Laser Surface Treatments for Tribological Applications E-Book
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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
This reference presents comprehensive information about laser surface treatments for tribological applications. Chapters of the book highlight the importance of laser technology in modifying materials to optimize the effects of friction and lubrication, by explaining a range of surface modification methods used in industries. These methods include hardening, melting, alloying, cladding and texturing. The knowledge in the book is intended to give an in-depth understanding about the role of laser technology in tribology and the manufacture of industrial materials and surfaces for special applications.
Key Features:
- 10 chapters on topics relevant to tribology and industrial applications of laser material processing
- Comprehensively covers laser surface modification of metals and alloys
- Explains a wide range of surface modification methods (hardening, melting, alloying, cladding and texturing)
- Covers material and tribological characterization of surfaces
- Presents information in a simple structured layout for easy reading, with introductory notes for learners
- Provides references for further reading
This book is an ideal reference for students and learners in courses related to engineering, manufacturing and materials science. Researchers, industrial professionals and general readers interested in laser assisted machining processes and surface modification techniques will also find the book to be an informative reference on the subject.
Audience: Students, researchers, professionals and general readers interested in industrial processes for laser modification of surface and tribology
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Seitenzahl: 399
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2006
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FOREWORD
Prof. Jia-Chang WangWhen Dr. Jeyaprakash and Prof. Che-Hua Yang invited me to write this preface, I was honored and delighted to take this opportunity to be familiarized with this exceptional work.
LASERS are being used for almost everything today, but they took a long time to seem useful. Albert Einstein invented laser technology in the early 1900s. Until 1960, there were no developments, and then the first laser was built at Hughes Research Laboratories. It is exciting to know the laser journey that Albert Einstein laid the foundations of in 1917 by predicting the phenomenon “Stimulated Emission.” Today it has become a fundamental phenomenon for the operation of all kinds of lasers. Valentin Fabrikant hypothesized the use of stimulated emission to amplify radiation . As a similar laser, its development was also speedy.
Further, Charles Townes, Nikolay Basov, and Alexander Prokhorov developed the theorem of stimulated emission of microwaves in 1950, for which they received a noble prize in Physics. In 1959, Gordon Gould proposed that the stimulated emission can be used to amplify light. His extensive research described that the optical resonator could create a narrow beam of light called “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.” Right after his invention, in 1960, Theodore Maiman built the first working laser at Hughes Research Lab in Malibu. The laser, which used synthetic ruby as its active medium, emitted a bright red beam of light with a wavelength of 694.3 nm. The first application by this ruby laser was for military range finders. Surprisingly still, this technology is used commercially for drilling holes in diamonds due to its high power. In 1963, Kumar Patel developed the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) laser at AT&T Bell labs. It is economical and has high efficiency than the ruby laser. Therefore, it became the leading laser technology for many industries and is being continuously used for more than 50 years.
In the 1960s, the CO2 laser became famous for materials processing applications. In 1967, Peter Houldcroft of TWI in Cambridge utilised an oxygen-assisted CO2 laser beam to cut a 1 mm thick steel sheet, which was the first commercial application of Laser Materials Processing.These applications grew in scope, leading to the development of a small and inexpensive CO2 slab laser in the 1980s, ushering in a new “Laser Materials Processing” era. Since then, the laser has played a significant role in the materials industry for various applications, such as metal cutting, welding, drilling, and organic processing materials, such as rubber, foam, and plastic. In 2009, the largest and highest-energy laser in the world was developed in the National Ignition Facility at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In the same year, NASA launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. It will use a laser to gather data about the high and low points on the moon. This information may create 3D maps to identify lunar ice locations and safe landing sites for future spacecraft. In 2019, MIT researchers investigated a 1.9 micrometers wavelength thulium laser to excite water molecules near a microphone, which transmit an audible signal. This signal was as loud as a regular conversation. This technique can send secret messages for military applications and advertising. Currently, the laser is being used in a variety of industries, including medicine, automobiles, aircraft, and others. Finally, very slowly but surely, “the laser is living up to its billing.”
PREFACE
Dr. N. JeyaprakashMetals for industrial applications require several properties, such as ductility, malleability, hardness, strength, corrosion resistance, thermal expansion, availability, reusability, etc. When it comes to tribological application, hardness, strength, and surface properties are the primary necessities. However, achieving all the properties in a single metal is not easy. The product developers have to pick the appropriate metal as per the application requirements by understanding the wide variety of metals and their functional properties. The metallic components are assembled to deliver the relative motion, however, the friction will be generated due to the interaction between the metallic surfaces, and this interaction will lead to ‘wear’ of the metallic components. Wear in mechanical components reduces the plant efficiency because of power losses, and in rare cases, it is catastrophic. Wear is a vital cause of malfunctioning a mechanical system, and it is a serious issue that needs to be addressed in tribological applications.
Lasers are used in many industries, and their applications in various fields are only growing with time. The laser-assisted machinery highlights how lasers have helped us to be at the forefront of technology, making rapid changes possible, including the improvement of tribological properties which is a battle that many scientists throughout the world are battling to limit the wear losses from friction between moving parts. The use of lasers has become a significant source and splendid tool for various surface modification methods, such as hardening, melting, alloying, cladding and texturing, etc. Laser surface treatments offer extensive promises to accomplish preferred surface and tribological properties.
These surface properties have been studied with a wide range of characterization methods, such as the chemical composition of the surface being analyzed with the energy dispersive, Auger electron, glow discharge, optical spectroscopy and X-ray spectroscopy. The microstructure and morphology of the surface are studied by using light optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy. The tribological characterization includes the evaluation of surface roughness, friction, and wear aspects of the surfaces from macro to nano scale. The surface profile can be assessed by using contact and non-contact type surface profilometers.
The challenges in laser surface treatments and tribological issues are both difficult and interesting. People are working with enthusiasm, tenacity, and dedication to develop new techniques/methods of analysis and provide excellent solutions. In this new age of global interconnectivity and interdependence, it is necessary to provide the latest details for both professionals and students, with state-of-the-art knowledge on the frontiers in laser surface treatments for tribological applications. This book is a good step in that direction.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Prof. Jia-Chang WangThe editor and co-editor would like to thank National Taipei University of Technology (NTUT), Taipei-10608, Taiwan for the valuable support and extended facility to carry out this book project in successful manner. In addition to that editor(s) thank to Mrs. Humaira Hashmi, Editorial Manager, Bentham Science Publication for his valuable guidance and impressive official help on this book. The enthusiasm and thoughtfulness of NTUT faculty, students, staff, and community partners over the years inspired us to create this resource for other academic colleagues.
DEDICATION
To the many teachers across five countries I learnt so much from, and my loving family who unconditionally supported me throughout my busy working life.
List of Contributors
Metals and their Tribological Applications
Mahendra Babu Kantipudi1,2,*,Yaojung Shiao1Abstract
The selection of metals is an essential and tricky step to achieve the product's best outcomes. Metals for industrial applications require several properties, such as ductility, malleability, hardness, strength, corrosion resistance, thermal expansion, availability, reusability, etc. When it comes to tribological applications, hardness, strength, and surface properties are the primary necessities. Alloying, heat treatment and surface treatment are the various techniques to attain these metals’ properties. Due to extensive research for a long time, many metal alloys already exist for tribological applications. However, achieving all the properties in a single metal is not possible. The product developers have to pick the appropriate metal according to the application requirements by understanding the wide variety of metals and their functional properties. Hence, this chapter gives a comprehensive reference for the various metal alloys and their applications. Firstly, metals are broadly classified based on their primary composition. Then, the metallurgical characteristics, alloying elements, physical and mechanical properties of the various metals are explained. Lastly, the tribological applications of those metals are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
From the ancient days, metals are playing a vital role in human civilization and engineering developments. They are reliable, strong, and smooth elements that have good conductivity of heat and electricity. Metals are characteristically ductile and malleable due to their nature of metallic bonding. Each of the metal atoms gives its valence electrons to establish an electron enclosed around the positively charged ions. This band of several atoms forms a bond and becomes a solid structure, as shown in Fig. (1). At applied shear force, metal ions can slide over each other and rebuild their bond without losing their mutual electron bonding.
Fig. (1)) Mechanism of metallic bonding.The crystal structure is an essential criterion to understand metal behavior. When a liquid state material cools, it forms a solid with some pattern. This solid formation pattern is called a crystal structure. It consists of atoms in a uniform, repeating, and three-dimensional (3D) order. The smallest repeating 3D arrangement is called a unit cell. Most of the metal structures have existed in three crystalline patterns. They are namely face-centered cubic (FCC), body-centered cubic (BCC), and hexagonal close-packed (HCP).
Fig. (2) shows the placement of the atoms in the three types of patterns. The packing density and some of the properties of the metals depend on these metal structures. FCC has a high packing value (ratio of the volume of atoms and the unit cell), i.e., 0.74, whereas these atomic packing values for BCC and HCC are 0.68 and 0.74, respectively. Chromium, vanadium, α-iron, and tungsten are some of the metals with a BCC structure, whereas aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, and silver are the FCC structured metals. Besides, metals like beryllium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc are the HCP structure. Few metals can give more than one crystal structure; this ability is known as polymorphism. Coming to fundamental solids, this facility is often called allotropy. The crystal structure of pure iron is BCC at room temperature and FCC at above 900 0C. Polymorphic transformation changes the properties and density of the metal.
Fig. (2)) Atoms arrangement in (a) BCC, (b) FCC, and (c) HCP systems.In most engineering applications, specifically in tribological applications, metals have to endure mechanical and thermal stresses. Hardness, toughness, tensile strength, surface friction coefficient, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion are the crucial metal properties for tribological applications. Hardness is a degree of resistance to localized deformation due to either mechanical indentation or scratch. Toughness is the capability of a metal to absorb energy and deform plastically without fracturing. The metal's tensile strength is the maximum stress that it can withstand while being stretched before breaking. The friction coefficient is a proportionality constant, which indicates that the tangential resistive force varies linearly with the normal load. Thermal conductivity is the degree of the metal's ability to conduct heat. Lastly, thermal expansion is the inclination of metal to change its shape, dimensions, and density in reaction to a temperature change.
FERROUS METALS
The Latin word 'ferrous' refers to a metal that contains iron. The base metal is iron, and the ferrous metal's crucial element is a carbon (C). Other metal compositions are added to achieve the essential properties. The amount of carbon in the ferrous alloys affects the metal properties. Ferrous metals have good magnetic and mechanical properties. Ferrous metals are the most convenient metal than any other metal because of the reasons like an abundance of raw materials, good mechanical properties, ease of extraction and processing, and ease of formation. However, corrosion is a major problem for these metals.
Classification of Ferrous Metals
Fig. (3) shows that ferrous metals can be broadly classified into steels and cast irons depending on the carbon and other alloys compositions. The iron-carbon diagram is often used to comprehend the various phases of carbon steel and cast iron. This diagram's X-axis shows the percentage of carbon that starts at 0% and ends at 6.67%. Up to 0.008% carbon content, the metal is pure iron, which has poor mechanical properties.
As shown in Fig. (4), ferrous metals can be classified with carbon percentage. Ferrous alloys with a carbon composition of 0.008% to 2.14% are called steels. They are ductile and strong enough. If the carbon composition increases by more than 2.14%, then the alloy reaches the cast iron phase. Cast iron is tough; nevertheless, its brittleness strictly bounds its applications and methods for manufacturing.
Fig. (3)) Classification of ferrous metals. Fig. (4)) Iron-Carbon phase diagram.CAST IRON
Cast iron is the oldest and economical metal for engineering applications. It contains a higher carbon percentage than steel; therefore, it can benefit from eutectic solidification. Table 1 contains the carbon and other alloys percentages in various types of cast irons. The eutectic point happens in the iron-carbon phase diagram at a temperature of 1148 °C, with a carbon composition of 4.26%. Cast iron usually comes under ferrous alloy, which contains more than 2% carbon and more than 1% silicon. Cast iron metal has flowability at the molten phase due to the higher carbon and silicone compositions. Therefore, they are perfect for casting activities. It is an excellent metal for tribological applications due to its high hardness, wear resistance, and high-temperature stability properties. The mechanical and physical properties of various cast iron metals are listed in Table 2.
Iron carbide, pearlite, and austenite are the probable microstructures for cast iron. These structures can be achieved with different cooling rates. Pearlite can be achieved at slow cooling. At rapid cooling, carbon forms carbides instead of graphitizing. Cast irons can be classified into different metals depending on the above microstructures. They are gray cast iron, white or chilled cast iron, ductile (or nodular) cast iron, malleable cast iron, and compacted graphite cast iron [1].
Gray Cast Iron
Gray cast iron is one of the prevalent forms of cast iron, in which carbon subsists as graphite flakes, and it is an alloy of iron-carbon-silicon. It can be achieved by the addition of greater than 1% of silicon. Silicon stimulates the development of flake graphites. Graphite flakes exist when the iron carbide (cementite, Fe3C) detaches into alpha graphite and (α) ferrite. The graphite establishment is controlled with the silicon percentage and the slow cooling rates in the solidification progression. The fractured surface of this cast iron is grayish due to the existence of these graphite flakes. The carbon percentage in the existing cast irons varies between 2.1 and 4.5%. It has properties like high compressive strength, good damping properties, and high resistance to wear. However, due to the graphite flakes, gray cast irons are fragile and delicate in tension.
Pearlite and ferrite are the two possible microstructures of the gray iron that depend on the casting's cooling speed. It also has good tribological properties like less friction and good wear resistance. It is common for the piston ring and cylinder liner interaction in the IC engine [5]. The flake graphite offers a good lubrication film, which provides brilliant wear and friction features in a dry sliding contact [6]. An extensive range of applications is there for gray cast irons. Internal combustion (IC) engine components, brake drums, machinery housings, hydraulic pumps, compressors, pipefittings, and pumps are a few examples.
White Cast Iron
White cast iron is one more regular cast iron. It can be achieved by heat treatment of gray cast iron with rapid quenching. With the combination of low Si content (0.5 to 1.5%) and faster cooling rates, cementite cannot get decomposed. Therefore, it retains as brittle cementite. White cast iron has 1.8% -3.6% of carbon, 0.5% -1.9% of silicon, and 1% – 2% of manganese. In this metal, carbon exists as iron carbides. The fracture face of white cast iron looks white due to a large fraction of carbides. It has outstanding resistance against wear and abrasion due to the huge masses of carbides. However, they are extremely difficult for machining operations. Therefore, their usage is limited to wear-resistant applications. It is used for shot blasting nozzles, ball mill liners, crushers, and as rollers of rolling mills and rings in pulverizers.
Malleable Cast Iron
Malleable cast iron is a soft and ductile metal. It can be achieved by the heat treatment of white cast iron. White cast iron is firstly heated to around 9200C temperature, and then it is left to prolonged cooling. During this slow cooling, graphite separates at a much slower rate. It has enough time to form spheroidal elements rather than flakes. This metal is stronger, with a significant amount of ductility. This metal is used for railways, connecting rods, naval, and other heavy-duty applications.
Nodular (Ductile) Cast Iron
A small amount of magnesium or cerium agent to the gray cast iron gives a noticeably different microstructure, as shown in Fig. (5). In this process, graphite is formed into nodules or sphere-like elements.
Fig. (5)) Microstructure of nodular cast iron.The matter surrounding these nodule elements is either ferrite or pearlite, as per the heat treatment procedure. Nodular cast iron is a stronger ductile metal than gray cast iron. It is used for pump structures, shafts, and locomotive components. It is not the best choice for heavy wear industrial applications due to its limited wear resistance. However, several techniques like laser surface alloying are used to enhance the tribological properties of nodular cast iron [7].
High-Alloy Cast Irons
The tribological requirements like better strength, high wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and stability at elevated temperatures can be achieved by adding smaller amounts of alloy elements like chromium, nickel, or molybdenum. One high alloy cast iron with exceptional abrasion resistance property is high chromium white cast irons (HCWCI). All HCWCI are hypoeutectic alloys with 10 - 30% of chromium and 2 - 3.5% of carbon [8]. These metals are excellently suitable for coal grinding parts, mining equipment, milling tools, and slurry pumps. Similarly, nickel-alloyed (13 to 36% Ni) cast irons and the high-silicon (14.5% Si) gray irons are used in applications requiring corrosion resistance. Moreover, nickel-alloyed gray and ductile irons are useful for high-temperature service.
Graphite, cementite, austenite, ferrite, and pearlite are the possible physical structures of cast iron that influence its properties. Annealing, quenching, tempering, and surface hardening are the heat treatment concepts that give these various microstructures. Surface treatment is an essential technique for tribology applications to achieve maximum wear resistance without losing the structure's toughness. Laser, flame, and induction can be used as heating sources for this hardening. Up to 600 Vickers of hardness can be achieved by these operations. The depth of the surface hardening is generally about 1.8 mm. Nitriding is one surface hardening method to achieve surface hardness up to 900 Vickers. This is useful for distinct alloy cast irons having aluminum and chromium. Cyaniding or the salt-bath method is used to nitriding the gray and nodular cast irons. Cyaniding not only enhances wear resistance but also increases fatigue strength and corrosion resistance. Advanced surface treatments like laser alloying using WC-12%Co and Cr3C2-25%NiCr alloy powders improve the wear resistance of the nodular iron surface [9].
Surface properties are also very extremely important for the tribological application to reduce friction. Electro discharge machining, photochemical milling [10], electrochemical machining [11], laser beam machining [12], and magnetorheological fluid-based finishing process [13, 14] are the advanced surface texturing processes.
STEELS
Undoubtedly, steels are the best and most useful metal for tribological applications. They have extensive and diversified usage. For instance, AISI 52100 steel is applicable for the ball and roller bearings after a special heat treatment to reduce austenite content and guarantee dimensional firmness. AISI440C steel is applicable for roller contact bearings due to its corrosion resistance and high-temperature properties. Manganese alloy steel can be used for high-impact resistance and wear resistance applications like mining operations and railways. Steel surfaces are being treated with wear-resistant material coatings to enhance their tribological properties. Various steels that are applicable in tribological applications are explained in the next sections.
As already mentioned, steels are fundamentally alloys of iron and carbon. The interstitial sites of the Fe structure are occupied by carbon. Alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, manganese, silicon, sulfur, molybdenum, vanadium, and tungsten are mixed to enhance the alloy's physical properties and improve the corrosion resistance. Steels can be majorly classified into low alloy carbon steels and high alloy steels depending on their carbon composition.
Low Alloy Carbon Steels
It contains less than 1% of carbon and little manganese, sulfur, silicon, and phosphorus. Even though alloying and residual elements affect this type of steel's characteristics, it majorly depends on the carbon content percentage. Carbon steels are low-cost and perfect for large components. In the tribological application, the primary requirement is wear resistance. Steels are undoubtedly the most useful metals in this context. Carbon steels are divided into four subgroups as follows.
Low Carbon Steel
Carbon content in low carbon steel is typically 0.04% to 0.30%. It covers an excessive variety of forms, from sheet metals to structural elements. Other alloy elements are added to achieve wanted properties. For instance: maintaining the low-level carbon and adding aluminum to achieve drawing excellence and maintaining high carbon manganese content levels to achieve structural stability. AISI 1008, 1010, 1015, 1018, 1020, 1022, 1025 are the popular low carbon steels.
Medium Carbon Steel
The carbon content in medium carbon steel is around 0.30 to 0.45%. This steel's hardness and tensile strength are higher than low carbon steel due to the increased carbon content. However, the ductility, machinability, and weldability of this metal are lower than low carbon steel due to higher carbon content. AISI 1030, 1040, 1050, 1060 are the general medium carbon steels.
High Carbon Steel
The carbon composition in high carbon steel is around 0.45 to 1.5 percent. This steel is very hard to cut, bend, and weld due to the high carbon percent. Heating is required to regulate the mechanical and physical characteristics of steel after welding. This type of carbon steel is used for hard applications like cutting tools, wear-resistant steel, etc. AISI 1080, 1095 are the few high carbon steels.
Carbon steel exists in an austenite state at 750 to 1000° C temperature. This austenite is restructured into carbides and ferrite when it cools to room temperature. The rate of cooling is very important in this reconstruction. The choice of the accurate quench rate is directed by the alloy's temperature-time transformation (TTT) characteristics. Fig. (6) shows the effect of cooling rate and initial temperatures on steel microstructure.
Pearlite Steel
This steel contains a structure of alternative layers of ferrite and carbides. This structure attains by heating the steel to above 1500ºC temperature, then it is held for a while to dissolve all carbide, and cooled slowly to room temperature. This steel has high wear resistance and good strength. A larger amount of pearlite in steel increases the wear resistance. Increased carbon content increases the carbides and pearlite section in the arrangement, consequently increasing the hardness and wear resistance. Moreover, the hardness of the metal and pearlite grain size are controlled by quenching rates.
Fig. (6)) TTT curve showing the transformations.Martensitic Steel
It is a kind of hardened crystalline structured steel that is formed over distribution-less transformation process. It is formed in carbon steels with a rapid cooling (quenching) of the austenite by preventing the atoms from diffusing out of the crystalline structures. It is hard and a more wear resistant steel than other carbon steels. However, it is comparatively brittle until tempered by reheating after quenching. Tempering is one method to remove internal stresses in martensitic steel. Doing so increases its resistance to shock, making it less likely to break upon impact. Tempered martensitic steel maintains the balance of good strength and wear resistance.
Bainite
It is formed by being cooled faster than pearlite but slower than martensite. Bainite has plate-shaped microstructures, whereas martensite has a lengthy oval-shaped structure. Bainite is regularly chosen because it does not need tempering after being hardened. This structured steel has the same wear resistance as martensitic steels but with greater toughness.
Austenite and Ferrite
If enough amount of manganese is added, the carbon steels can stabilize austenite at room temperature. Austenitic steels have better wear resistance compared to ferritic steels at the same carbon content. It is high-impact resistant steel used for mining and soil-moving machinery.
It is clear from the above discussion that the wear resistance, hardness, and toughness of the carbon steels can be controlled by carbon percentage and the cooling rates. However, alloying of other elements are required to achieve other properties like corrosion resistance, stability at higher temperatures, a combination of hardness and toughness, etc. Table 3 listed various alloying elements and their effect on steel.
Stainless Steels
Steels become high corrosion-resistant metals by adding distinct alloying elements, particularly a minimum of 10.5% Cr alongside Ni and Mo. The name derives from its great corrosion resistance, such that they are stain-less.
Stainless steels are mainly of three types based on their microstructure, namely austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. Austenitic steels have the highest corrosion resistance. Ferritic and austenitic steels are not heat treatable. They are hardened and strengthened by cold working. At the same time, martensitic steels are heat treatable. AISI has recognized a three-digit classification for stainless steel. Table 4 shows the composition details of various series of stainless steel.
Austenitic stainless steel is useful for a large number of applications due to its excellent corrosion resistance. It has the best combination of carbon, chromium, and nickel elements to achieve corrosion resistance. Therefore, it can be used under many chemicals, high temperatures, and aggressively corrosive conditions. 200 series and 300 series steel come under this class. 300 series stainless steel (AISI 304, etc.) are mostly used in tribological applications. Fig. (7) shows the microstructure of the AISI 304. Advanced coating techniques can improve the wear resistance of this alloy steel metal [15].
Martensitic stainless steel has more than 11.5% chromium, and little nickel content. This type of steel can be hardened by heat treatment. Therefore, the required properties can be obtained. However, the corrosion resistance of this steel is lower than austenitic stainless steel. The 400 series steel comes under this category. The mechanical and physical properties of several popular stainless steels are listed in Table 5.
Manganese Steel
Manganese steel, also called manga alloy, contains 12-14% manganese and 1.15% carbon. They are used for high toughness and wear-resistance necessary applications like mining equipment, ore handling equipment, and earthmoving machinery. Austenite structure can be stabilized in high carbon steels by adding a high amount of Mn alloy content.
Other elements like molybdenum and silicon are added to include carbides in an austenitic matrix so that it can be heat treatable or hardenable steel. Manganese steels also have considerable capacity for work hardening. During heavy working operations, manganese steel transforms to martensite. Therefore the surface of these steels becomes harder and wear-resistant.
One of the famous conventional manganese steels is Hadfield steel. It has 11 to 14 percent manganese and 1.1 to 1.25 percent carbon. It is best appropriate for heavy impact and scoring abrasion. One more well-known manganese austenitic steel is the lean manganese high carbon steel. It is not as strong as Hadfield steel; however, it has higher abrasion resistance. It is suitable for huge castings due to the minimum residual cooling stresses. Its parts require reasonable toughness; however, superior abrasion resistance like earth moving machines would choose leaner alloys.
Tool Steels
Tool steels are high carbon steels having high hardness, strength, and wear resistance. With 0.7% to 1.5% carbon content, tool steels are developed for forming and cutting operations. Alloying elements, such as chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, are added to improve the hardness and wear resistance of tool steels. The properties of tool steels can also be improved by heat treatment. Tool steels are prepared for various grades for diverse applications. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) have combinedly introduced a single-letter classification for tool steel. Out of them, grade O, D, T, M, and H tool steels are used for tribological applications [3]. Alloy composition, physical condition, and hardness of the tool steels are listed in Table 6.
Cold Work Steels
These are high carbon steels with the alloying materials chromium, tungsten, and manganese. The O&D series come under this category. O series steels need to be oil quenched, whereas the D series steels need to be air quenched. These steels deliver great wear resistance at a low cost. The extreme working temperature for these steels is 188 – 2230C.
Chromium Hot-Work Steels
These are low carbon and more chromium steels with the alloying materials tungsten and vanadium. These are tough materials with hot hardness competence. Supersonic aircraft require combined wear resistance and toughness. H steel is useful for these kinds of extremely stressed parts.
High-Speed Tool Steels
These tool steels are intended for machining the workpiece at high removal rates. At high cutting speeds, tools must have a high hot hardness to withstand the effects of frictional heating. The T & M series steels are appropriate for this requirement. T series steels are composed of the highest tungsten and other compositions, namely molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, and cobalt. Carbon content in these steels ranges between 0.70 and 1.5. They are maximum wear-resistant tool steels, but they have low toughness. The M series is called high-speed molybdenum steels with the key element, molybdenum ranging from 4 to 9%. M series tool steels are cheaper and tougher than the T series.
Bearing Steels
Bearing steels are unusual steels containing extraordinary wear resistance and rolling fatigue strength. SS 440C is stainless steel that resists normal corrosion, which can be used for bearings. However, it is limited to low-temperature applications. 52100 bearing steel is one of the distinctive steel with the advantages of great wear resistance and rolling fatigue strength. High-carbon chromium-bearing steel and some stainless steel types can be used as bearings materials after heat treatment and surface treatment. Carburized steels are very much useful for roller bearings. AISI 4620 and AISI 4820 are useful steels for light and heavy bearing applications. Table 7 shows the details of various bearing steels and their properties.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Almost all metal alloys hold little, or insignificant quantity of iron in their composition. The metals that do not contain a significant quantity of iron in their chemical configuration are called non-ferrous metals. These metals, in general, contain iron of lower than one percent as measured by weight. Essential non-ferrous metals include copper, aluminum, lead, zinc, tin, gold, and silver. Their fundamental benefits over ferrous metals are their malleability and corrosion resistance.
COPPER ALLOYS
Copper base alloys have been used in industries for a long time due to their high corrosion resistance and good strength. Copper forms alloys more quickly than other metals, with an extensive range of alloying elements to attain useful metal. Copper alloys are majorly classified as brass, bronze, copper-nickel, gunmetal, and copper-beryllium. Table 8 shows the different copper alloys and their properties.
Brasses are copper and zinc alloys; they are strong enough and malleable. The brass's cold working properties can be improved by increasing zinc content by up to 35%. Brasses with 32% and 39% of zinc give outstanding hot working properties; however, they restrict cold workability. Like Muntz Metal, brasses with higher than 39% zinc consist of high strength and poorer ductility at room temperature compared to few zinc alloys. Brasses can easily casted, drawn, and formed to produce several components like springs, duct pipes, fire extinguishers, radiator cores, low-pressure gears, and low load bearings.
Bronze is a copper alloy metal containing around 12–12.5% tin and additional metals like aluminum, manganese, nickel, or zinc. These accompaniments produce a variety of alloys, which are maybe harder than pure copper or possess other valuable properties, like stiffness, ductility, or machinability. Bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use during the bronze age.
