IoT for Smart Grid E-Book
123,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Expert guidance on technologies to build the Internet of Things (IoT) from electrical engineering and power industry perspectives
IoT for Smart Grid presents advanced Internet of Things (IoT) technologies that are utilized in various aspects of smart electrical systems, especially monitoring, diagnosis, automation, and industrial evolution, from the point of view of both electrical engineering and power industry facilities and resources.
The book describes how IoT has expanded the use of wireless sensor networks (WSN) to play a vital role in connecting power industry facilities and resources to reduce energy consumption and costs. It also explores concepts of e-mobility that include smart parking, vehicle monitoring, and charging, and considers future challenges such as security and privacy concerns in transactive systems and scalability and standardization issues.
Later chapters describe communication protocols for transactive IoT, smart grid integration, cybersecurity challenges, smart energy management, and more. Relevant examples and practical case studies are included to enrich and reinforce learning.
Edited by a team of highly qualified professionals in the field, IoT for Smart Grid explores additional topics such as:
- MQTT, CoAP, and other protocols in transactive systems and WSN diagnostic tools for ensuring reliability and performance
- The role of sensors and actuators in transactive models and significance of transactive IoT in modern applications
- Remote control and automation in smart grids, utilizing IoT for demand response programs, load shifting strategies, and dynamic pricing models and IoT integration
IoT for Smart Grid is a definitive reference for identifying and applying advanced technologies and concepts and a highly valuable learning resource for students, researchers, consultants, and utility engineers in the design, use, and maintenance of electrical power systems.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 811
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
List of Contributors
1 Introduction to the Internet of Things
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Evolution of IoT
1.3 Need for IoT
1.4 Energy Management
1.5 Main Components Used in IoT
1.6 IoT Devices
1.7 IoT Characteristics
1.8 IoT Market Share
1.9 Conclusion
References
2 IoT Fundamentals: Platforms, Architectures, and Sensor Technologies
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of IoT System Architectures and Design Principles
2.3 Exploring IoT/M2M Systems and Their Role in Connectivity
2.4 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers in IoT
2.5 LoWPAN Network Management Protocol (LNMP)
2.6 WSN Diagnostic Tools: Ensuring Reliability and Performance
2.7 Overview of IoT Communication Technologies
2.8 Practical Applications of IoT Platforms, Sensor Technologies and Communication Protocols
References
3 Communication Protocols for Transactive IoT
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Transactive Systems in Smart Grids
3.3 MQTT, CoAP, and Other Protocols in Transactive Systems
3.4 Data Distribution Service (DDS)
3.5 Edge Computing and Real‐Time Implementation
3.6 Reliability and Scalability
3.7 Case Studies and Real‐Life Implementations
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Transactive IoT: Merging Transactions and Connectivity
4.1 Introduction
4.2 IoT Integration with Transactive Models
4.3 Transactive IoT in Modern Applications
4.4 Economic and Market‐Based Approaches
4.5 Transactive IoT System Architecture
4.6 Challenges and Solutions
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 IoT Devices in Transactive System
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Integration of IoT Devices for Data Collection
5.3 Role of Sensor
5.4 Sensor Types
5.5 Role of Sensors During Data Collection
5.6 Role of Actuators
5.7 Challenges Faced in Device Connectivity
5.8 Challenges in Data Security
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 IoT in Power Electronics: Transforming the Future of Energy Management
6.1 Introduction to IoT in Power Electronics
6.2 IoT in Power Conversion: Enhancing Efficiency and Reliability
6.3 Introduction to IIoT‐Driven Automation
6.4 Future Prospects of IoT in Power Conversion
6.5 Regulatory and Standardization Considerations
6.6 IoT in Power Transmission for Long Distance
6.7 Conclusion
References
7 Harnessing IoT: Transforming Smart Grid Advancements
7.1 Introduction to Smart Grid and IoT Integration
7.2 Architecture of a Smart Grid IoT System
7.3 Remote Control and Automation in Smart Grids
7.4 Automated Load Shifting Strategies Using IoT
7.5 IoT Applications for Real‐Time Monitoring of Smart Grids
7.6 Challenges in Implementing IoT in Smart Grids
7.7 Economics of IoT‐Enabled Smart Grid
7.8 Smart Grid in India
7.9 Conclusions
References
Notes
8 Cybersecurity Challenges in Smart Grid IoT
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Research Background
8.3 Cybersecurity Challenges in Smart Grid IoT
8.4 Case Studies and Real‐World Examples
8.5 Future Trends and Considerations
8.6 Conclusions
References
9 IoT‐Based Monitoring for Substations
9.1 Introduction to IoT‐Based Monitoring for Substations
9.2 Components of Substation Automation and Monitoring
9.3 Architecture of Substation Automation
9.4 The Need for IoT in Substation Monitoring
9.5 Automation and Control in Substation Environment
9.6 Substation Automation and Monitoring
9.7 Examples
9.8 Others
9.9 Conclusion
References
10 IoT Application in Condition Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis in Electrical Systems
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Importance of Condition Monitoring (CM) in Electrical Systems
10.3 Enhancing Reliability and Performance of Condition Monitoring
10.4 Proactive Maintenance Strategies Enabled by Condition Monitoring
10.5 Methods of Condition Monitoring
10.6 Implementation of Vibration Analysis
10.7 Vibration
10.8 What Can Vibration Analysis Detect?
10.9 Block Diagram of Vibration Monitoring System
10.10 Industrial Applications of Vibration Analysis
10.11 Advantages of Vibration Analysis for Condition Monitoring in Electrical Systems
10.12 Disadvantages of Vibration Analysis for Condition Monitoring in Electrical Systems
10.13 Importance of Fault Diagnosis in Electrical System
10.14 Integration with IoT of Conditional Monitoring Electrical System
10.15 Real‐Time Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance
10.16 Energy Management and Asset Performance Optimization
10.17 Safety, Compliance, and Future Trends
10.18 Future Trends in IoT Application in Condition Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis in Electrical Systems
References
11 IoT‐Powered Robust Anomaly Detection and CNN‐Enabled Predictive Maintenance to Enhance Solar PV System Performance
11.1 Introduction
11.2 IoT Application in Condition Monitoring
11.3 IoT Application in Fault Prediction
11.4 Overview of Solar PV System Faults
11.5 Need for IoT and CNN Algorithm for Anomaly Detection of Solar PV System
11.6 System Description
11.7 Proposed Algorithm
11.8 Results and Discussion
11.9 Conclusion
References
12 Advancements in Smart Energy Management: Enhancing Efficiency Through Advanced Metering Infrastructure and Energy Monitoring
12.1 Introduction to Smart Energy Management
12.2 Evolution of Energy Management Systems
12.3 Traditional Energy Management
12.4 Transition to Smart Grids
12.5 Role of Smart Meters and Advanced Metering Infrastructure
12.6 Effects on Contemporary Energy Systems
12.7 Digital Innovations in Energy Management
12.8 Smart Meters: Empowering Consumers
12.9 Revolutionizing Energy Consumption
12.10 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI): Streamlining Energy
12.11 Case Studies of Successful AMI Implementations
12.12 Energy Monitoring and Management
12.13 Examples of Energy Management Practices
12.14 Illustrations and Case Studies in the Practical Application of Smart Energy Management
12.15 Optimization of Urban Grids and IoT Devices
12.16 Challenges and Opportunities in Smart Energy
12.17 Opportunities for Advancements
12.18 Real‐Time Optimization
12.19 Automated Decision‐Making
12.20 Enhancing Efficiency and Reliability
12.21 Real‐Time Optimization of Storage Solutions
12.22 Managing Variability and Intermittency
12.23 Grid Resilience and Stability
12.24 Insights into Potential Vulnerabilities
12.25 Automation of Grid Operations
12.26 Regulatory Frameworks and Policies
12.27 Conclusion: The Future of Smart Energy Management
References
13 IoT for Power Quality Applications
13.1 Introduction to Power Quality in Modern Electrical Systems
13.2 Power Quality Standards
13.3 Power Quality Solutions
13.4 IOT for Power Quality
13.5 The Role of IoT in Enhancing Power Quality
13.6 Architecture for Power Quality Management Using IoT
13.7 IoT Architecture for Smart Grid and Power Quality Applications
13.8 IoT Sensors and Devices for Power Quality Monitoring
13.9 Conclusions
References
14 An IoT and 1D Convolutional Neural Network‐Based Method for Smart Building Energy Management
14.1 Introduction
14.2 One‐Dimensional Convolutional Neural Network
14.3 Proposed Method
14.4 Result
14.5 Discussion
14.6 Conclusion
References
15 IoT for E‐Mobility
Introduction
15.1 What Is IoT for E‐Mobility?
15.2 Benefits of IoT for E‐Mobility
15.3 Challenges of IoT for E‐Mobility
15.4 The Future of IoT for E‐Mobility
15.5 Various Considerations and Possibilities of IoT for E‐Mobility
15.6 Conclusion
References
16 Standards for Internet of Things (IoT)
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Smart Grid, Smart Transportation, and Smart Cities
16.3 Standardization of IoT Environment
16.4 IoT Standards in Healthcare
16.5 IoT Standards in Agriculture and Food Industry
16.6 IoT Standards in Smart Home and Industrial Automation
16.7 IoT Standards for Disaster Management
16.8 IoT Standards in Cybersecurity and Data Science Domain
16.9 Research Scope for Future Work
16.10 Conclusion
References
17 Challenges and Future Directions
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Security and Privacy Concerns in Transactive Systems
17.3 Scalability and Standardization Issues
17.4 Emerging Trends in Transactive IoT
17.5 Future Developments in Transactive IoT
17.6 Policy, Regulation, and Ethical Considerations
17.7 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Features of IoT.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Comparison of IoT protocols.
Table 3.2 Potential users of edge computing in smart grids.
Table 3.3 EC characteristics and strengths.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Factors affecting supplier and consumer side trade.
Table 7.2 Development of smart grid management infrastructure under NSGM in...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Related works.
Table 8.2 Analysis of attacks.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Confusion matrix for solar PV fault model value.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Parameters used for training occupancy detection module.
Table 14.2 Parameters used for training number of occupant prediction modul...
Table 14.3 Confusion matrix.
Table 14.4 Performance matrices.
Table 14.5 Confusion matrix.
Table 14.6 Performance matrices.
Table 14.7 Performance of the occupancy prediction.
Table 14.8 Comparison of occupancy detection method with other methods.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Standards of IEEE 11073 for medical devices.
Table 16.2 Different standards of IEEE 2621.
Table 16.3 Different sections of HL7.
Table 16.4 Standards of IEEE P2796.
Table 16.5 Different parts of ISO 11783.
Table 16.6 Different standards of ISO 22000 series.
Table 16.7 Different types of Z‐wave.
Table 16.8 IEEE and ISO‐based standards used in Matter.
Table 16.9 IEEE and ISO standards used in Thread.
Table 16.10 IEEE and ISO standards used in OPC.
Table 16.11 Standards used in PROFINET.
Table 16.12 Comparison of standards of ISA/IEC 62443.
Table 16.13 Family of standards under IEEE 1512.
Table 16.14 Different standards of ISO/IEC 20547.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Overview of the key transformative impacts of IoT integration in...
Table 17.2 Scalability challenges and solutions.
Table 17.3 Key standards for smart grid interoperability.
Table 17.4 Technological innovations in transactive IoT.
Table 17.5 Market drivers and growth barriers in transactive IoT.
Table 17.6 Impacts of next‐generation IoT technologies on transactive IoT....
Table 17.7 Key components of future renewable energy systems.
Table 17.8 Expanding the smart city ecosystem with transactive IoT.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Evolution of IoT.
Figure 1.2 Requirements for IoT.
Figure 1.3 Components of IoT.
Figure 1.4 IoT devices.
Figure 1.5 Smart device applications.
Figure 1.6 Characteristics of IoT.
Figure 1.7 Technologies behind the growth of IoT.
Figure 1.8 Applications of IoT.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 IoT three‐layer architecture.
Figure 2.2 IoT four‐layer architecture.
Figure 2.3 IoT five‐layer architecture.
Figure 2.4 Service‐oriented architecture.
Figure 2.5 Fog computing architecture.
Figure 2.6 Cloud‐based architecture.
Figure 2.7 IoT design principles.
Figure 2.8 M2M and IoT.
Figure 2.9 M2M working.
Figure 2.10 Sensor.
Figure 2.11 Transducer.
Figure 2.12 LNMP architecture.
Figure 2.13 MQTT architecture.
Figure 2.14 CoAP architecture.
Figure 2.15 Practical application of IoT platforms.
Figure 2.16 Practical application of IoT platforms – SMART HOME AUTOMATION....
Figure 2.17 Practical application of IoT platforms – INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION....
Figure 2.18 Practical application of IoT platforms – HEALTHCARE.
Figure 2.19 Practical application of sensor technologies – ENVIRONMENTAL MON...
Figure 2.20 Practical application of sensor technologies – HEALTHCARE.
Figure 2.21 Practical application of sensor technologies – AGRICULTURE.
Figure 2.22 LPWAN network architecture.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Conceptual TE model.
Figure 3.2 Demand response (sample use case of MQTT).
Figure 3.3 Smart grid task computation queue.
Figure 3.4 Architecture for implementing edge computing in smart grids.
Figure 3.5 Various approaches for EC.
Figure 3.6 Challenges in reliability.
Figure 3.7 Scalability enhancement.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Transactive IoT for enhanced grid stability and efficient resourc...
Figure 4.2 Renewable energy integration in smart cities.
Figure 4.3 Transactive IoT system components.
Figure 4.4 Transactive IoT system layers.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Process flow of transactive system [3].
Figure 5.2 Data flow of the architecture of transactive system [5].
Figure 5.3 Cybersecurity threats [54].
Figure 5.4 Value and demand in the global market [68].
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Future IIoT.
Figure 6.2 Components of IIoT.
Figure 6.3 ICS and SCADA operation.
Figure 6.4 Block chain integration.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Block diagram of an IoT system.
Figure 7.2 Conceptual diagram of a smart grid system.
Figure 7.3 Smart grid components.
Figure 7.4 EMS architecture design.
Figure 7.5 Cost curve of different power plants.
Figure 7.6 Double auction for spot trading.
Figure 7.7 Timeline of power trading practices in power exchange.
Figure 7.8 (a) Over‐the‐counter and (b) power exchange trading structure.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Model cybersecurity smart grid.
Figure 8.2 Research trends (2019–2023).
Figure 8.3 Publication distribution (2023).
Figure 8.4 Smart grid IoT attacks.
Figure 8.5 Analysis of Ukraine cyberattack phases and impact.
Figure 8.6 Correlation matrix of attack phases.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Components of substation automation and monitoring.
Figure 9.2 Architecture of substation automation.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Overview of condition monitoring in electrical systems.
Figure 10.2 IoT condition monitoring in electrical systems.
Figure 10.3 Block diagram of vibration monitoring.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Block diagram representation of the solar PV system.
Figure 11.2 Proto‐type setup for smart solar PV system.
Figure 11.3 Output data collection time, panel, voltage, current, and temper...
Figure 11.4 Solar PV anomaly detection and classification flowchart.
Figure 11.5 Pie chart for different types of solar PV system fault class.
Figure 11.6 Confusion matrix for solar PV system fault model.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Smart energy management.
Figure 12.2 Evolution of energy management system.
Figure 12.3 Big Data analytics.
Figure 12.4 Smart meter.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Types of passive filters.
Figure 13.2 Series active filter.
Figure 13.3 Shunt active filter.
Figure 13.4 Hybrid filter with shunt active and shunt passive filter.
Figure 13.5 IoT‐enabled power quality monitoring system architecture.
Figure 13.6 The integration of intelligent energy management system modules ...
Figure 13.7 Overview of IOT‐enabled smart grid.
Figure 13.8 IoT architecture for smart grid.
Figure 13.9 Energy savings analysis flowchart.
Figure 13.10 IoT for power quality monitoring.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 1D CNN architecture.
Figure 14.2 Flowchart of the proposed method.
Figure 14.3 Inputs and output of occupancy detection.
Figure 14.4 Inputs and output of occupancy prediction.
Figure 14.5 Training performance of occupancy detection module.
Figure 14.6 Training performance of a number of occupant prediction modules....
Figure 14.7 Output of the occupancy prediction method.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Portrays the Internet of Things in electric mobility.
Figure 15.2 IoT in everything (in all fields).
Figure 15.3 Integrated mobility platform.
Figure 15.4 Advanced driver assistance system feature.
Figure 15.5 Future of connected E‐mobility.
Figure 15.6 Future of mobility.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Agents and managers in ISO/IEEE 11073.
Figure 16.2 DICOM‐based details of an image.
Figure 16.3 Layout of ISO 28258.
Figure 16.4 FMIS – farm management information system.
Figure 16.5 Structure of IEEE 802.1X.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Schematic representation of the evolution from traditional to sm...
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
Pages
ii
iii
iv
xxvii
xxviii
xxix
xxxi
xxxii
xxxiii
xxxiv
xxxv
xxxvi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
IEEE Press445 Hoes LanePiscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE Press Editorial BoardSarah Spurgeon, Editor-in-Chief
Moeness Amin
Jón Atli Benediktsson
Adam Drobot
James Duncan
Ekram Hossain
Brian Johnson
Hai Li
James Lyke
Joydeep Mitra
Desineni Subbaram Naidu
Tony Q. S. Quek
Behzad Razavi
Thomas Robertazzi
Diomidis Spinellis
IoT for Smart Grid
Revolutionizing Electrical Engineering
Edited by
Rahiman ZahiraSenior Member IEEE, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and TechnologyChennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Palanisamy SivaramanSenior Member IEEE, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Chenniappan SharmeelaSenior Member IEEE, Anna University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Sanjeevikumar PadmanabanSenior Member IEEE, University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway
Copyright © 2025 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per‐copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750‐8400, fax (978) 750‐4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748‐6011, fax (201) 748‐6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.
The manufacturer's authorized representative according to the EU General Product Safety Regulation is Wiley‐VCH GmbH, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany, e-mail: [email protected].
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762‐2974, outside the United States at (317) 572‐3993 or fax (317) 572‐4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:
Hardback ISBN: 9781394279371
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © jamesteohart/Adobe Stock Photos
About the Editors
Dr. Rahiman Zahira is an IEEE Senior Member. She received her BE in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from the University of Madras in 2004, her ME in Power Systems Engineering from B.S. Abdur Crescent Engineering College, Anna University, Chennai, in 2006, and earned her Doctoral degree from Anna University in February 2018. With 18 years of teaching experience, she began her academic career as a lecturer in 2006 and currently serves as an associate professor at B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai. She has published over 70 publications in national and international journals and conference proceedings, contributed to 11 book chapters, edited 3 books. She also holds one international patent (granted) and three patents (published). Dr. Zahira is actively involved in the IEEE Standards Association. She serves as a working group member of IEEE P1729 – Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution System Analysis, IEEE P2882 WG‐STDS‐P2882, WG‐SG2 Steady‐state, Harmonic and Dynamic Stability, and as secretary and working group member of the IEEE PES Task Force session on Demand Flex metrics standardization for grid‐interactive buildings and customer systems.
She has received awards from Guinness World Records (UK), World Book of Records (London) for participating in the longest 150‐hour conference, Asian Book, and Indian Book of Records for being an editor and author in a record book titled “Most authors contributing for a single book: COVID‐19 and its impact.” She has also been honored with the Best Innovation in Teaching Award 2021, the Young Educator & Scholar Award in the 10th National Teachers' Day Awards 2019, the Women Researcher Award, the Outstanding Scientist Award, the Innovative Technological Researcher & Dedicated Academician Award (Electrical Engineering), and the Best Academics award from the BSA Crescent Alumni Association during Hangout 2019. Dr. Zahira has guided over 20 undergraduates and postgraduate students and 2 research scholars. She is a life member in 7 Professional Bodies. She serves as a reviewer for reputable journals, an editorial board member, and an advisory member for numerous conferences. Her areas of interest include power quality, harmonic suppression, active filter control techniques, renewable energy systems, microgrids, smart grids, and electric vehicle charging systems.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/my-orcid?orcid=0000-0002-5492-9048
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/drrzahira/
Google Scholar ID: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=NcKB9_UAAAAJ&hl=en
Mr. Palanisamy Sivaraman (Member'20, Senior Member'21, IEEE) was born in Vellalur, Madurai district, Tamil Nadu, India. He completed schooling in Government Higher Secondary School, Vellalur and earned a BE in Electrical and Electronics Engineering and an ME in Power Systems Engineering from Anna University, Chennai, India, in 2012 and 2014, respectively. With over 10 years of industrial experience, he specializes in the field of power system studies and grid code compliance for renewable power plants, including solar and wind power plants and battery energy storage systems. Currently, he is an industry working professional and also a Research Scholar, Department of EEE, Anna University, Chennai, India. He has trained over 500 personnel on renewable energy and power quality. A proficient user of power system simulation software like ETAP, PSCAD, DIGSILENT POWER FACTORY, PSSE, and MATLAB, he actively participates in the IEEE Standards Association. Mr. Sivaraman is a working group member of IEEE standard, including P2800.2 (Recommended Practice for Test and Verification Procedures for Inverter‐based Resources (IBRs) Interconnecting with Bulk Power Systems), P1729 (IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution System Analysis), P2418.5 (Standard for Blockchain in Power and Energy), P1854 (Guide for Smart Distribution Systems), P2688 (Recommended Practice for Energy Storage Management Systems in Energy Storage Applications), and IEEE 3001.9‐2023 (Design of Power Systems Supplying Lighting Systems in Commercial and Industrial Facilities).
He is also a member of the IEEE PES task force on Energy Storage. He had authored/co‐authored/edited ten books in the field of electrical engineering with Elsevier and Wiley‐IEEE Press and published several papers at national and international conferences. Mr. Sivaraman is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), a member of the International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE), and an Associate Member of the Institution of Engineers (India). He holds a Professional Engineer (PEng) certification from the Institution of Engineers, India. He is a recognized speaker well versed in both National and International Standards.
Google Scholar link: https://scholar.google.co.in/citations?user=XLdd0mgAAAAJ&hl=en&authuser=1
Dr. Chenniappan Sharmeela holds a BE in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, an ME in Power Systems Engineering from Annamalai University, Chidambaram, and a PhD in Electrical Engineering from the College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai. She currently serves as Professor and Professor‐In‐Charge of Power Engineering and Management in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at C.E.G., Anna University, Chennai. She is also actively involved in research as a professor at the Centre for E‐Vehicle Technologies and the Centre for Energy Storage Technology, Anna University, Chennai. From 2015 to 2018, she served as Assistant Director of the Centre for Entrepreneurship Development at C.E.G., Anna University, Chennai. Dr. Sharmeela has undertaken numerous consultancies on Renewable Energy Systems, including Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Power Systems, power quality measurements, and the design of compensators for industries. She has coordinated and organized several short‐term courses on power quality for Tamil Nadu State Electricity Board Engineers. She has delivered several invited talks and trained over 1000 engineers on the importance of Power Quality, Power Quality Standards, and the design of SPV power systems for more than 12 years in leading organizations such as CII, FICCI, CPRI, MSME, GE (Alsthom), and APQI. In 2011, she received a grant from CTDT, Anna University, for a two‐year project on “Energy Efficient Solar‐Based Lighting System for Domestic Application.” In 2020, she received a research grant from AICTE – RPS, New Delhi, India, on “Smart EV Charging Station.” Dr. Sharmeela has authored over 30 journal papers in refereed international journals and more than 60 papers in international and national conferences. She has authored/co‐authored/edited 12 book chapters, edited 10 books, and authored 2 books. Her areas of interest include power quality, power electronics applications to power systems, smart grid, energy storage systems, renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, battery management systems, and electric vehicle supply equipment. She is a Senior Member of IEEE; a Member of the IEEE – Power and Energy Society; a Fellow of the Institution of Engineers (India); a Life Member of ISTE; a member of the Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP), New Delhi, India; and a member of SSI, India. With over 24 years of experience in teaching, research, and consultancy in the areas of power quality and power systems, Dr. Sharmeela is an active participant in the IEEE Standards Association. She is a working group member of IEEE standards P2800.2 (Recommended Practice for Test and Verification Procedures for Inverter‐based Resources Interconnecting with Bulk Power Systems) and P1729 (Recommended Practice for Distribution System Analysis). She is also a working group member of the IEEE PES task force on Energy Storage. She has authored/co‐authored/edited nine books in the field of electrical engineering with Elsevier and Wiley‐IEEE Press, notably “Fast charging infrastructure for electric and hybrid electric vehicles” by Wiley‐IEEE Press in 2023 and “Power system operation with 100% renewable energy resources” by Elsevier in 2023.
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6706-4779
Dr. Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban (Member'12–Senior Member'15, IEEE) received a Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy 2012. He is a Full Professor in Electrical Power Engineering at the Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology, and Cybernetics, University of South‐Eastern Norway, Norway. S. Padmanaban has authored over 750+ scientific papers and received the Best Paper cum Most Excellence Research Paper Award from IET‐SEISCON'13, IET‐CEAT'16, IEEE‐EECSI'19, IEEE‐CENCON'19, and five best paper awards from ETAEERE'16 sponsored Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, Springer book. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Engineers, India, the Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers, India, and the Institution of Engineering and Technology, U.K. He received a lifetime achievement award from Marquis Who's Who – USA 2017 for contributing to power electronics and renewable energy research. He is listed among the world's top 2 scientists (from 2019) by Stanford University USA.
He served an Editor/Associate Editor/Editorial Board for refereed journals, in particular the IEEE Systems Journal, IEEE Transaction on Industry Applications, IEEE Access, IET Power Electronics, IET Electronics Letters, and Wiley‐International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems, Subject Editorial Board Member—Energy Sources—Energies Journal, MDPI, and the Subject Editor for the IET Renewable Power Generation, IET Generation, Transmission and Distribution, and FACETS Journal (Canada).
List of Contributors
Sukumaran Aasha Nandhini
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Naser S. Almutairi
Department of Computer System and Technology
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology
Universiti Malaya
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Veerasamy Balaji
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG College of Technology
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
Nalini P. Behera
School of Computer Engineering
KIIT Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar
Odisha
India
Debashish Bhowmik
Electrical Engineering Department
Mizoram University
Aizawl
Mizoram
India
Zain Buksh
Department of Computer Science and Mathematics
The University of Fiji
Lautoka
Fiji
Rishal Chand
Department of Computer Science and Mathematics
The University of Fiji
Lautoka
Fiji
Jayachandran Divya Navamani
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Kattankulathur
Tamil Nadu
India
Pijush K. Dutta Pramanik
School of Computer Applications and Technology
Galgotias University
Greater Noida
Uttar Pradesh
India
Gunasekaran Ezhilarasi
Department of EEE
Sri Sairam Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Khang W. Goh
School of Engineering
Shinawatra University
Pathum Thani
Thailand
and
Faculty of Data Science and Information Technology
INTI International University
Nilai
Malaysia
Balan Gunapriya
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
New Horizon College of Engineering
Bangalore
Karnataka
India
G. Jagadish
School of Electrical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Naseer Ahamed Javed
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Jerusalem College of Engineering
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
and
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
G. Kabilan
School of Electrical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Kallankurichy P. Kaliyamurthie
Department of Information Technology
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
A. Kamalasegaran
School of Electrical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Ravichandran Karthick Manoj
Department of EEE
AMET Deemed to be University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Burhan Khan
Department of Computer System and Technology
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology
Universiti Malaya
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Jashnil Kumar
Department of Computing Sciences and Information Systems
Fiji National University
Natabua
Lautoka
Fiji
Saurav Kumar
School of Computer Engineering
KIIT Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar
Odisha
India
Ajay Kushwaha
Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology
Patiala
Punjab
India
Dhandapani Lakshmi
Department of EEE
AMET Deemed to be University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Anbazhagan Lavanya
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Kattankulathur
Tamil Nadu
India
Shanmugasundaram Logeshkumar
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Christ the King Engineering College
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Rajagopal Logesh Krishna
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
Aabid A. Mir
Malaysian Institute of Information Technology
Universiti Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Ravikumar Mithra
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
Mohamed Mustafa Mohamed Iqbal
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
Balasubramanian Nandhan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
S. Nazrin Salma
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Thamirabharani Engineering College
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Niyas Ahamed
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Thamirabharani Engineering College
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Rajesh K. Padmashini
Department of EEE
AMET Deemed to be University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Vallikanu Pramila
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Kumaresa P. Punitha
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
P S R Engineering College
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Rajasekharan Rajasree
Department of EEE
AMET Deemed to be University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Janarthanan N. Rajesh Kumar
Department of Computer science and Engineering
Sree Sastha Institute of Engineering and Technology
Chembarambakkam
Tamil Nadu
India
Yogesh Rajkumar
Department of Information Technology
Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Nur F.L.M. Rosely
School of Computer Science
Faculty of Innovation and Technology
Taylor's University
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban
Faculty of Technology, Natural Sciences and Maritime Sciences
Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics
Campus Porsgrunn
University of South‐Eastern Norway
Norway
Harsh Saran
School of Computer Engineering
KIIT Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar
Odisha
India
Krishnakumar Shanmugasundaram
Capgemini US Corp
Charlotte
NC
USA
Neeraj A. Sharma
Department of Computer Science and Mathematics
The University of Fiji
Lautoka
Fiji
Chenniappan Sharmeela
Department of EEE
CEG
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
A. B. M. Shawkat Ali
Bangladesh University of Business and Technology (BUBT)
Dhaka
Bangladesh
Palanisamy Sivaraman
Research Scholar
Department of EEE
Anna University
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
G. Srinivasan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
MVJ College of Engineering
Visvesvaraya Technological University
Bengaluru
Karnataka
India
P. Sriramalakshmi
School of Electrical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
Sakthivel Sruthi
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
PSG Institute of Technology and Applied Research
Coimbatore
Tamil Nadu
India
Aleena Swetapadma
School of Computer Engineering
KIIT Deemed to be University
Bhubaneswar
Odisha
India
Bijoy K. Upadhyaya
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Tripura Institute of Technology
Narsingarh
Tripura
India
Rahiman Zahira
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology
Chennai
Tamil Nadu
India
1Introduction to the Internet of Things
Anbazhagan Lavanya1, Jayachandran Divya Navamani1, and Rahiman Zahira2
1Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu, India
2Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
1.1 Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a cutting‐edge technique that facilitates interface, communications, and data sharing among IoT devices. In the IoT, the information is transmitted since many sources are gathered for the purpose of creating up‐to‐date decisions and conducting analysis. Developing IoT applications encounters numerous problems, with security being a significant one. The IoT holds the possibility to enhance the overall quality of human existence by offering sophisticated applications that cater to the diverse requirements of humans across various domains, such as commercial, private, and industry. The IoT is constructed using the existing style of cyberspace and integrates mutually the Internet structure and developing engineering. The outcome of this amalgamation facilitates the seamless interconnection of an immense number of embedded systems, resulting in cost‐effective service management, as well as enhanced scalability and flexibility.
The IoT has immense possibilities for creating value and is becoming recognized as the subsequent phase in the extensive digitization of the global economy. A rising phenomenon involves the interconnection of all devices that might benefit from a connection in a smart, energy‐efficient, and profitable method. This revolutionizes the way individuals and companies connect to the physical world and with one other, to impact several aspects of everyday life, with its application domains spanning different sectors like health care, intelligent grids, transportation systems, automation in industry, and agriculture [1–6].
The IoT is a technique that involves interconnecting almost all items with intelligence, communication skills, and the ability to sense and act through Internet Protocol (IP) networks. The current state of the Internet has experienced a significant shift, moving away from being primarily driven by physical components such as computers, fibers, and Ethernet connections, to being driven by market forces and opportunities. This phenomenon has occurred as a consequence of the integration of seemingly separate intranets with robust software competences [7–9]. The IoT requires the use of open environments and a unified architecture consisting of interoperable platforms. Smart products and cyber‐physical systems, commonly referred to as “things,” are the most recent devices of the IoT. Such items are common products that have been improved using microcomputers, optoelectronic and/or radio transceivers, actuators and sensors, and interface stacks. They can gather data from their surroundings, act on that data, and interact with the physical world in environments with limited resources.
The IoT, as a developing technology, is anticipated to provide innovative solutions for revolutionizing the function and purpose of several established industrial systems, including transportation and manufacturing systems. IoT devices are essential for the general advancement of IoT as they provide several applications in various domains [10–18]. Considering the growing demand and speedy advancement in sensors, particularly, have greatly impacted and transformed our daily lives, it is necessary to conduct an in‐depth investigation of embedded platforms and boards.
1.2 Evolution of IoT
The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) was initially introduced by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1965. NASA purposefully designed this computer for the Apollo moon landing mission. NASA outfitted the Apollo Lunar Module and Command Module with a device that offered interfaces and processing capabilities for spacecraft control and navigation. Afterward, a sequence of important events occurred, influencing the direction of the IoT industry. These milestones encompass the founding of N M Electronics, presently Intel in 1968, the debut mobile phone call took place in 1973, the release of the initial personal computer in 1975, and the dedicated endeavors toward internet development in the 1980s. The evolution of the IoT technique is shown in Figure 1.1.
In the 1980s, a group of university students initially explored the idea of incorporating sensors and advanced capabilities into tangible items by enabling a Coca‐Cola vending machine to remotely monitor its inventory. However, the cumbersome nature of the technology limited its advancements. The term “IoT” originated in 1999, credited to computer scientist Kevin Ashton. During Ashton's tenure at Procter & Gamble, he suggested the implementation of radio‐frequency identification (RFID) chips on items as a means of monitoring their movement around the supply chain. Allegedly, he incorporated the popular term “internet” into his presentation in order to capture the executives' interest. The phrase became firmly established. In the following decade, there was a surge in public interest in IoT technology as an increasing number of interconnected products became available on the market. LG launched the first smart refrigerator in 2000, while Apple released the first iPhone in 2007. By 2008, the number of interconnected devices had surpassed the global population. Google commenced trials of autonomous vehicles in 2009, and in 2011, Google introduced the Nest smart thermostat, enabling users to remotely regulate their central heating systems.
Figure 1.1 Evolution of IoT.
Developments in science and technology, along with the greater availability of the internet, have been the primary catalysts for the growth of the IoT in India. The IoT market in India has experienced growth since 2013 due to factors such as the growing recognition of cloud computing and data analytics, the expansion of data analytics, and a higher level of awareness. India has more than 100 proposed smart city initiatives that prioritize seamless communication and increased efficiency. By the end of 2019, the IoT will facilitate communication advancement, leading to a probable surge in business in India.
1.3 Need for IoT
The IoT empowers devices to autonomously perform everyday tasks without the need for human interaction. Companies can implement automation to streamline processes, reduce labor expenses, minimize waste, and improve service delivery efficiency. Figure 1.2 provides the requirements of the IoT technique. The IoT enables cost reduction in the manufacturing and delivery of goods, as well as visibility into customer transactions.
Figure 1.2 Requirements for IoT.
The IoT aims to establish connectivity between various items, enabling them to interact with each other over the internet. The connectivity enhances the security and convenience of human existence. The IoT enables a high level of interconnectedness in our world. In the present era, internet infrastructure is nearly ubiquitous, allowing us to access it at any time. Embedded computing equipment may be vulnerable to the internet's impact. Examples of embedded computer devices include MP3 players, MRI machines, signals, microwave ovens, washing machines, dishwashers, Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, heart monitoring implants, and biochips. The IoT intends toward building enhanced connectivity among various devices, systems, and services with the assistance of the internet. This gradual process enables automation in several domains. Imagine a scenario where various protocols interconnect all things and send information across different domains and applications. The IoT aims to establish connectivity between various items, enabling them to interact with each other over the internet. The goal of this connectivity is to improve human lives by offering security and convenience. Recent research indicates that by 2020, there will be more than 20 billion IoT devices in operation [19–25]. The IoT's ability to control devices and reduce radio expenses is due to its implementation. However, these vast areas present issues such as a scarcity of IP addresses and the need to design compatible and functional protocols and environments.
1.3.1 Environmental Monitoring
IoT is employed in the following process and monitors the status of the health of the system:
Water, soil, or air measurement device
Earthquake or tsunami warning systems
Monitor wildlife habit
1.3.2 Infrastructure Management
Infrastructure organization is a valuable tool for keeping track of potential issues in both urban and rural infrastructures, such as bridges and railways.
Its purpose is to mitigate and minimize the risk of danger and any structural failures. It quickly assesses the infrastructure's strength and alerts for immediate repairs.
1.3.3 Industrial Applications
In real time, industrial applications analyze product quality to optimize marketing strategies. This involves identifying the target audience for each product and determining how little modification might enhance its marketability.
1.4 Energy Management
Energy management systems are classified as internet‐connected systems that use sensors to reduce power consumption. Examples include cloud‐based systems and remote control for appliances such as ovens and lamps.
1.4.1 Medical Systems
Medical and care systems enhance patient well‐being by observing and regulating vital signs such as heart rate, blood pressure, and dietary intake. A smart tablet shows the exact dosage needed at various angles, assisting patients in their recuperation.
1.4.2 Building and Home Automation
Home automation encompasses any devices within a household that may be automatically controlled and governed, notably the air conditioning system, security locks, lighting, heating, ventilation, telephone systems, and televisions. Its purpose is to create a comfortable, secure, and energy‐efficient living environment.
1.4.3 Transport Systems
Transport systems implement various technologies to optimize urban and environmental transportation. These include automated traffic light systems, intelligent parking solutions, traffic cameras that identify congested roads and suggest alternate routes, and smart cameras that issue fines to speeding drivers.
1.4.4 Large‐Scale Deployments
Smart cities are crowded with a wide range of IoT devices favored by wireless technology.
Connectivity is a crucial element that enables communication between devices. The IoT ecosystem incorporates a range of connectivity alternatives, such as Wi‐Fi, cellular networks, Bluetooth, and others, to facilitate smooth data flow across different contexts. The IoT ecosystem flourishes through the collaborative synergy of its numerous components. The fundamental basis of IoT [26–28] is established by the integration of equipment, communication standards, and sophisticated data processing algorithms. By comprehending the complex interconnections among the various elements of the IoT, the knowledge about the extraordinary capacity of this technology to transform industries, improve productivity, and fundamentally change our everyday existence. Table 1.1 outlines the parameters used in this study to analyze the performance of IoT.
Table 1.1 Features of IoT.
S. no.
Parameters
Features
1
Efficiency
Processes is streamlined and eliminates manual control
2
Data insights
Real‐time data is collected and utilized for decision‐making
3
Cost savings
It maximizes resource efficiency and minimizes operational expenses
4
Automation
Remotely observing and regulating the devices
5
Improved security
Effective security protocols for interconnected devices
6
Environmental impact
Ensures sustainability through resource conservation
7
Innovation
It supports technological advancements and creates new business opportunities
8
Quality of life
Improves everyday life with intelligent home systems and healthcare solutions
1.5 Main Components Used in IoT
Sensors and actuators serve as the sensory organs in the realm of the IoT. Temperature motion detectors and humidity sensors gather live data from their surroundings. Figure 1.3 shows the key components involved in the IoT technique.
Figure 1.3 Components of IoT.
On the other hand, actuators allow IoT equipment to trigger physical arrangements based on the data they have gathered. Sensors and actuators serve as a means of connecting the physical world with the digital world [29–31].
Connectivity modules are essential components of the IoT, as they enable devices to establish connections and transport data without any interruptions. Connectivity segments, such as Wi‐Fi, and Bluetooth, provide efficient inter‐device communication, confirming the effective transmission and reception of collected data.
Data Processing Units: Gather the data, process it, and analyze it to extract significant insights. Data processing units, which encompass a variety of technologies such as edge computing devices and cloud servers, are responsible for doing the necessary computational activities to transform raw data into usable information.
Edge computing involves the computation of data near the vicinity of its origin, leading to decreased latency. In contrast, cloud servers are responsible for handling activities that require a higher number of resources.
Control Interfaces: The capability to govern and oversee IoT components is a notable benefit. Control gateways facilitate the interaction with IoT components, enabling operators to track and control their equipment, modify settings, and initiate activities. This architectural design highlights the primary elements of the IoT and their interconnectedness. The hardware elements of IoT, such as sensors, networking modules, data processing units, and control interfaces, combine to form a varying interconnected ecosystem.
The complex interplay of these components is crucial for the operation of IoT devices and enables the development of groundbreaking applications in several sectors, revolutionizing our interaction with technology and the world around us.
1.6 IoT Devices
Hardware components like sensors, actuators, gadgets, appliances, or machines, specifically configured for specific purposes and capable of data transfer via the internet or other networks, are known as IoT devices. Figure 1.4 provides various IoT devices in several applications that can integrate mobile devices, industrial equipment, etc. [32–35].
Figure 1.4 IoT devices.
Nowadays, IoT devices incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning to improve the intelligence and flexibility of many systems. This includes applications in automated e‐vehicle, industry 4.0, medical devices, and residential automation.
Many of these devices are compact, reduce energy consumption, lower costs, and rely on microcontrollers as their core system. Increasing net bandwidth and evolving customer expectations about information security and functionality necessitate greater reliance on on‐device processing. This involves processing data in the IoT endpoint compared to employing methods that are hosted in the cloud. Figure 1.5 illustrates the smart IoT revolution in various applications.
Figure 1.5 Smart device applications.
IoT devices are tangible gadgets that create wireless links to the web or within a neighborhood hub. These remote‐managed gadgets can transmit and receive data from other devices. Everyday examples of smart devices include a smart automobile, a smart doorbell, and a smart refrigerator. IoT devices enable the transformation of everyday items into informational tools IoT devices gather data via their sensors and utilize software to interpret it, allowing machines to make choices based on the information. Usually, these devices make a link with a central server to obtain further information.
Additionally, these devices perform data comparisons and transmissions to community websites and services for the purpose of collecting data. They also establish connections with a message server that enables email, text, or call functionalities. In order to provide instructions, IoT devices have the capability to make links with other connected devices through the utilization of a common Wi‐Fi network. IoT devices have advantages in improving productivity, facilitating simplicity, and growing task capacities. However, they also pose a potential threat to privacy and safety when they are targeted by hackers or compromised.
1.7 IoT Characteristics
The characteristics of IoT pertain to the distinctive qualities and aspects that differentiate IoT technology. These include connectivity, data gathering, live monitoring, scalability, and security. The Internet of Things, also referred to as IoT, is the central component of the ongoing technology revolution.
The IoT is an extensive, interconnected network that includes tangible objects, household appliances, and cars. Figure 1.6 illustrates the various characteristics of the IoT. What distinguishes it is the incorporation of sensors, software, and networking into these items. This fusion enables them to go beyond mere existence, allowing them to gather, exchange, and interact with data and their environment [36–38].
Figure 1.6 Characteristics of IoT.
The following are the main characteristics and properties of IoT:
Network connectivity is an important aspect of IoT technology because it enables the interconnection of different Internet devices, such as laptops and mobiles. Information on any subject is readily accessible to everybody, regardless of their location or time. The IoT enables the connection of various wireless devices, such as sensors, mobile phones, and trackers. Users can operate these devices even when they are not online thanks to this connectivity.
The concept of identifying objects is crucial. The process of deriving knowledge from the collected data is crucial. For instance, only a correct understanding of the data produced by a sensor qualifies it as genuine. Every IoT device possesses a distinct and individual identity. This identity facilitates the monitoring of the equipment and enables the retrieval of its current condition.
Ability to scale: the IoT is experiencing continuous growth, and ensuring scalability is of the highest priority for the system because it is an essential attribute of IoT. Scalability refers to the capacity of a system to expand its size or scope without causing any negative impact on its performance. Augmenting the existing design with extra computing power or programming layers might accelerate the process.
Dynamics: the ability to self‐adapt is crucial for the IoT, as it needs to possess the capability to comprehend and respond to alterations in its surroundings. Consider a camera, initially designed to capture images but later enhanced with the ability to alter the image's quality. As a result, dynamism is critical for system development.
Self‐improvement: AI enables autonomous self‐improvement on the IoT, eliminating the need for human intervention. It enables the network to configure new IoT devices. Consequently, the technology can commence functioning promptly.
IoT architecture cannot be uniform. The IoT network should be hybrid, accommodating various manufacturers. The IoT becomes a reality when many areas converge.
Compatibility between different systems or devices allows them to work together seamlessly. Interoperability, a key attribute of the IoT, refers to the capacity of IoT devices and systems to communicate and share data, irrespective of the underlying technology or manufacturer. It facilitates the smooth operation of various devices and systems, ensuring an optimal user experience.
IoT devices utilize standardized communication protocols and technologies to establish communication with one another and other systems, as well as data formats to ensure compatibility. These standards facilitate uniform and dependable data comprehension and processing across various devices, enabling seamless data transmission across devices and systems, irrespective of the technology employed. Lack of interoperability restricts IoT systems to isolated data and device repositories, impeding information sharing and the development of novel services and applications.
Intelligence is a crucial attribute of the IoT. The intelligence of IoT devices refers to the cognitive abilities of smart sensors and devices to perceive data, communicate with one another, and gather data for analysis. Digital personal assistants such as Alexa, Cortana, and Siri exemplify the cognitive capabilities of electronic devices. To ensure the intelligence of your IoT gadget, it is imperative that you are well informed on the most recent technological advancements.
The growing number of IoT devices has led to the emergence of security concerns, particularly regarding the protection of personal data. Data leakage is a potential risk that might arise when a large amount of data is collected, transmitted, and generated. The unauthorized transfer of personal data is a significant cause for concern. In order to address this obstacle, the IoT has developed networks, systems, and devices that effectively protect privacy.
Ensuring safety and security is a significant challenge for the IoT. Nevertheless, it manages to handle it seamlessly. Self‐configuring IoT devices have the capability to update their software as needed with minimal user involvement. In addition, they have the capability to establish the network, enabling the incorporation of new devices into an existing network. This is a crucial attribute of the IoT.
Network: as the number of IoT devices in a network increases, it becomes challenging to ensure smooth connections for optimal operation. Cloud services and gateways are effective and adaptive approaches to address these difficulties, as they enable communication between IoT devices, surpassing the capabilities of other existing technologies. Often, one device can utilize the connectivity of another device to establish a network connection, even if another device is not directly linked to the network.
Diversity: the presence of heterogeneity is a crucial characteristic of the IoT. The gadgets utilize many hardware platforms and networks. Through various networks, they establish communication with other devices or service platforms. The IoT design enables direct network communication between diverse networks. The fundamental design criteria for heterogeneous entities are scalability, modularity, extension, and interoperability.
The system integrates sensors and actuators. The analog input from the external environment is known as sensory information. IoT technology provides a deep comprehension of our intricate surroundings, which is one of its notable characteristics. IoT sensors identify and quantify environmental changes, producing data for environmental reporting or engagement. Sensing technologies enable the creation of capabilities that provide precise representations of knowledge about the physical environment and its inhabitants.
