do They Help TESOL Educators? Why Do TESOL Educators Need a Working Understanding of Linguistics?
5 What Are the Various Areas of Second Language Acquisition Theory and How Do They Guide Instruction?
Part Three: TESOL Professionals’ Knowledge of Instruction, Planning, and Assessment
6 How Does Theory Inform and Guide Instructional Practice?
7 What Do Educators Need to Know About Teaching the Language Skills...
8 How Do TESOL Educators Teach Speaking and Writing in Integrated Language Instruction?
9 Tools: Grammar, Vocabulary, Pronunciation, and Spelling
10 What Themes, Topics, and Content Can I Employ?
11 How Has Digital Technology Changed Language Teaching and Learning?
12 What Are Ways of Planning for Second Language Instruction and Assessing Learning?
Part Four: TESOL Professionals’ Knowledge of Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition
13 How Does TESOL Develop Its Body of Knowledge and Share Professional Knowledge?
14 What Are the Current Situations in TESOL and New Directions To Be Taken?
Acronyms in TESOL/Applied Linguistics
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 ACTFL Proficiency Scale.
Figure 1.2 WIDA performance definitions—speaking and writing.
Figure 1.3 WIDA performance definitions—listening and reading.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Broader settings for language teaching.
Figure 3.2 Lao elementary school resources.
Figure 3.3 In the Ukrainian classroom, students share resources.
Figure 3.4 Classroom taken over by goats in Laos.
Figure 3.5 EAP levels.
Figure 3.6 Types of bilingual education programs.
Figure 3.7 Maintenance bilingual program example.
Figure 3.8 Language use in one-way transitional bilingual programs.
Figure 3.9 Two-way transitional bilingual education programs.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Locations of articulators for vowel sounds.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Instructional methods over time...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Relationship between four language skills and tools.
Figure 7.2 Pre-, during, Postreading sequence, part one.
Figure 7.3 Pre-, during, postreading sequence, part two.
Figure 7.4 Pre-, during, postreading sequence, part three.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Educators focus on fluency and accuracy by proficiency level.
Figure 8.2 Continuum of speaking activity difficulty.
Figure 8.3 The writing process.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 English verb tenses.
Figure 9.2 Deductive and inductive approaches to grammar instruction.
Figure 9.3 Sequence of a deductive grammar lesson.
Figure 9.4 Sequence of an inductive grammar lesson.
Figure 9.5 Mind map of a young learner’s concept of cat.
Figure 9.6 Concept of cat developing conceptually
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Language and content continuum.
Figure 10.2 English for academic purposes compared to English for occupational purposes.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Curriculum planning
Figure 12.2 Teacher control over the curriculum.
Figure 12.3 The role of textbooks in curriculum development...
Figure 12.4 Thematic unit subtopics/subthemes.
Figure 12.5 Simple lesson plan format.
Guide
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Acronyms in TESOL/Applied Linguistics
Index
End User License Agreement
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Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the contributions of countless professionals in the field of TESOL from whom we have had the privilege of learning. Thank you to all of our students and colleagues who we have had the good fortune to collaboratively construct our understandings and grow academically alongside.
A big thank you to the following educators who contributed their insights and voices to this text. Your voices beautifully illustrated the intentional instruction and assessment practices you employ and your dedication to English learners. English language learners worldwide benefit because of your professionalism!
Ami Christensen
Angela Bell
Benardo Tupas Panzo
Connie “Alia” Mitchell
Elizabeth Kitzmann
Jing Jing “Summer” Jiao
Kara Shore
Katie Lembra
Mari Bodensteiner
Matthew Ventiri
No text can be written without the support and patience of one’s family and friends, and cookies. We would like to say thank you specifically to those who have heard the word “book” too many times this year.
Maddy Reynolds
Molly Vogt
Sherry Draeger
Our friends and families
Introduction
This textbook is an introduction to the profession of TESOL (teachers of English to speakers of other languages) from a bird’s eye point of view. We wanted newcomers to feel welcomed to the profession through an exploration of the breadth and scope of the field. We believe that newcomers will feel connected through understanding the knowledge base, skills, beliefs, and attitudes that TESOL educators have.
This is a descriptive textbook, which will help any prospective TESOL educator understand the interdisciplinary knowledge base that TESOL professionals share as well as the opportunities and subfields within the discipline. It is meant for educators who are hoping to learn more about TESOL or who are considering entering the field. It covers almost all areas of TESOL in a readable manner for students who are inclined to enter the field or teachers who are already in the field without formalized teacher preparation. It presents an opportunity to understand the numerous specializations and niches in the field that can be explored in TESOL. For example, one could teach first grade students bilingually in Egypt, foreign language instruction of English in Russia, academic second language writing at universities in English-speaking contexts, or research language patterns employed cross-culturally by different genders.
The major goal of this text is to share essential facts while providing basic information about contexts for teaching, our learners and their goals, professional organizations, linguistics, second language acquisition theories, instructional practices, and professional development. It is designed to help those interested in TESOL situate and commence their studies and research, and orient them so they know where to find resources, how to engage in the profession, and how to grow over the course of a career. It spans English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts as the authors are experienced teacher educators in both contexts. We hope it helps all readers identify where to enter the profession in ways that are inspiring and interesting.
This book provides multiple perspectives on teaching and learning a second language, and uses language that new TESOLers can understand, thereby building basic knowledge about the field of TESOL. We hope to offer guidance for the newcomer from the perspective of this is what TESOL educators do and why. Not every instructional or assessment practice works for every student in every context, so it is our intention to provide information about the choices educators can make and align them with potential future contexts and learner populations. We intend our guidance to be descriptive of instructional and assessment practices, without prescribing them as the only way to approach these instructions and assessments. We hope that everyone who reads this book will find the ideas suggested to be stimulating. We hope, too, that readers will be creative in their teaching and learning and share their innovations with the field, so it continues to develop in the rich manner it has.
The learning theory that informs our perspectives on learning and teaching is Constructivism. Constructivism is the theory that individuals construct, or transform, their understandings of meanings and concepts through learning experiences (von Glasersfeld, 2005). This language is used throughout the text. However, we recognize that many of the practices, for example, teaching language skills or developing lesson plans, spring from Bloom’s mastery learning model (1976). This text, therefore, is a hybrid of both educational perspectives.
In an odd way, this text is a love letter to a field of study, TESOL, second language learning, and English language learners (ELLs). In total, we have been studying and teaching in the field of TESOL for 80 years. That sort of dedication reveals a deep commitment to our ELLs and teacher candidates as well as the subject, the profession, and the processes involved in principled second language teaching and learning. It is our sincere hope that we convey in this text the wonderful, fascinating complexities and diversity of the field and inspire you to join us to engage professionally as a lifelong teacher-learner. We hope you find your niche within TESOL, so you can be the next generation of TESOL leaders.
References
Bloom, B.(1976).
Human characteristics and school learning
. McGraw-Hill.
von Glasersfeld, E.(2005). Introduction: Aspects of constructivism. In C. T. Fosnot(Ed.),
Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice
(2nd ed.) (pp. 3–7). Teachers College Press.
Part One The Field of TESOL
1 What Is TESOL?
This chapter will introduce TESOL as a field showing the various contexts and populations for English language instruction. It will highlight the domains that provide insight into how to teach, assess, and research in English as a second language. This chapter will provide basic acronyms needed by English language instructors in TESOL to situate their work and learn more about it. Proficiency levels, which describe levels of language development, will be presented. Finally, the interdisciplinary nature of TESOL and specializations within the field will be discussed.
Learning Outcomes
At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:
compare and contrast the unique attributes of different contexts of English language learning
define common acronyms in the field
apply knowledge of proficiency levels to lesson planning, delivery, and instruction
connect the disciplines that inform the study of second/additional language learning
describe the interdisciplinary nature of TESOL
discuss the specializations of professionals in the field
In this vignette, you will read about two locations where English is taught and how the context influences the instruction. Observe the differences and reflect upon how you envision your future English language teaching or which example mostly closely aligns with your current instructional setting and practices.
TESOL Voices
Diverse Learners, Diverse Settings
In Kobe, Japan at Aitoku Gakuen Junior/Senior High School, uniformed ninth-grade students enter their English as a foreign language (EFL) class. Both the teacher, who speaks Japanese and English, and the teacher assistant, a native English speaker from Australia, greet the students in English as they enter the classroom. The teacher prepares her lesson by arranging the necessary paperwork and bringing up a video about air pollution in Japan. The teacher assistant engages the students in casual social conversation about how they feel, how their weekend was, and what they are up to personally. The students seem a bit embarrassed, but try to respond to the questions as well as they can. Some students respond in full sentences and provide some details about their lives; others provide one-word answers and look down to avoid more questions. Once the teacher begins the class, she reviews the meanings of the key vocabulary they are learning. Students provide definitions and examples of the vocabulary during a quick game, competing to see how many their team can get correctly in 2 min. After the vocabulary review, the students watch an 8-min video in English on air pollution in Japan. While they watch, they are asked to identify key information presented in the video. Next, they individually read an article about air pollution in English. Some students raise their hands to ask questions about a word or phrase and the teacher or teaching assistant approaches them to answer quietly. The teacher leads the whole class in discussion about the article by asking comprehension and opinion questions. She says, for example, “What is the greatest cause of air pollution today? How do you think you can reduce air pollution?” Students raise their hands to respond and several contribute their ideas of how they can reduce air pollution. Then, the teacher gives them a group project to investigate more ways people can reduce air pollution. Students are given small posters to describe and illustrate with their findings. Students will present their posters to the class.
At Citrus Park Elementary in Tampa, Florida, United States, a third-grade mixed class of native English speakers and English language learners (ELLs) listen to directions about their science experiment on erosion. First, they should discuss their prediction with their partner of what they think will happen when they drip the water into each tin. Both tins have a small incline. One tin has only loose soil at the top of the tin; the other has roots attached to the tin with the same amount of loose soil on top. Students are instructed to write down the prediction for the team after they discuss it. Next, they begin the experiment by dripping water using an eyedropper from a small beaker into two baking tins. The classroom fills with chatter as students give suggestions about where and how to drop the water. Some exclamations can be heard as the loose soil side creates an avalanche of loose soil in the bottom of the tin with only one dropper full of water. The students write down their observations on a graphic organizer. Next, they move to the roots and soil tin and begin dripping their water. They note in their graphic organizer that only a little of the soil erodes through the roots. The teacher circulates and reminds them to reread their predictions and check to see if they predicted correctly. They write in their graphic organizer whether their prediction was correct. They reflect on the experiment and discuss why they think the water eroded faster without roots. The teacher asks students to take their pans to the sink area, where they place the soil and roots in different buckets and the emptied trays in the sink. Once they are seated, the teacher asks the students what they predicted, observed, and what resulted. They discuss the reasons for the differences and connect this experiment to the erosion of a mountain.
In Melbourne Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) in Melbourne, Australia, 12 adults ranging from 23 to 51 enter their English language class after leaving their children at the associated childcare center nearby. They are present to learn basic English language skills for participating in their jobs and conducting personal business in the community. Most of the students speak Mandarin or Arabic, but some are native speakers of Urdu or Vietnamese. One characteristic they all have in common is they are recent immigrants to Australia. Some of them arrived due to humanitarian reasons (e.g., political unrest, famine, or war); others for economic opportunities. They are greeted warmly by name by a teacher and three tutors and take their individual folder from the cabinet. Tutors sit down close by individuals or pairs and begin working with them. Each individual or small group is working on a different topic and level. In one pair, a tutor is presenting new vocabulary of items in a grocery store. The two older women say the vocabulary word aloud after the teacher. In a small group, the tutor is helping the students in a guided reading on conducting a job search. One student sits at a computer and takes an exam on business English terminology. The last group work with the teacher who is helping them with the academic reading skill of making inferences. Their class will last roughly 2 hr this evening, so they can pick up their children and return home at a reasonable hour.
All of these examples represent some of the variations of English teaching contexts and instruction. In each of these contexts, the learner population will be different. We will next talk about the acronyms used in the field and how they describe populations of learners; however, while we start here, we would like you to imagine the students in these different locales and keep the learners and learning at the forefront of your mind while reading.
The World of TESOL Through Acronyms
TESOL, in the simplest definition of the term, is teaching English to people who do not speak English as a first language. In this sense, the term TESOL is an umbrella term for many other related concepts. These related concepts are typically represented in acronyms.
Individuals encountering the field of TESOL are often struck by the number of acronyms associated with our community. These acronyms, while plentiful and a bit overwhelming, provide insiders with shortcuts to arrive at understandings quickly and demonstrate who is knowledgeable about the field and who is current in their understandings
While some of the acronyms indicate the population who is studying and what their studies emphasize, others provide key information about context. The initial acronyms encountered are distinctions between the study of language (e.g., ESL, ELL, EFL, ELT, and EIL) (see Table 1.1) and the study of teaching language (e.g., TESL, TEFL, and TESOL) (see Table 1.2). Acronyms for the study of language start with E for English, whereas those for teaching the language begin with T for teaching. The distinction they demonstrate is the study of the language is for individuals who wish to learn or improve their English language skills, while the study of teaching the language is for individuals who desire to teach others the language.
Table 1.1 Common acronyms to describe the study of English language
Acronym
Meaning
Context
ESL
English as a second language
Study of English in contexts where the language used outside of the classroom is English
ESOL
English to speakers of other languages
Study of English in contexts where the language used outside of the classroom is English
EFL
English as a foreign language
Study of English in contexts where the language used outside of the classroom is not English. Often the language employed outside of the classroom is the students’ primary language
EIL
English as an international language
Study of English as it is used internationally. It may imply use among individuals who may not be native speakers or bound to traditional native speaker norms
ELL
English language learning
This term does not imply context, but has been adopted frequently in the United States
Table 1.2 Acronyms for the study of how to teach ESL/EFL/EIL/ELL
Acronym
Meaning
Context
TESL
Teaching English as a second language
Teaching English to students in second language contexts (i.e., where the language used outside of the classroom is English)
TESOL
Teaching or teachers of English to speakers of other languages
Teaching English to students in second language contexts (i.e., where the language used outside of the classroom is English)
TEFL
Teaching English as a foreign language
Teaching English to students in foreign language contexts (i.e., where the language used outside of the classroom is not English). Often the language employed outside of the classroom is the students’ primary language
ELT
English language teaching
Teaching English internationally. This term does not imply context
The teachers may be former students of English language who have mastered a degree of proficiency in the language, or individuals who were born in bilingual or multilingual settings and had the advantage of learning two or more languages from birth, or native monolingual English speakers. All these pathways to the teaching of English are valued in TESOL and provide their future language students with insights they have gleaned from their pathway into the field. For example, the native speaking teacher may have a native accent, but nonnative speakers often have grammatical and linguistic insights from their studies native speakers do not possess.
The most common acronyms in the field to describe the study of English language by individuals who speak one or more other languages are ESL, EFL, EIL, and ELL. There are other acronyms for the study of English, such as VESL (vocational English as a second language), and content-based (CBI), sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP), which we will discuss later in the text.
ESL stands for English as a second language. It refers to language learning contexts, or locations, in which the majority of inhabitants speak English. Some English-dominant speaking countries spring to mind quickly, such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In the field of TESOL, a shared value is that there is no “best” version of English; British English is not inherently better than the other variations of English. These countries have traditionally been considered the generators of patterns or norms of English language use. However, as the number of the speakers of English has increased over years, the English spoken by non-English speakers has also changed. This topic, World Englishes, will be covered in more detail in upcoming chapters.
Representing the different forms of English
In recent years, there has been a tendency to legitimize the English spoken by people coming from different first language (L1) backgrounds, which also implies that English as a second language and its dissemination is not necessarily kept under the control of countries speaking it as a first language such as England and America.
Other countries have many speakers of English because they were former colonies of an English-dominant country, but may also have many other languages spoken in the country (e.g., India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and the Philippines). There are many individuals in India, for example, who have spoken English all of their lives and who speak some of the 22 major languages spoken there. Interestingly, Indian English has elements of the native languages of the people infused into their English. This infusion affords flair and flavor to their language use. Additionally, Indian English speakers generate new patterns of language use in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that are not necessarily influenced by their first language(s).
The acronym ESL implies certain perspectives. It suggests that students only speak one language when they might speak more than one. TESOL professionals often speak of “second language acquisition” to mean the process of learning or acquiring a second or additional language. Professionals in the field have suggested that we should use the term English as an additional language, which can be seen in some writings. In this text, you will see both terms employed.
Other issues exist with the use of “second language” as well. In the past, students learning another language often needed to travel to the target language country to practice their language with native speakers in order to develop a high degree of language proficiency. With the ease of global communication on the internet, students may have access to English in formerly unprecedented ways. They have access to newspapers, magazines, blogs, movies, music, and chatrooms with native English models of language. This access breaks down the distinction between “second and foreign language” contexts to some degree.
In spite of the issues noted above, ESL remains a widely used acronym. Many professionals use the term and keep these caveats in mind.
Heterogeneous or homogeneous learner populations
In some classrooms, there may be students who speak many different languages. For example, in New South Wales, Australia, there are 239 different languages spoken in the public schools as of 2018 (CESE Bulletin, 2018). Students may speak Chinese, Arabic, Vietnamese, Tagalog, Samoan, or Greek. We call this a heterogeneous class due to the different languages.
In other language settings, there may be classes with students who all speak the same language. This class composition is called a homogeneous population, because they share a similar first language. These distinctions are important, because the types of activities a teacher may use differ if they all share a language.
Generally, there are more heterogeneous class compositions in second language settings and more homogeneous groups in foreign language contexts. However, there are always exceptions to this pattern.
ESOL stands for English to speakers of other languages. The contexts for ESOL are similar to ESL—contexts where the language used outside of the classroom is English. This acronym was introduced to explicitly alleviate a problem, which was that the acronym ESL implied studying English as a “second,” not “additional,” language. ESOL implies students may speak more than one other language.
ESOL was adopted by several U.S. states in their laws and by TESOL International Association and its affiliates in their names. For example, Washington Association for the Education of Speakers of Other Languages (WAESOL) (https://waesol.org) and Peru Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (http://www.perutesol.org).
EFL represents English as a foreign language. It describes the study of English in contexts where the language used outside of the classroom is not English. Often the language employed outside of the classroom is the students’ primary language. For example, the study of English in countries such as China, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Ukraine, and the United Arab Emirates.
There are some inherent issues with the use of EFL. EFL is one of the older acronyms to describe the study of English. With the use of the world “foreign,” it has a negative connotation of otherness or oddity. In the field of TESOL, we hope to bridge cultural differences, so emphasizing otherness is counterproductive.
Despite the anachronistic nature of some of these acronyms, they do provide a clear distinction in context, which provides insiders with information about the amount of language practice and practice opportunities, and duration and type of instruction. For example, in Japan, elementary school children have English class for a couple of hours per week in which they learn basic vocabulary for families, food, hobbies through games and song. By middle and high school, students have English class daily, in which they learn speaking, listening, reading, and writing through choral drills, oral presentations, readings, interactive activities, and games. Much of the learning is about memorization and repetition. The classroom formats generally revolve around the teacher. The teacher asks a question and calls upon a student, for example. We call this teacher-centered interaction. For example, students in Japan may access outside-of-class opportunities to develop their oral language skills on the internet, but interaction within the community in English is not necessary, and often not even possible. Because of this and other factors, Japanese English learners tend to struggle with their oral language proficiency. This example is not intended to demonize the instruction of English in Japan. Actually, there are many exciting, culturally congruent practices employed by knowledgeable educators in Japan. These are generalizations to illustrate associations common with the EFL setting only. Although these are generalizations, generalizations are valuable at times.
English as an international language
EIL stands for English as an international language. It describes the study of English as it is used internationally. The term recognizes the use of English as a “lingua franca” or common language for communication. The concept of lingua franca will be further discussed in Chapter 4. EIL implies that English is used among individuals who may not be native speakers or bound to traditional native-speaker language norms. The contexts associated with EIL are in multilingual settings such as large, international cities (e.g., Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, Doha, and Dubai) or on the internet.
The use of English in these contexts may generate new language patterns or norms that have more to do with efficient communication and clarity than with traditional or formal English language use; however, speakers are typically successful in their communication. Kate had frequently interaction with speakers of diverse languages while living in Doha, Qatar, where roughly 88% of the population is from outside the country (Demographics of Qatar, 2019). Many individuals were from nearby countries in the Middle East and Asia, but also from the Philippines and Malaysia. The official language of Qatar is Arabic. English is also employed there as an international language, because it is a commonly learned language and many people have learned some of it. Street names were often not marked, so it was often necessary to negotiate at length with cab drivers about where to go, and how to get to a particular location. Communication between Kate and a cab driver depended in large part on each speaker’s knowledge of the area and abilities in Arabic for the street names and oral English. Many language shortcuts were taken to ensure that they understood each other and had the same location in mind. These types of interactions, if frequent, create new language patterns.
Language extinction, linguistic imperialism, and language policy
In locations worldwide, the native languages of communities are becoming extinct, meaning there are no new speakers of the language due to the increased usage of other languages. Often these other languages are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. To demonstrate the decreasing use of indigenous languages, Oré and Diaz (2019) report that, “Brazil, the region’s most linguistically diverse country, runs the risk of losing a third of its 180-plus languages by 2030. In Mexico, almost two thirds of its 68 languages are on the brink of disappearance. This trend repeats in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and Central America” (Oré & Diaz, 2019). The growth of English as a lingua franca is a contributing factor in language extinction.
Increasingly, people who do not have any intention of living or working in an English-speaking country need to be able to speak English for work and other purposes, so they opt to learn it. On one hand, that is a good for the employment prospects of TESOL professionals; on the other, it means that some native languages and/or indigenous languages are not maintained in some contexts. For example, a refugee to the United States from Guatemala who speaks Quechua and Spanish would learn English in the United States. That individual may also use Spanish, since it is a common language there. Furthermore, that individual might choose not to speak Quechua to their children. If the children of this individual learn to speak English and Spanish, the result is that there are fewer speakers of Quechua. This is how languages die out over time.
As a whole, the current extinction of languages worldwide can be traced back to the imperialism in the 16th to 19th centuries. Phillipson (1992) and Canagarajah (2003) linked the dominance of English worldwide and the rise of English as a lingua franca to the imperialistic endeavors of Britain in places such as, India, Hong Kong, Nigeria, and the United States in Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. When these colonizing forces took control of these locations, English became the language of power and knowing the language of those in power was an advantage; however, with the upsurge of English, the native languages declined. Moreover, the colonizers’ values and ideologies were promoted during the instruction of English in these locations. Linguistic imperialism is the promotion of one dominant language to the exclusion of others and the furtherance of the cultural values and ideologies associated with the dominant language.
The practice of linguistic imperialism varies in intensity and intent. A community may be forced simultaneously to learn the language of a colonizing force and to consciously suppress the native language. This was the case in many of the satellite nations of the former Soviet Union and Native American nations of the United States. Other cases of linguistic imperialism are less intentional and hegemonic (i.e., the social, cultural, and linguistic sway applied by a dominant group). For example, in India, where there are 121 languages spoken, the arrival of English meant that those who communicated only in non-English languages were at a distinct disadvantage; therefore, people opted to learn English. In this case, the British teachers did promote British culture, values, and Western ideologies with the instruction of English.
From a critical theory perspective, it is vital for TESOL professionals to be aware of the issues around the dominance of English worldwide, and embrace the variations in English and local language use. Teachers can do this by showing respect for students’ home languages and cultures, being cautious about promoting the cultural values or ideologies associated with the countries where English is spoken (i.e., norm-generating), asking parents to read in their native language(s) to their children at home, promoting learning of languages other than English, and supporting educational policies that clearly encourage the maintenance of other languages. It is in this manner that TESOL professionals can serve language learners in various contexts, reduce linguistic imperialism, and support native languages of students.
ELL stands for English language learning. It has come to mean the study of English as another language. This term does not imply any particular context, but has been adopted frequently in the United States, particularly in the public K–12 schools. It has some positive connotations, because it places the focus on learning. This acronym emphasizes the study of language, but it shares an abbreviation of ELL, which can mean English language learner, a phrase which refers to the students studying English. Depending on the situation, this difference may be problematic. Other English professionals, those who teach English composition (writing) or literature to native English speakers, have vocalized some concern about the term, too, arguing that they also teach English language learning, but with a different population and focus. Others find the term to be redundant. All in all, it is considered a less problematic term than ESL and many educators use it.
Some other common acronyms that you will encounter in the field are NL, TL, L1, L2, NS, and NNS. Juanita is a native speaker (NS) of Spanish in Mexico. We can say Spanish is her native language (NL) or first language (L1). She is learning English as an additional language. In this case, English is the target language (TL) or second language (L2). She studies with Ms. Milagros, who is a nonnative speaker (NNS) of English. These common acronyms will be used throughout this textbook, so you may want to commit them to memory.
Differentiating the focus from language teaching to preparing language teachers
Anyone who has tried to look up teaching English by “ESL” will be familiar with the difficulties associated with the use of ESL versus TESL or EFL versus TEFL. Not only do they look similar, but also their meanings are sometimes confused. Generally, if it has a “T” at the beginning of the acronym, it means teaching English as a second/foreign language (TESL/TEFL) and is used to describe the preparation to become a teacher of ESL/EFL. The emphasis is on the teaching of the subject. Applying this rule, the acronym “TESOL” then indicates teaching or teachers of English to speakers of other languages. Two professional organizations, TESOL International Association (www.tesol.org) and International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) (www.iatefl.org), have the T in their acronyms, but are used to describe the processes of teaching and learning of English in differing contexts.
Another common acronym for teacher preparation is ELT for English language teaching. This term is often employed in the United Kingdom and other countries closely associated with Britain; for example, countries in the European Union and former colonies of Britain, such as Hong Kong and India. ELT is used as an inclusive term, which does not highlight context. It is considered an overarching term, which is a positive characteristic. Another positive characteristic is that the use of it reduces all of the acronyms. A con for the use of the term is that it is not precisely descriptive for insiders.
In some contexts, you may observe the use of TESOL or Applied Linguistics employed interchangeably. The reasons that these terms can be used interchangeably stem from the early emergence of the field in 1946. As the field was beginning to be established and was initially defining itself, it was concerned with research-based foreign language teaching (including English to nonnative speakers) (https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/applied-linguistics). The field has continued to define itself and the parameters of study. Currently, according to the Association Internationale de Linguistique Appliquée (n.d.) or International Association of Applied Linguistics, the field of “Applied Linguistics is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with practical problems of language and communication that can be identified, analyzed or solved by applying available theories, methods and results of Linguistics or by developing new theoretical and methodological frameworks in Linguistics to work on these problems” (https://aila.info). In other words, the fields share interests in research on both second/additional language acquisition/learning and language teaching.
One minor difference between TESOL and Applied Linguistics is that TESOL focuses on English, whereas Applied Linguistics is concerned with the learning/acquisition of any second or additional language. For example, learning Italian in Italy if you do not speak Italian as a native speaker.
While it may appear overwhelming to newcomers to have so many diverse acronyms, their use has a practical application. The various acronyms help identify the population and context of instruction. They also indicate an orientation to the field to be inclusive and representative of learners and their backgrounds. It is best considered as shorthand or code for simplifying discussions among colleagues.
Questions for reflection
Why do you think the field has developed so many acronyms? Do you think they help professionals share important information about their contexts or do you think they are simply jargon? Why?
Which contexts do you foresee you will work in during your career?
How might proficiency levels be somewhat correlated to particular contexts? To what degree might this be true? What would be the exceptions to this relationship?
Being Proficient and Levels of Proficiency
TESOL educators describe the ability of a learner to communicate in oral and written language as their proficiency. While people outside of the discipline may use the terms “fluent” and “fluency,” TESOL educators tend to use these terms in very specific instances. Most of the time, we use the term proficiency, because it allows us to show the degree to which a person is able to communicate. For example, Kenan is highly proficient in English. Kate is moderately proficient in French, and Steve is moderately proficient in French and minimally proficient in Russian.
Organizations such as the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA), and the Council of Europe (Common European Framework or CEFR) have developed scales to describe learners’ abilities in specific language skills (i.e., speaking, listening, reading, and writing) or in general.
ACTFL Proficiency S
cales
The ACTFL Oral Proficiency Guidelines were the first of their kind in 1982, and influenced other scales over time. ACTFL (2012) has a scale that starts with novice, intermediate, and then moves along to advanced and superior (for more information, see https://www.actfl.org/resources/actfl-proficiency-guidelines-2012). ACTFL is used by many world language educators. The scales in different language skills illuminate what the learners should be able to do at each level of proficiency (see Figure 1.1). For example, in speaking, a learner at the beginning level can use formulaic language to greet someone.
Figure 1.1 ACTFL Proficiency Scale. Used with permission from ACTFL.
WIDA proficiency indicators
WIDA has six levels of proficiency (see Figures 1.2 and 1.3) that range from 1 as the lowest and 6 as the most advanced (Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, 2012). The WIDA proficiency level descriptors separate interpretative (i.e., reading/listening) modes from expressive (i.e., writing/speaking modes) and differentiate abilities at the word, sentence, and discourse levels (i.e., paragraph or essay). In the 2020 edition, they have also included categories of language functions common in the classroom: Narrate, Inform, Explain, and Argue.
Figure 1.2 WIDA performance definitions—speaking and writing. Used with permissionfrom WIDA.
Figure 1.3 WIDA performance definitions—listening and reading.Used with permissionfrom WIDA.
The WIDA team also developed “can do” descriptors that help educators understand what ELLs can do in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in social, instructional, and academic language. These descriptors were developed for kindergarten, first grade, and grade clusters of 2–3, 4–5, 6–8, and 9–12. They can be used to guide lesson plan development that is grade-level appropriate, so educators can provide supports and activities suitably geared for ELLs.
The proficiency level descriptors combine with the modes and levels of discourse (i.e., word, sentence, and paragraph(s)), language function at the six grade-level clusters, so that informed educators can design purposeful and targeted lessons (see the WIDA 2020 edition for details and examples).
The ACTFL and WIDA scales do not necessarily align one to one. At level 1 of WIDA, an ELL might be able listen to and understand yes/no questions with support. WIDA performance definitions are used in a majority of U.S. states and increasingly in international schools throughout the world.
Council of Europe Framework proficiency scale
Council of Europe Framework (CEFR) has six levels of proficiency that are correlated to the ACTFL Proficiency Scale (Council of Europe, n.d.). The CEFR scale ranges from Basic (A level) to Independent (B level) and Proficient User (C level) of the language. At each level is a lower and upper tier indicated by 1 or 2. At the most basic level is A1 (see Table 1.3). A language learner at A1 would be able to hold basic conversations about themselves with help. The CEFR is used in Europe and many international contexts.
Table 1.3 Council of Europe Framework
Proficient User
C2
Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarize information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
C1
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognize implicit meaning. Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organizational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Independent User
B2
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her field of specialization. Can interact with a degree of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
B1
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
Basic User
A2
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most immediate relevance (e.g., very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.
A1
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.
Used with permission from Council of Europe.
Proficiency scales do not necessarily indicate how long each level will take, with the exception of the CEFR. Some levels will not be achieved by some learners. Learners may also stagnate or step down on the scale without effort to improve their language abilities.
As you read this text, you will find many references to language proficiency levels. These will be general references, unless otherwise noted.
TESOL Is Highly Interdisciplinary
The discipline of TESOL draws upon other fields to inform their perspectives. For example, research from psychology provides important contributions on how children and adults grow, think, and learn, how first languages are acquired, and how the brain stores and processes information. From anthropology, we learn about culture, cultures, and cross-cultural interaction. From linguistics, we understand more about the structures, sounds, meanings, functions, and uses of language. The intersection of psychology and linguistics enhances understanding of the neurological processing of linguistic information in the brain. The field of foreign/world language teaching contributes insights into proficiency levels, traditional and interactive language methods, and assessment practices. From communications, we draw strategies of oral communication in formal talks and presentations as well as studies in cross-cultural and intercultural communications. English composition studies provide insights into the learning and teaching of writing to native speakers, writing genres and structures, patterns of written discourse, sentence-level written grammar, and argumentation. The various fields of teacher education, such as literacy, curriculum and instruction, educational diversity studies, and instructional assessment, offer insights into the instruction and assessment of reading by native speakers, curriculum development, academic content learning, lesson planning, lesson delivery, assessment design and interpretation, educational institutions, and culturally responsive instruction.
The TESOL specialist combines knowledge from all of these areas with second language acquisition theory (how people acquire/learn additional languages as well as the personal, sociocultural, and linguistic influences on the processes). The TESOL specialist applies this information to appropriate instructional planning, delivery, and assessment for ELLs at all ages from nursery school to university.
The discipline also interacts with academic content areas (i.e., subjects of literature, math, science, and social studies/history) as well as subjects considered “special topics” in the schools (i.e., music, art, and physical education). When TESOL specialists combine academic fields, this is called content-based ESL instruction (CBI) or sheltered content instruction, while in the European context this content and language integration is referred to as content and language integrated learning (CLIL), which is discussed in Part Two. CLIL holds both content and language as dual instructional goals integrating them equally to support simultaneous development of both knowledge bases.
Vocational content areas are studied by ELLs for professional purposes, such as aviation, law, business, engineering, design, tourism studies, etc. This intersection of vocational content and language study is English for specific purposes (ESP). You will find ESP courses listed as Business English or Legal English in adult education or university language programs.
Should I use the term second language acquisition or second language learning?
You may hear TESOL professionals use the phrases interchangeably or generally, meaning undertaking the development of an additional language. The two terms offer small, but meaningful distinctions for a TESOL professional. If you hear TESOL professionals discuss second language learning specifically, it means the study of English as an additional language in academic settings. Whereas, the use of second language acquisition specifically refers to situations in which individuals “pick up” a language in naturalistic settings, such as in conversations with friends, watching television, and/or reading for pleasure.
This distinction is one reason that language educators endeavor to create meaningful communication opportunities in the classroom that replicate natural conversational settings. If the language learning in classroom settings is more meaningful and authentic, it will be more useful and memorable for the learners.
Roles and Specializations of TESOL Professionals
The discipline of TESOL includes language teaching, teacher preparation and research, but also roles in developing curriculum, writing books and instructional materials and assessments, consulting, serving as a resource teacher, and leading and directing language programs.
TESOL has several unique areas of specialization and professional interest. A TESOL professional may choose a special focus in their work, which is one advantage of the field. This allows educators in the field to employ their unique strengths and build knowledge and skills in areas of individual interest, rather than focusing solely on language acquisition. Each specialization is specific to a context and learner population. For example, there are assessment organizations that specialize in the development of standardized tests on language proficiency for ELLs, such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), International English Language Testing System (IELTS), Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), and ACCESS tests. Individuals who work for Educational Testing Services (ETS), for example, who owns the TOEFL exam, focus on the design and implementation of testing questions and exams. They investigate the timing of questions and computer-adaptive test technology.
Teaching
Specialists may have teaching roles in public or private elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as community colleges and universities in second and foreign language contexts. Educators tend to specialize in an age group or subject matter. For example, an educator may focus on young learners who are learning to read in their primary language while learning to speak, listen, and read in English. At high school, an educator may teach world history bilingually. University-level TESOL educators may work with international exchange students who seek language development or academic degrees or those who were born in an English-speaking country and need support in reading and writing in academics. Others may focus on adult immigrant or refugee learners at a community college who need English for survival in their new culture. Survival English focuses on basic communication skills such as language for interacting when shopping, banking, renting/buying lodging, or securing employment, for instance.
Specialists teach different sizes and styles of classes: one-on-one, small-size classes of 6–20, medium classes of 25–30 students, or large classes of up to 50 in some settings. Some TESOL educators are “floating teachers,” who travel from school to school in a district to provide English language instruction. Some TESOL educators work exclusively online providing one-on-one instruction via distance education. TESOL educators may teach in English immersion, sheltered content, or bilingual classes.
Specialists may work for businesses with corporate language courses for employees or at private language schools. A huge, international corporation with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio, offers employees from their international locations intensive courses to enhance their English communication, so employees can collaborate better. Private language schools are privately owned companies that can range in size from small to large corporations. A private language school in Arequipa, Peru, teaches teens and adults oral English for use in their academic and professional lives.
To teach at public K–12 schools in many contexts, professionals need to hold a bachelor’s degree and a teaching license, certification, or other credential appropriate to the country. Depending on the setting, there may be other requirements. To teach English at community colleges and universities, the minimum credential is not a teaching license or certification, but a Master’s degree in TESOL.
To teach online, at private language schools, or in international corporations, the minimum credential varies. For the most part, individuals will need a bachelor’s degree and possibly a Certificate in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (CELTA) or TEFL certificate. The CELTA certificate is a short-duration, intensive teacher preparation credential offered mainly in the United Kingdom and the European Union (EU). The CELTA certificate is widely respected in the field and yields highly capable instructors.
A TEFL certificate is typically granted by private companies, language schools, or universities. These certificates are valued internationally by hiring committees seeking instructors for private language schools. Individuals often confuse the TEFL certificate with a teaching license or teaching certification for a U.S. state.
