Land and Environmental Management Through Forestry E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT THROUGH FORESTRY
Written and edited by a group of experts in the field, this groundbreaking reference work sets the standard for engineers, students, and professionals working in forestry, agriculture, ecology, and environmental science, offering the scientific community a way toward combating climate change and land degradation.
This outstanding new volume covers the diverse issues of land degradation around the world and its restoration through forestry, agroforestry, and other practices. The editors have integrated many different concepts and applications into a single place from which scientists, research scholars, academicians, and policymakers can benefit. New insights in this area are critical, as our very existence depends on forest sustainability and land restoration management.
The work consists of chapters addressing the issues of land degradation, deforestation, intensive agricultural practices, sustainable intensification, soil and forest-related services, land and environmental management, and overall sustainability of the ecosystem. The contributors address current issues and their management through a holistic and integrated approach, presenting the context of land degradation and its problem, identifying the potential areas of research in the field of land restoration, identifying the land-based services and their potential role for ecosystem sustainability, creating awareness so that future policies can be framed for the betterment of human civilization, and addressing sustainable intensification for land and environmental management and service.
A standard reference work for the disciplines of forestry, agriculture, ecology, and environmental science, it will also be a way forward for combating climate change. Useful to academics, researchers, ecologists, environmentalists, students, capacity builders, and policymakers, it is a must-have for any library.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Land Degradation and Restoration: Implication and Management Perspective
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Land Degradation in Developed and Developing World
1.3 Land Degradation Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
1.4 Land Degradation and Restoration: A Response Framework
1.5 Soil Erosion and Desertification: Problems and Challenges
1.6 Forest Degradation
1.7 Land Restoration
1.8 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Land through Afforestation Activities
1.9 Achieving Land Degradation Neutral (LDN) through Sustainable Land Use Management (SLM)
1.10 Sustainable Soil/Land Management: Challenge and Opportunities
1.11 Policy and Roadmap For Land Management and Sustainability
1.12 Conclusion
References
2 Land Resources and Its Degradation in Asia: Its Control and Management
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Land Resources
2.3 Causes of Land Resources Degradation
2.4 Major Threats, Implications, and Effects
2.5 Management of Land Resources
2.6 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap against Land Degradation
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Deforestation Activities in Ezekoro Forest: Implications for Climate Change Risks in Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of Environmental Justice and Indiscriminate Deforestation/Tree Loss
3.3 Study Area
3.4 Materials and Method
3.5 Results and Discussion
3.6 Conclusion
References
4 Land Degradation and Its Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Land Degradation: Causes and Consequences
4.3 Land Degradation and Major Environmental Challenges
4.4 Restoration of Degraded Land
4.5 Sustainable Land Management
4.6 Recommendation and Future Research Prospects
4.7 Conclusions
References
5 The Vulnerability of Forest Resources to Climate Change
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Causes of Climate Change
5.3 Climate Change Affecting Forest Ecosystems
5.4 The Migration of Tree Species
5.5 The Replacement of Native Species by Exotic Species
5.6 The Economic Loss in the Forest Products Industry
5.7 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap against Forest Vulnerability to Climate Change
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Impact of Continuous Cover Forestry on Forest Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Continuous Cover Forestry
6.3 Forest Management under Continuous Cover Forestry
6.4 Challenges and Future Outlook of Continuous Cover Forestry
6.5 Conclusions
Funding
References
7 Forest Landscape Restoration for Environmental Management
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Forest Landscape Restoration
7.3 Types of FLR
7.4 Benefits of FLR on the Environment/Ecosystem
7.5 FLR Partnerships
7.6 Techniques and Tools in FLR
7.7 Implementation of FLR
7.8 Forest Landscape Assessment
7.9 Conclusion
References
8 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Land through Afforestation Activities
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept of Ecological Restoration
8.3 Global Scenario of Land Degradation
8.4 Perspective of Land Degradation
8.5 Land Degradation under Changing Climate
8.6 Afforestation for Climate Change Mitigation
8.7 Afforestation for Problematic Soil and Land Management
8.8 Policy Initiative in Land Degradation and Afforestation
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Sustaino-Resilient Agroforestry for Climate Resilience, Food Security and Land Degradation Neutrality
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Is Agroforestry a Sustaino-Resilient Model?
9.3 Agroforestry for Climate Resilience
9.4 Agroforestry for Food Security
9.5 Agroforestry for Land Degradation Neutrality
9.6 The Way Forward
9.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
10 Land and Environmental Management through Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) System
10.1 Introduction
10.2 AFOLU and Climate Change
10.3 Role of AFOLU in Land and Environment Management
10.4 Co-Benefit from AFOLU
10.5 Challenges
10.6 Opportunities: the Way Forward and Future Perspective
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Eco-Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems for Sustainable Development
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Forest Cover and Degradation
11.3 Indicators of Forest Degradation
11.4 Criteria for Assessment of Forest Degradation
11.5 Forest Ecosystem Restoration
11.6 The Restoration Indicators
11.7 Restoration through SFM and Afforestation
11.8 Forest Resilience
11.9 Forest Recovery
11.10 Policy and Future Roadmap
11.11 Conclusion
References
12 Forest for Sustainable Development
12.1 Introduction
12.2 World Forest: An Overview
12.3 Forest under Changing Climate
12.4 Forest for Ecosystem Services
12.5 Forest for Soil Management
12.6 Forest for Food and Nutritional Security
12.7 Sustainable Development: A Wake-Up Call
12.8 A Journey from Forest to Sustainable Forest Management
12.9 Policy and Future Roadmap
12.10 Conclusions
References
13 Unfolding Environmental Repercussions of Land Degradation in the Lone Municipal Council of Andaman, India, Using Geospatial Technologies: A Case Study
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Study Area at a Glance
13.3 Materials and Methodology
13.4 Results and Discussion
13.5 Conclusion
References
14
Acacia nilotica
: A Promising Species for Soil Sustainability
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Habitat, Distribution and Ecology
14.3
Acacia nilotica
–Based Agroforestry
14.4
Acacia nilotica
and Soil Sustainability
14.5
Acacia
and its Role in Soil Carbon Sequestration
14.6
Acacia nilotica
: A Promising N
2
Fixing Tree
14.7
Acacia
: A Promising Tool for Land Restoration
14.8
Acacia
and Its Other Sustainability Roles
14.9 Policy and Future Roadmap
14.10 Conclusions
References
15 Farmland Evaluation to Stimulate the Rational Land Use and Soil Quality Enhancement: The Ukrainian Case
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Moratorium on the Sale of Agricultural Land and Its Social, Ecological, and Economic Consequences in Ukraine
15.3 An Overview of Agriculture in Ukraine
15.4 Evolution of Monetary Valuation of Agricultural Land in Ukraine and Modern Challenges
15.5 Conceptual Provisions for the Assessment of Land Resources from the Standpoint of their Multifaceted Nature
15.6 Development of a Methodology for the Normative Monetary Land Valuation to Stimulate Rational Land Use
15.7 Conclusion
References
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Models to assess the effects of sustainable land management on ecosy...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Socioeconomic/environmental data.
Table 3.2 Statistical result of classified image for 2001 of land use/ land co...
Table 3.3 Statistical result of classified image for 2021 of land use/land cov...
Table 3.4 Percentage Change of classified images for 2001 and 2021 of land use...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Different restoration techniques and their purpose.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 The implementation of policy strategies and future roadmap in Asia c...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Approaches to multifunctional forestry.
Table 6.2 Countries where continuous cover forestry is used.
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Several types of common FLR tools being used for the purpose of anal...
Table 7.2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions proposed by IUCN.
Table 7.3 Successful FLR tools implementations for systematic restoration plan...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Studies documenting the role of AF in climate resilience, food secur...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Case study of forest degradation and its recovery in different regi...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Extreme weather and its impacts on forest tree species in different...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Inputs for calculating surface runoff, soil erosion, landslides.
Table 13.2 Detailed breakup of pre- and post-tsunami changes in LULC.
Table 13.3 Year-wise breakup of hydro-meteorological water balance.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Growth attributes of some leguminous tree species in alkaline soil ...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Sown area under agricultural crops in Ukraine (authors’ compilation...
Table 15.2 Number of agricultural animals, thousands heads (authors’ compilati...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Ecosystem services value (ESV) and its reduction percentage under g...
Figure 1.2 Land restoration commitments by country under LDN and Bonn challeng...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Total gain and loss of forest cover area in Southeast Asia througho...
Figure 2.2 Regional changes in forest area within protected areas [47].
Figure 2.3 United Nations strategy suggestions for the ten years of UN-DER [56...
Chapter 3
Plate 3.1 The location of Ezekoro Forest positioned close to Saint Peter Unive...
Figure 3.1 Location of Anambra State in the Map of Nigeria.
Figure 3.2 Location of Aguata Local Government Area in the Map of Anambra.
Plate 3.2 Interview interaction between researcher(s) and community participan...
Plate 3.3 Evidence of uncontrolled felling of trees, harvest of tender Bamboo ...
Plate 3.4 Parts of the Ezekoro forest where buildings construction is taking p...
Plate 3.5 Evidence of access created by farmers and ongoing farming activities...
Plate 3.6 Parts of the forest area used as dumpsite and pathways showing human...
Plate 3.7 Erosion network along parts of the de-vegetated Ezekoro Forest area ...
Figure 3.4 Land use map of the study area.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Linkages between major consequences of land degradation [25].
Figure 4.2 Major consequences of soil erosion [32].
Figure 4.3 Land degradation by mining activities, overburden, and soil compact...
Figure 4.4 Components of land restoration [86].
Figure 4.5 Different processes of restoration of degraded land [87, 88, 92].
Figure 4.6 Different types of plant-assisted bioremediation processes [91].
Figure 4.7 Various land management practices under SLM [131].
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic representation of the effects of anthropogenic activities...
Figure 5.2 The annual deforestation in Asia [12].
Figure 5.3 The atmospheric concentration of major greenhouse gases with high l...
Figure 5.5 Global urban populations by city size [26].
Figure 5.6 A conceptual model to illustrate the mechanisms of interactions amo...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Principles of continuous cover forestry.
Figure 6.2 Features to take into consideration in the models of silviculture.
Figure 6.3 Principles of continuous cover forestry applied in agroforestry sys...
Figure 6.4 Existing continuous cover forestry management and transformation of...
Figure 6.5 Transformation of even aged stands into continuous cover forestry.
Figure 6.6 Constraints on the implementation of continuous cover forestry.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Sustainable Goals development (SDG), Source from UNESCO [80].
Figure 7.2 Synergy of SDG element 13 with other SDGs for 2030 Agenda’s goals [...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Diagrammatic representation of interaction between Environment (E) ...
Figure 8.2 Conceptual figures indicating that sustainable or degraded outcomes...
Figure 8.3 Diagrammatic representations of connections between land management...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Sustaino-resilient Agroforestry solutions to deal with challenges o...
Figure 9.2 Sustaino-resilient Agroforestry practices in different states of In...
Figure 9.3 Sustaino-resilient Agroforestry for climate change mitigation, food...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Sources of GHG emission from agriculture sector with their specifi...
Figure 10.2 Sources of GHG emission from Forestry and other land use systems (...
Figure 10.3 Mitigation and adaptation strategies to combat the GHG emission fr...
Figure 10.4 Potential intervention and strategies for the management and reduc...
Figure 10.5 Potential co-benefits from the AFOLU mitigation strategies (adapte...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Country-wise forest covers in the world [2].
Figure 11.2 Percentage of global land degradation [9].
Figure 11.3 Ecosystem stability and sustainability through forest functions [9...
Figure 11.4 Assessment of forest and woodland areas in the world [33].
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Status of land degradation in the world [54].
Figure 12.2 Managed forest area for availability of clean water [55].
Figure 12.3 Managed forest areas for controlling desertification [55].
Figure 12.4 Managed forest areas for erosion control [55].
Figure 12.5 Managed forest area for the coastal stabilization [55].
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Study area map.
Figure 13.2 Methodology for quantifying the implications of land degradation.
Figure 13.3 Pre- and post-tsunami LULC in PBMC.
Figure 13.4 Pre- and post-tsunami surface runoff in PBMC.
Figure 13.5 Pre- and post-tsunami soil erosion potential in PBMC.
Figure 13.6 Shallow landslides vulnerable zones of PBMC.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1
Acacia nilotica
- seedlings, tree on field bunds and
Acacia
tree d...
Figure 14.2 Multiple benefits of
Acacia nilotica
towards soil and environmenta...
Figure 14.3 Legumes towards soil quality, health and sustainability [21, 42, 4...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Agricultural output in Ukraine, % (authors’ compilation on [2, 17]...
Figure 15.2 Three-dimensional views on the land: parameters to be accounted fo...
Guide
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Editors
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
About the Editors
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Land and Environmental Management through Forestry
Edited by
Abhishek RajManoj Kumar JhariyaArnab BanerjeeSharad Nema
and
Kiran Bargali
This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-91040-4
Front cover images supplied by Pixabay.comCover design by Russell Richardson
List of Editors
Abhishek RajPt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & ForestryDr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture UniversityPusa, Samastipur, India
Manoj Kumar JhariyaDepartment of Farm ForestrySant Gahira Guru VishwavidyalayaAmbikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Arnab BanerjeeDepartment of Environmental ScienceSant Gahira Guru VishwavidyalayaAmbikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Sharad NemaDepartment of Forestry & WildlifeSaheed Mahendra Karma VishwavidyalayaBastar, Chhattisgarh, India
Kiran BargaliDepartment of Botany, DSB Campus, Kumaun University,Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
List of Contributors
Akanwa Angela Oyilieze Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Anambra, Nigeria
ArnabBanerjee Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Taher Mechergui Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Laboratoire des Ressources Sylvo-Pastorales de Tabarka, Tabarka, Tunisie
Prabhat Ranjan Oraon Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Abhishek Raj Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, Pusa, Samastipur, India
Bharat Lal College of Agriculture, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi (U.P.), India
Annpurna Devi Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Ghanshyam Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Akanwa Chimezie David Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, (COOU) Uli Campus, P.M.B. 02, Anambra State, Nigeria
Ana Cristina Gonçalves Departamento de Engenharia Rural, Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Évora, Apartado Évora, Portugal
Joe-Ikechebelu Ngozi Nneka Social Dimensions of Health, School of Public Health & Social Policy, University of Victoria, BC, Canada
Okafor Kenebechukwu Jane Department of Accountancy, Faculty of Management Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
Dike Keyna Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, (COOU) Uli Campus, P.M.B. 02, Anambra State
Nkwocha Kelechi Friday Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Maiduguri, Borno state, Nigeria
Idakwo Victor Iko-Ojo Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty Environmental Sciences, University of Maiduguri Borno State, Nigeria
Omoruyi Fredrick Aideniosa Department of Statistics, Faculty of Physical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
Enwereuzo Angela Chinelo Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria
Umeh Uche Marian Department of Community Medicine and Primary Healthcare, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University (COOU) Teaching Hospital (COOUTH), Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
Ogbuehi Emmanuel Okwudili Department of Parasitology & Entomology, Faculty of Biosciences’, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State
Agu Helen Obioma Department of Food Science & Technology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, P.M.B. 5025 Awka Anambra State, Nigeria
Dinesha S Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar, India
Suraj R. Hosur University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
Toushif P. K. Mizoram University, Mizoram, India
Divya Bodiga Sam Higginbottom University of Agricultural, Technology and Sciences, Uttar Pradesh, India
Deepthi Dechamma N. L. KSN University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka, India
Ashwath M. N. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Devbratha Pradhan Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, West Bengal, India
Inna Koblianska Department of Economics and Entrepreneurship, Sumy National Agrarian University, Sumy, Ukraine
Olha Kovalova Department of Economics and Entrepreneurship, Sumy National Agrarian University, Sumy, Ukraine
Kamlesh Verma ICAR- Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Zarifa farm, Karnal, India
Prashant Sharma Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
D.R. Bhardwaj Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
Raj Kumar ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Zarifa Farm, Karnal, India
Nasam Midhun Kumar Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
Alok Kumar Singh Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India
Liliwirianis N. Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak, Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia
Nurun Nadhirah Md. Isa Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohd Nazip Suratman Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Nur Nadiah Md Yusof Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Hasnah Kamarudin Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Norashirene Mohamad Jamil Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Siti Nurbaya Supardan Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
P. R. Oraon Department of Silviculture & Agroforestry, Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Vidya Sagar Department of Silviculture & Agroforestry, Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Kumari Beauty Forest Research Centre for Eco-Rehabilitation, Prayagraj, U.P., India
Pawan Ekka Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Subhashree Patra Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Purabi Saikia Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Manjari Upreti Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Gajendra Kumar Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Amit Kumar Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
Venkatesan Shiva Shankar Faculty of Environmental Science, ANCOL, Chakargaon, Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India
Neelam Purti Department of Environment and Forest, Manglutan Range, South Andaman Forest Division, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Port Blair, India
Satyakeerthy TR IGNOU Regional Centre, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Sunil Jacob Department of Chemistry, Catholicate College, Mahatma Gandhi University, Pathanamthitta, India
Krishan Pal Singh College of Horticulture and Research Station, IGKV, Bastar, India
Beena Singh S.G. College of Agriculture and Research Station, IGKV, Bastar, India
Anup P. Upadhyay Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Bhopal (M.P.), India
Bhimappa Honnappa Kittur Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Bhopal (M.P.), India
Preface
Land degradation and its inappropriate uses affect soil health and other natural resources. Unsustainable land use practices, including intensive agriculture and deforestation activity, deprive soil of its quality, biodiversity and environmental services. Now, land degradation has become a global issue discussed by numerous institutions, and its management is of utmost importance for ensuring environmental sustainability. Large percentages of forest land, 20% of agricultural and 10% of grass land are under land degradation severity due to anthropogenic activities. Similarly, land degradation and desertification affect 2.6 billion people in a hundred countries which cover approximately 33% of the global land surface. Land degradation, climate change and biodiversity losses are strongly linked to poor environmental health and services. Poor environmental health, services and its sustainability are further amplified by land degradation including deforestation and intensive land use practices. Land degradation can be reversed through practicing sustainable forest management including better restoration and rehabilitation. Therefore, sustainable land use and management is a key step towards better environmental sustainability which can be possible through managing forests in sustainable ways. To address such diverse issues of land degradation and how a sustainable land management practices including forestry, agroforestry and other practices can be effectively utilized to minimize negative consequences is the central theme of the book.
This book, Land and Environmental Management through Forestry, covers the diverse issues of land degradation in developed and developing nations and its restoration through forestry, agroforestry and other practices. Textbooks are available in the global market that address specific issues on agriculture, its production and associated environmental consequences. The present title would integrate all the concepts into a single dimension from which various scientists, research scholars, academicians, and policymakers can benefit from updated information. New insights are very important in this particular aspect as our very existence depends on forest sustainability and land restoration management.
The present title consists of chapters addressing the issue of land degradation, deforestation, intensive agriculture practices, sustainable intensification, soil and forest related services, land and environmental management, and overall sustainability of the land-related ecosystem. The present book consists of some specific research case studies considering geospatial technologies in monitoring land degradation and its environmental repercussions. Case studies on farmland evaluation for soil quality and land use assessment are also included. Deforestation activities, climate change risks and related consequences along with its mitigation and adaptation are presented in this book. These will provide new insights into the field of land and environmental management. Some titles update the reader about the current scenario on the issue of land/soil degradation, desertification, deforestation, erosion, afforestation activities, agroforestry, food security, sustainable intensification, resource conservation, sustainability and services, and soil and plant management. Therefore, the present title would help to address current issues and their management holistically. The objectives that will be fulfilled by the present title are as follows: (1) present context of land degradation and its problem, (2) identify the key areas of research in the field of land restoration, and sustainable land management including forestry and agroforestry for environmental management, (3) identify the land-based services and their potential role for ecosystem sustainability, (4) raise awareness around the globe in this context so that future policies can be framed from this for the betterment of human civilization, and (5) address sustainable intensification for land and environmental management and services.
This book will be a standard reference work for disciplines such as forestry, agriculture, ecology and environmental science as well as being a way forward towards strategy formulation for combating climate change. It will help academicians, researchers, ecologists, environmentalists, students, capacity builders, and policymakers gain an in-depth knowledge in the diverse field. Eminent academicians and scientists across the globe would be invited related to the theme of the book to share their scientific innovation, research outputs, views, and opinions, an experience that would enlighten the academic community. Each of the chapters has good scientific support in terms of scientific database, diagrams, tables, graphs, images, pictures, and flowcharts as per the requirement with proper recent updated citation. All the chapters would be thoroughly reviewed by the respective individual of a specific discipline which would enrich the chapter content from a future research perspective. The submission would be reviewed by the editorial team for further upgradation. It would set a roadmap for the preparation of sustainability in forestry which ensures eco-restoration of the land degradation in the future. The editors would appreciate receiving comments from readers that may assist in the development of future editions.
Abhishek Raj
Pusa, Samastipur, India
Manoj Kumar Jhariya
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Arnab Banerjee
Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Sharad Nema
Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India
Kiran Bargali
Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
1Land Degradation and Restoration: Implication and Management Perspective
Abhishek Raj1, Manoj Kumar Jhariya2*, Arnab Banerjee3, Sharad Nema4 and Kiran Bargali5
1Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
2Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
3Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
4Department of Forestry & Wildlife, Saheed Mahendra Karma Vishwavidyalaya, Jagdalpur, Bastar (C.G.), India
5Department of Botany, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital (Uttarakhand), India
Abstract
Presently, land degradation is a global concern discussed by numerous institutions and its management is of utmost important for ensuring environmental sustainability. As per ISRO (2019), approx. 97.85 M ha of land is degraded and 3.32 M ha of degradation was reported between 2005 and 2019 (last five years) in India. Almost 30% of the country’s geographical areas are under desertification, which is a major environmental problem. Thirty percent of 71 M ha forest land, 20% of agricultural and 10% of grass land are under land degradation severity due to anthropogenic activities. Similarly, land degradation and desertification affect 2.6 billion people in a hundred countries which cover approximately 33% of global land surface. These figures are enough to express a global scenario of land degradation in the world. Land degradation, climate change and biodiversity losses are strongly linked to poor environmental health and services. Poor environmental health, services and its sustainability are further amplified by land degradation including deforestation and intensive land use practices. Land degradation vulnerability (LDV) is also observed due to poor vegetations and soil quality under climate change that jeopardize ecosystem health and environmental sustainability. In this context, land degradation can be reversed by practicing sustainable forest management including better restoration and rehabilitation. Moreover, UNCCD also introduced the term LDN (land degradation neutrality) which represents land management for enhancing ecosystem services including soil-food quality and its sustainability. Therefore, sustainable land use and management is a key step towards better environmental sustainability which can be possible through managing forests in sustainable ways. Constructive policy and institutional supports are required to sustainable land and environmental management through better forestry practices.
Keywords: Afforestation, desertification, ecosystem services, land degradation, restoration
1.1 Introduction
Land is a key terrestrial resource that delivers uncountable ecosystem services including food, fiber and shelters. Land degradation is a continuous process propelled by natural, climatic and various anthropogenic activities. Deforestation, intensive agriculture, mining and several other developmental projects deteriorate land quality and related environmental services. Erosion, desertification, waterlogging condition, salinization, and organic matter depletions are key drivers for land quality deterioration [1]. Land degradation affects biodiversity along with ecosystem health and productivity. Land degradation alters physical, chemical and biological properties that affect biology, economy and quality of land. Soil acidity, salinization, lesser SOC, erosion, desertification, soil compactions result in unproductive land which reduces plant health and productivity [2]. Unscientific farming, urban sprawl, improper irrigation, land clearance and overgrazing are key causes of degradation. Moreover, industrial waste and quarrying of sand, stone and minerals resulted in land pollution [3]. Land degradation also affects various environmental services including regulation of fresh water quality, climate regulation, clean air quality, soil fertility, plant productions and recreational opportunities globally [4, 5]. Land degradation also affects hydrological and biogeochemical cycles [6]. Around 60% of global land area has been degraded by various natural and anthropogenic factors [7]. Land degradation deteriorates environmental health and productivity [8]. Nearly 40.0 billion USD has been lost due to annual degradation of land resource in the world [9]. Therefore, it has negative consequences on the environment and affects soil-food-climate security. Approx. 18.10 M Km2 areas are reported as degraded lands of which 92% and 38% are due to mismanagement and overgrazing of animals [10]. Similarly, 30%, 20% and 10% of forests, arable land and grasslands, respectively, have been affected negatively due to land degradation which influenced 1.50 billion people of the world [11]. A total 50% of arable land comes under moderate to severe degradation. Land degradation affects 1.50 billion people in the world. Every year approx. 15.0 billion tons of soil losses occur, whereas desertification and drought lead to 12.0 m ha-1 soil degradation. Land degradation also affects biodiversity through loss of 27,000 species annually. The risk of dry land has been prevalent in 110 countries which affected approximately 250 million people globally. Moreover, a desertification cost was reported as 42 million dollars globally [10].
In this context, land restoration is an urgent need which minimizes negative consequences on our environment. Managing forests is a good weapon to manage land, soil, water and other natural resources in this climate change era. Afforestation activities, ground cover plantations, conservation agriculture, organic agricultural practices, and a sustainable land use system ensure healthy land/soil and related parameters [12]. Thus, land degradation nowadays has become a big environmental challenge which needs a scientific and holistic approach for healthy land management that ensures environmental sustainability and ecological stability on a long-term basis [13].
The present chapter will address the land degradation in developed and developing nation and its restoration through sustainable land use practices. Impacts of land degradation and desertification on soil, water, food and other resource induced environmental changes are also discussed. Land reclamation through forestry by practicing SFM and other sustainable land use system are included in this chapter. It will also focus on new insights related to updated research, development and policy-oriented afforestation activities for combating C footprints and climate change issue for better ecosystem health and productivity through sustainable land management approach.
1.2 Land Degradation in Developed and Developing World
Land is lithospheric component of environment which provides many valuable direct and indirect services including food, air and water for sustaining peoples and biodiversity. Land resource is degraded continuously due to excessive pressure by intensive agricultural practices, deforestation, urbanization and cattle ranching beyond carrying capacity of the land. Unsustainable land use practices and its frequent changes along with its expansion put ecosystem health and its services in danger. The degradation of land and its resources is not confined in limited regions but is expanded throughout the globe, especially in developing countries. Land degradation is maximum in Asia followed by Africa and European countries. A global map has been created by the World Atlas of Desertification for assessment of land productivity and changes during the period 1999-2013 [14]. Similarly, land degradation due to desertification incurred 490 USD billion yr-1 of the cost which affects the health and economy of 3.20 billion people. Europe and Central Asia (ECA) countries have a diversified ecosystem for people sustenance but they are facing land degradation issues and various environmental challenges [15]. However, there is a blurred map on the severity and extent of land degradation that countries have been facing from the past [16]. IPBES has also discussed land degradation scenarios in India, Asia, Europe and other countries of the world in its recent report [17]. Approx. 10-60 million Km2 areas were reported as land degradation globally, which corresponds to ice-free land area of 8-45%. This assessment has been based on a global map sketched by experts, their opinion arrived at by using satellite observatory, biophysical models and abandoned agricultural lands database [18]. Remote sensing-based satellite date including NOAA AVHRR data has reported land degradation with approx. 22-24% of the world ice-free land area in downward trend whereas increasing trends were shown by 16% respectively in the period 1983-2006 [19]. Similarly, 29% of land area is reported as “land degradation hotspots” globally which needs serious attentions for its management. Globally, land degradation affected 3.20 and 1.33 billion people of which 95% were in developing countries [20, 21]. Also, different soil erosion model (RUSLE) was used to identify soil erosion-based land degradation in the regions of Southeast Asia, Africa and South America [22, 23].
1.3 Land Degradation Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
Land degradation and its inappropriate uses destroy soil quality and other natural resources. Unsustainable land use practices including intensive agriculture and deforestation activity deprive soil quality, biodiversity and environmental services. It affects biodiversity and uncountable ecosystem services in extensive ways. It refers to many direct and indirect processes that induce biodiversity losses and decline ecosystem services [24]. An ecosystem services value (ESV) and its reduction percentage under land degradation of the world is depicted in Figure 1.1 [25].
Land is an important terrestrial environmental component which supports many flora and fauna. Many drivers affect land quality which leads to 75% of land degradation globally. It has negative consequences on the well-being of 3.20 billion people along with 10% of global income loss due to poor biodiversity and ecosystem services. Land degradation minimizes the variety of ecosystem services (ES) such as timber, fuelwood and fiber [26]. Therefore, land degradation drivers should be identified for reversing negative consequences on biodiversity which further can be controlled by effective scientific management [27].
Figure 1.1 Ecosystem services value (ESV) and its reduction percentage under global land degradation [25].
1.4 Land Degradation and Restoration: A Response Framework
There is a great link between direct and indirect responses while addressing land degradation. Appropriate indirect responses can support and enable the direct responses which tackle various parameters of land degradation [28]. Anthropogenic assets including human and physical resources, legal framework, regulatory instruments, effective policy, good governance, socio-cultural and financial instruments are indirect responses [29]. These responses include management activities which directly affect various identified degradation drivers or many biophysical processes such as land-soilwater management in sustainable ways. However, both direct and indirect responses are interlinked and dependable and comprise possible response strategies which are more or less suitable as per nature, extant and severity of land degradation [30]. Therefore, effective management of these direct or indirect responses and their proper regulation can help in achieving the goals of land restoration and maintain the resilience of socio-ecological systems [31].
1.5 Soil Erosion and Desertification: Problems and Challenges
Soil erosion is major form of land degradation which becomes a global challenge. It causes loss of agricultural productivity due to heavy loss of essential nutrients. As per one figure of FAO-led Global Soil Partnership, a loss of approximately 75 billion ton (Pg) of soil from agricultural land leads to a heavy economic loss of 400 billion USD yr-1 globally [32]. Sheet erosion, mass erosion, water erosion and landslides are various types of soil erosion. Landslides occur frequently due to deforestation, mining, road construction, hydropower projects and several other developmental works [33]. Soil erosion causes loss in plant productivity and surface water quality in an agricultural system [34]. It affects many ecosystem services by reducing soil health and fertility, crop productivity, water quality and overall environmental health and sustainability [35]. Inappropriate land management causes severe soil erosion on 175 million ha of the total geographical area of India. In this context, adopting a sustainable land use system and its scientific management through afforestation, conservation agriculture, and mulching minimizes soil erosion. Moreover, vegetation covers and its litter production along with canopy interception check soil erosion and keep soil healthy and productive for sustainable environment [36, 37]. Similarly, desertification is another form of land degradation that prevailed in arid, sub-humid and semi-arid regions especially in dry lands areas due to climatic and anthropogenic activities. However, the extent and severity of desertification has increased over many decades. As per one figure, approximately 46.20% of world land areas covered by drylands can support 3 billion people. Desertification hotspots have been identified by poor vegetation productivity due to expansion of dryland areas as 9.20%, which directly affected 500 million people globally in 2015. The people of Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East including the Arabian Peninsula are greatly affected by the negative consequences of desertification and land degradation [38].
1.6 Forest Degradation
Deforestation, illicit felling of trees, and overharvesting of timber induce land degradation. Declining forest covers and vegetation losses affect the health and quality of land. Approximately 3% of forest land areas declined in the period 1990-2015 as reported by FRA (Forest Resources Assessment) and FAO [39, 40]. Similarly, 2.80% of forest area losses have been reported in the period 1990-2010 through global remote-sensing assessment. Further, 55,000 km2/year and 39.61 M km2 areas of tropical forest and global natural forest was lost in the years 2010 to 2015 and 1990 to 2015 [41]. Both deforestation and land degradation have contributed 77% and 10% of emissions from land use changes since 1850 [42]. Deforestation and land degradation cause CO2 (GHGs) emissions into the atmosphere resulting in earth’s warming, C footprint and climate change. Carbon losses varied from 25 to 70% from deforestation and land degradation [43]. Of the total 2.1 Gt CO yr-1 of gross emissions, 53%, 30% and 17% were contributed by illicit tim-ber2 harvesting, fuelwood removal, and frequent forest fires, respectively [44]. IPCC has reported 23% of anthropogenic GHGs (CO2, CH4 and N2O) emissions in the world contributed by AFOLU [45]. In this context, management and conservation of tropical forest maintains vegetation diversity, biomass and carbon storage and flux within the forest ecosystem [46, 47]. Thus, adopting a climate resilient land use system ensures less C emission, healthy and productive land along with higher forest cover [48].
1.7 Land Restoration
Restoration term represents ecosystem recovery from a degraded state through any intentional activity [24]. Ecosystem restoration through land management is utmost for environmental health and ecological stability. The UN has stressed the slogan “Decade on Ecosystem Restoration” which targeted degraded land restoration and its management. Similarly, SDG 2030 has targeted land restoration activities which are mentioned in Target 15.3 representing achieving land degradation neutrality [49]. The restoration process includes avoiding, reducing and reversing of land degradation through practicing SLM (sustainable land management) system. Addressing land degradation drivers through effective measures and its regulations, planning and management practices comes under “Avoiding land degradation”. Land degradation mitigation through sustainable land use system including SFM practices and soil, water management comes under “Reducing land degradation”. Rehabilitation and restoration of unproductive lands for ecosystem recovery and greater ecological services comes under “Reversing land degradation” [50]. A Restoration commitment by country (in hectares) is depicted in Figure 1.2 [51]. Afforestation and other cost-effective measures employ degraded and wasteland for reversing land health and quality which further ensures soil, food and climate security for the long term [52]. Soil, water and biodiversity are the key land resources and their health resilience is largely determined by sustainable forest management practices and good governance under environmental changes. IPCC has also emphasized SFM practices for minimizing land degradation and desertification. SFM not only manages land sustainability but also mitigates C footprint and climate change through better C sequestration potential. Thus, SFM ensures land management which entirely enhances biodiversity, soil-food-climate security and other environmental services for the long term [53, 54].
1.8 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Land through Afforestation Activities
Land degradation affects ecosystem health and ecological stability. It minimizes various ecosystem services which is of utmost importance for environmental health and sustainability. Ecological restoration of wasteland or degraded land through sustainable land use system including afforestation techniques would be a viable tool for better land quality. SFM including afforestation or reforestation techniques improves health and quality of land. Afforestation including leguminous or MPTs restore land fertility through better soil quality by addition or decomposition of nutrient rich litters. Litter decomposed continuously releases essential nutrients to plant along with land restoration which maintains ecosystem health and ecological stability [55]. Forest restoration through afforestation helps in ecological restoration of degraded land which provides various ecosystem services. Many degraded lands are targeted for afforestation program for betterment of ecology and environment. Moreover, a CA (Compensatory afforestation) 2 billion ha of land areas were suitable for land restoration program recommended by the World Resource Institute (WRI) [56]. Increasing forest covers through afforestation in parallel to cropland and grazing land reduction on a long-term basis were reported in European countries such as Sweden, the Netherlands, Austria, Romania, Albania, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy and Denmark in the 19th and 20th centuries [57]. However, employing afforestation with SFM techniques, forest conservation and restoration, sustainable intensification with decreasing deforestation can help in reducing land degradation and ensure greater C storage and flux [58]. Thus, promotion of afforestation techniques with SFM minimizes land degradation and leads to greater environmental health and ecological stability.
Figure 1.2 Land restoration commitments by country under LDN and Bonn challenge (in hectares) [51].
1.9 Achieving Land Degradation Neutral (LDN) through Sustainable Land Use Management (SLM)
LDN (Land degradation neutral) is the most recent and greatest tool for ecosystem restoration by improving land quality by practicing SLM. The LDN concept was first introduced into the global platform by global talk of UNCCD which was further recognized by the national and international community in Rio+20 conference which was held in 2012 [59]. This concept was considered as part of the 2030 agenda for SDG in 2015 [60]. A total 122 countries have adopted LDN under different policies and governance for land restoration and rehabilitation. A sustainable land use system including SFM, afforestation program, agroforestry practices and conservation agriculture ensures LDN which is economically, socially and politically sound. Land restoration through SLM ensures higher SOC pools by effective C sequestration which promise climate resilient ecosystem [61, 62]. SLM comprising agroforestry practices ensure climate resilient ecosystem which restore land quality [63, 64]. Many national and international organizations have supported the LDN concept which is the pillar for land restoration and its sustainability. UNCCD, GSP (Global Soil Partnership), GEF (Global Environmental Fund) and WOCAT have complemented the LDN concept. These organizations targeted land restoration globally by achieving LDN through practicing SLM. Moreover, SDG 15 (life on land) especially 15.3 has targeted to achieve LDN by 2030 [15]. Similarly, the LDN concept also mitigates C footprint and climate change issue along with ecosystem restoration of degraded land through SLM practices [65, 45]. Similarly, a different model, its scale and types were used to assess the SLM effects on ecosystem, which is depicted in Table 1.1 [2].
Table 1.1 Models to assess the effects of sustainable land management on ecosystem [2].
Models
Scale
Type of models
Descriptions
CropSyst model
At field scale
A process-based model (PBM)
This model assessed the SLM effects on both productivity and environment
DNDC model
From plot to field scale
Biogeochemistry computer simulation (BCS) based model used in agro-ecosystems
This model assessed GHGs emissions, SOC pools and plant productivity in agricultural system
APSIM model
From field to farm scale
Identified as “agro-ecosystem process-based model”
This model analyzed management effects on agro-ecosystem diversity and its productivity which comprises plant, soil, animals, water, nutrient, and other resources. Different soil processes, erosion and N and P transformations are also assessed in this model
CENTURY model
From field to farm scale
Identified as “agro-ecosystem process-based model”
This model analyzed management effects on dynamics of nutrients under farm scale
EPIC model
From field to farm scale
Identified as “agro-ecosystem process-based model”
This model analyzed management effects on water, pesticides and soil nutrients movements in different agro-ecosystems
APEX model
At watershed scale
Landscape-based model
This model analyzed management effects on watershed sustainability, water quality and its supply, different soil state and its erosion, economics, etc.
DSSAT model
From farm to regional scale
Cropping system model (CSM) based software
Used to assessed precision management along with analyzing climatic variability and its impact on cropping systems
STICS model
From plot to regional scale
A process-based model (PBM)
This model assesses environmental impacts by analyzing GHGs emissions and nitrate leaching
LPJmL model
At world scale
Identified as “Dynamic global vegetation models” (DGVM)
This model analyzed terrestrial carbon cycle and assessed climate change impacts on vegetation patterns for agricultural ecosystems
ORCHIDEE model
From local to world scale
Identified as “Dynamic global vegetation models” (DGVM)
This model assessed water energy and carbon dynamics under both natural and human managed ecosystems from site to globe scale
CARAIB model
At regional scale
Identified as “Dynamic global vegetation models” (DGVM)
Quantified the net primary productivity of forest vegetation
World3 model
At world scale
IGM (Integrated global model)
This model involves five different sectors including agriculture, capital, population, non-renewable resources, and pollution in the environment
IMAGE model
At world scale
IGM (Integrated global model)
This model works at global scale and incorporates different earth components comprising atmosphere, hydrosphere (oceans), anthroposphere and biosphere
IF model
Regional scale
IGM (Integrated global model)
This model includes seven different sub-models such as agriculture, environment, population, energy, economy, social, international policy
TARGETS model
At world scale
IGM (Integrated global model)
This model consists of five different sub-models which include population, energy, land, food, and water
GUMBO model
At world scale
IGM (Integrated global model)
This was first model that works on a global scale which includes the economical production system and its consistent welfare, ecosystem services of goods and dynamic feedbacks among human technology
1.10 Sustainable Soil/Land Management: Challenge and Opportunities
Land degradation is a big challenge faced by many countries globally. Sustainable soil/land management supports many organisms or resources including forest, agriculture, soil, animals, etc. These resources in integrated form perform better ecosystem function for ensuring environmental sustainability. Deforestation, intensive agriculture practices, overexploitation of land/soil resources beyond carrying capacity, soil erosion and mismanagement practices destroy land quality, which become major challenges. However, a great opportunity exists for land or soil management through scientific techniques including SFM, sustainable agriculture practices, afforestation and conservation agriculture. SLM includes key strategies that integrate all resources such as water, soil, and livestock for ensuring higher productivity and profitability through greater biodiversity. This concept improves land quality and provides many tangible and intangible services including food, fiber, NTFPs along with soil and climate management [66]. Thus, SLM is a great opportunity for researchers, policy makers and scientists for rejuvenating soil health and fertility by minimizing the extent and severity of land degradation.
1.11 Policy and Roadmap For Land Management and Sustainability
The extent of land degradation, its severity and consequences have already been discussed by policy makers, researchers, academicians, and stakeholders at national and international platforms. However, a policy and future roadmap must be reformed as per the nature and severity of land degradation. An effective policy is needed for minimizing negative consequences of land/soil degradation which occurs due to many anthropogenic or natural drivers. Intensive agriculture practices, deforestation, excessive timber felling and resource exploitation induce soil and water erosion, landslides and other losses. These consequences affect biodiversity and ecosystem services globally. In this context, policy-oriented strategies and a roadmap must be sketched scientifically to promote climate resilient land use practices that ensure greater land quality with higher productivity, profitability and environmental sustainability. However, the success of a land restoration program is quietly dependent on social, economic, biophysical and political considerations [67]. A location-specific scientific design is employed for a successful land restoration program. Degraded land must be carefully targeted for ecosystem restoration which can be possible through practicing SFM, sustainable agriculture and afforestation program. A restoration investment must be framed in current and future roadmaps for avoiding, reducing or reversing land degradation. Minimizing soil erosion and desertification, climate change mitigation, poverty eradication and enhancing food security are benefits that can be achieved through a land restoration program [38]. A good policy, governance and institutional support are needed for proper management of land/soil which promises soil-food-climate security in sustainable ways. Therefore, recent policy construction and its timely implementation are prerequisites for healthier and more productive land [68].
1.12 Conclusion
Land degradation is the biggest challenge of the world and needs proper care and management for ecosystem restoration. Poor land quality minimizes ecosystem services due to less productive soil and biodiversity. Deforestation and unsustainable land use practices including intensive agriculture system destroy soil fertility and emit GHGs into the atmosphere, which causes C footprint and climate change. Desertification, soil erosion, water instability, climate change and less SOC pools were negative consequences due to land degradation. In this context, a sustainable land use system including SFM, conservation agriculture, and afforestation ensures healthier and productive lands that maximize environmental health and sustainability. SFM ensure land restoration and soil, food and climate security along with addressing environmental health issues. Climate resilient land use practices would be promoted in degraded land and desertification areas in the tropics. Therefore, a good policy and effective governance are needed to regulate land degradation consequences and its scientific management promise greater biodiversity and ecosystem services.
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