Materials and Processes Used in Aircraft Construction E-Book
187,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Materials and Processes Used in Aircraft Construction focuses on issues involving the use of plastics in the aerospace industry. A detailed discussion of their various applications is included, along with the innovations presented in the literature over the past decade.
A wide range of important topics are discussed in the 13 chapters. Following a brief presentation of the evolution of aircraft design, aircraft design standards, and the simulation of aircraft models, individual chapters focus on:
- The basic and special materials used in aircraft construction;
- Lightweight materials for aircraft applications;
- Polymers used in the aerospace industry;
- Laminated materials used in the aerospace industry;
- Wing, helicopter, and balloon designs;
- Issues concerning the monitoring and management of the health of flight crews and passengers;
- The benefit of information acquired in real time, leading to an increased understanding of the fracture mechanics of composites, improving confidence in their use, and broadening their applications. Since the cost of inspecting aircraft is approximately one-third of the cost of acquiring and operating composite structures, to compete in the increasingly demanding area of aircraft structures, the cost-effective techniques that need to be developed are discussed.
Audience
This book will serve the needs of those working in the aerospace industry, both those with only a passing knowledge of the field and specialists who need to increase their knowledge of any particular area.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 463
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
1 Evolution of Aircraft Design
1.1 Unmanned Air Systems
1.2 Morphing Aircraft
1.3 Special Materials
References
2 Standards
2.1 ASTM Standards
2.2 ASTM Aircraft Standards
2.3 Examples of Usage
References
3 Simulation of Aircraft Models
3.1 Types of Requirements
3.2 Aircraft Simulation
3.3 Simulation of Exhaust Gases
3.4 Vertical Take-off and Landing
3.5 High-Lift Aerodynamics
3.6 Magnetic Field Modeling
3.7 Software Bugs in Aircraft Systems
3.8 Drones
References
4 Laminates Used in the Aerospace Industry
4.1 Fiber Laminates
4.2 Metals
4.3 Metal Laminates
4.4 Ceramics
References
5 Basic Materials Used in Aircraft Construction
5.1 Exposure Control Systems
5.2 Composite Materials
5.3 Composite Materials for Aircraft Applications
5.4 Ionic Liquid Monomers
5.5 Thermosetting Monomers
5.6 Health Systems
5.7 Heating Elements
5.8 Superhydrophobic Coating Solutions for Deicing Control
5.9 Electrically Conductive Materials
5.10 Shear-Deformable Aircraft Wings
References
6 Special Materials Used in Aircraft Compositions
6.1 Composite Materials
6.2 Applications of MMCs in Aircraft
References
7 Polymers Used in the Aerospace Industry
7.1 Safety of Polymer Composite Materials
7.2 Epoxy Composites
7.3 Self-Healing Polymers
7.4 Recent Advances in Materials
7.5 Modern Progress in Aerospace Materials
7.6 Electrospun Materials
7.7 Nanocomposites
7.8 Smart Sensing
7.9 Space Radiation Protection
References
8 Aircraft Systems
8.1 Safety Aircraft Flight Systems
8.2 Stealth Aircraft
8.3 Aircraft Pylons
8.4 Composite Materials
8.5 Rain Erosion Boot
References
9 Wing Design
9.1 Test Methods for Wings
9.2 Composite Materials
9.3 Renewable Materials
9.4 Flight Regime Recognition
References
10 Helicopter Design
10.1 Aeroelastic Analysis
10.2 Protection of Aerospace Materials
10.3 Coating Design
10.4 Composite Material of Helicopter Tail Fin
10.5 Automatic Planning of Materials
10.6 Anomaly Detection
10.7 Production Processes
10.8 Helicopter Accidents
References
11 Balloon Design
11.1 Micro-Foamed Polymers
11.2 Super-Pressure Balloons
11.3 Digital Fabrication
11.4 Scientific Balloon Materials
11.5 Helium Balloons
References
12 Health Monitoring and Management
12.1 Health Monitoring
12.2 Contaminated Air and Fume Events
12.3 Aircraft Noise
12.4 Wireless Instruments
References
13 Lightweight Materials for Aircraft Applications
13.1 Lightweight Material Applications
13.2 Lightweight Composites
References
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1
List of ASTM Aircraft Standards.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Hydroxyalkyl poly(acrylate)s, or hydroxyalkyl poly(methacrylate)s (1...
Table 5.2
Alkyl Poly(acrylate)s and poly(methacrylate)s (102).
Table 5.3
Alkyl substituted naphthylsulfonic acids (102).
Chapter 6
Table 6.3
Properties of stabilized zirconia materials (34).
Chapter 7
Table 7.1
Main brands and chemical compositions of Al 7alloys.
Table 7.2
Main features and applications of Al 7alloys (20, 31–33).
Table 7.3
β
-alloys.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1
Lightweight materials used for military applications (1).
Table 13.2
Test results of a gasket.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Tail-sitter design (4).
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Integrated maintenance and materials service (69).
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Modular aircraft system (4).
Figure 5.2 Reinforced TPU skin membrane using a stiffer formulation (11).
Figure 5.3 Competing requirements for morphing skins (11).
Figure 5.4 fiber-reinforced membrane (13).
Figure 5.5 Heating system (91).
Figure 5.6 Naphthylsulfonic acid.
Figure 5.7 Dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Squeeze Casting Method (63).
Figure 6.2 Thermal barriers developed by physical vapor deposition (66).
Figure 6.3 Chemical vapor infiltration (5).
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Special parts of an airplane (11).
Figure 7.2 Microstructure evolution of Al 7alloys (57, 58).
Figure 7.3 Schematic of a cold hearth melting unit using four electron beam gu...
Figure 7.4 Radiation types (125).
Figure 7.5 Dose rate as a function of altitude (125).
Figure 7.6 Dose rate as a function of latitude (125).
Figure 7.7 (a) Appearance of a 70% gadolinium oxide shielding film (KG-01), an...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Parts of a Simulink model (2).
Figure 8.2 Symbols of events (2).
Figure 8.3 Structure between a pylon and a wing (2).
Figure 8.4 Aircraft antenna system (15).
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Applications of rotating machinery (38).
Figure 9.2 Rotating machinery (38).
Figure 9.3 Fragmentary cutaway view.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Categorization of the methods used for anomaly detection (8).
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Rotary-winged aircraft system (21).
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Begin Reading
Index
Also of Interest
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
ii
iii
iv
xi
xii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Materials and Processes Used in Aircraft Construction
Johannes Karl Fink
Montanuniversität Leoben, Austria
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781394313969
Front cover image courtesy of Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
This book focuses on issues involving the use of plastics in the aerospace industry. A detailed discussion of their various applications is included along with the innovations presented in the literature over the past decade.
Several important issues are discussed in the book, such as the health of aircrews and passengers during flying. In this case, examples are given of the effects of degraded engine oil and hydraulic fluid fumes of fume events. Here, continuous monitoring can significantly increase the operational safety.
Another important issue is the benefit of information acquired in real time, which would increase understanding of the fracture mechanics of composites, improving confidence in their use and broadening their applications. Moreover, since the cost of inspecting aircraft is approximately one-third of the cost of acquiring and operating composite structures, in order to compete in the increasingly demanding area of aircraft structures, the cost-effective techniques that need to be developed are discussed.
A wide range of topics are included herein. The book begins with a brief presentation of the evolution of aircraft design. Then, Chapter 2 presents the aircraft design standards that need to be followed, and Chapter 3 discusses the simulation of aircraft models. Basic materials used in aircraft construction are presented in Chapter 4, and special materials used in constructing aircraft are discussed in Chapter 5. Polymers used in the aerospace industry are given in Chapter 6 and aircraft systems are discussed in Chapter 7. Wing, helicopter and balloon design are presented in chapters 8 through 10, respectively. Issues concerning the monitoring and management of health are discussed in Chapter 11, and laminated materials used in the aerospace industry in Chapter 12. Finally, Chapter 13 deals with lightweight materials for aircraft applications.
This book will serve the needs of both those with only a passing knowledge of the field and specialists who need to increase their knowledge of a particular area.
How to Use This Book
Utmost care has been taken to present reliable data. Because of the vast variety of material presented here, it is recommended that the reader study the original literature for more complete information.
The reader should be aware that mostly US patents have been cited where available, but not the corresponding equivalent patents in other countries. For this reason, the author cannot assume responsibility for the completeness, validity or consequences of the use of the material presented herein. Every attempt has been made to identify trademarks; however, there were some that the author was unable to locate.
Index
There are three indices: an index of acronyms, an index of chemicals, and a general index.
In the index of chemicals, compounds that occur extensively, e.g., “acetone”, are not included at every occurrence, but rather when they appear in an important context.
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to our university librarians, Dr. Christian Hasenhüttl, Friedrich Scheer, Christian Slamenik, and Elisabeth Groß for their support in literature acquisition. Also, many thanks to Boryana Rashkova for her helpful support.
I also want to express my gratitude to all the scientists who have carefully published their results concerning the topics dealt with herein. This book could not have been otherwise compiled.
Last, but not least, I want to thank the publisher, Martin Scrivener, for his abiding interest and help in the preparation of the text. In addition, my thanks go to Jean Markovic, who made the final copyedit with utmost care.
Johannes Fink
1Evolution of Aircraft Design
The interdependency of aircraft technological systems, the global reach of the aviation transport industry, and the uncertainty surrounding potential atmospheric effects have made defining the relationship between aviation and environmental impact an arduous task, as shown in an existing monograph (1). As shown in an existing monograph (2), air travel continues to experience the fastest growth of all modes of transport, and although the energy intensity of the aviation transport system continues to decline, fuel use and total emissions have steadily risen.
This trend, which represents a conflict between growth and environmental impact, has motivated the aircraft manufacturing and airline industries, the scientific community, and governmental bodies to consider what pace of emissions reduction is acceptable. This chapter analyzes the historical influence of aircraft performance on cost to examine the potential pace of future efficiency improvements and emissions reduction. Technological and operational influences on aircraft energy intensity are quantified and correlated with direct operating cost and aircraft price using analytical and statistical models built upon historical data for US airlines. The energy intensity reduction potential and economic characteristics of future aircraft are also projected, through extrapolations of historical trends in aircraft technology and operations (1).
If the strong growth in air travel continues, world air traffic volume may increase five-fold to as much as twenty-fold by 2050 compared to the 1990 level and account for roughly two-thirds of global passenger miles traveled (IPCC, 1999; Schafer and Victor, 1997). Global modeling estimates directed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) show that aircraft were responsible for about 3.5% of the total accumulated anthropogenic radiative forcing of the atmosphere in 1992, and their radiative forcing may increase to 5.0% of the total anthropogenic forcing with an uncertainty range of 2.7% to 12.2% by 2050 (IPCC, 1999). Given the strong growth in air travel and increasing concerns associated with the effects of aviation emissions on the global atmosphere, the aviation industry is likely to face a significant environmental challenge in the near future (Aylesworth, 1996). Current estimates show that global air traffic volume is growing so fast that total aviation fuel consumption and subsequent aviation emissions impacts on climate change will continue to grow despite future (1).
1.1 Unmanned Air Systems
Unmanned air systems trace their modern origins back to the development of aerial torpedoes almost 95 years ago (3). Efforts continued through the Korean War, during which time the military services experimented with missions, sensors, and munitions in attempts to provide strike and reconnaissance services to battlefield commanders. In the 1950s, both the Navy and Air Force bifurcated their efforts to concentrate on cruise missile and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) development via separate means.
There are three classes of UAVs:
Pilotless target aircraft that are used for training purposes (such as target drones);
Nonlethal aircraft designed to gather intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) data; and
Unmanned combat air vehicles (UCAVs) that are designed to provide lethal ISR services.
UAVs have been around much longer than most people realize. During World War I, both the Navy and the Army experimented with aerial torpedoes and flying bombs (3). Some of the most brilliant minds of the day were called on to develop systems to be used against U-boat bases and to break the stalemate caused by nearly four years of trench warfare. Efforts consisted of combining wood and fabric airframes with either gyroscope or propeller revolution counters to carry weapons of almost 200 pounds of explosives a distance of approximately 40 miles. Hostilities ceased before either could be fielded (4). These World War I UAVs highlighted two operational problems: crews had difficulty launching and recovering the UAVs, and they had difficulty stabilizing them during flight. The aircraft engineering principles have been detailed in a monograph (5).
During the Interwar period, radio and improved aircraft engineering allowed UAV developers to enhance their technologies, but most efforts failed. Despite failures, limited development continued, and after UAVs successfully performed as target drones in naval exercises, efforts were renewed in radio-controlled weapons delivery platforms. World War II saw the continued use of target drones for anti-air gunnery practice. Additionally, radio-controlled drones were used by both the Allied and Axis powers as weapons delivery platforms and radio-controlled flying bombs and gliding bombs.
With the start of the Cold War, UAVs began to be used as ISR systems, with limited success as weapons delivery platforms. Development continued conflict throughour the Vietnam War, but interest soon waned once hostilities ceased. The 1991 Gulf War renewed the interest in UAVs, and by the time the Balkans Conflict began, military intelligence personnel were regularly incorporating UAV ISR information into their analyses. Currently, UAVs effectively provide users with real-time ISR information. Additionally, if the ISR information can be quickly understood and locations georegistered, UCAVs can be used to strike time-sensitive targets with air-to-surface weapons. Like many weapon systems, UAVs thrive when the need is apparent; when there is no need, they fall into disfavor.
Numerous obstacles have hindered the development of UAVs. Oftentimes, technologies simply were not mature enough for the UAVs to become operational. Other times, lack of service cooperation led to failure. For example, the U.S. Army Air Corps funded Project Aphrodite (using B-17s as flying bombs) in World War II, while the Navy’s World War II Project Anvil was very similar but used PB4Ys (the Navy’s designation for the B-24). If the services had coordinated efforts, perhaps the overall effort would have been successful. Additionally, competing weapon systems made it difficult for UAVs to get funding. And of course, it was sometimes difficult to sell pilotless aircraft to senior service leaders, who were often pilots. Many obstacles still stand in the way of continued UAV development. These include mostly nontechnical issues, such as lack of service enthusiasm, overall cost-effectiveness, and competition with other weapon systems (e.g., manned aircraft, missiles, or space-based assets).
When the US entered World War I, the world’s first unmanned aerial torpedo, known as the Kettering Bug, was developed. In 1911, just 8 years after the advent of manned flight, Elmer Sperry, inventor of the gyroscope, became intrigued with the application of radio control to aircraft. Sperry succeeded in obtaining Navy financial support and assistance and, between 31 August and 4 October 1913, oversaw 58 flight tests conducted by Lieutenant P. N. L. Bellinger at Hammondsport, New York, in which the application of the gyroscope to stabilize flight proved successful (6).
In 1915, Sperry and Dr. Peter Cooper Hewitt became members of the Aeronautical Committee of the Naval Consulting Board, established by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels on 7 October 1915 and led by Thomas A. Edison to advise Daniels on scientific and technical matters (7–9).
1.2 Morphing Aircraft
The term morphing aircraft describes a broad range of air vehicles and vehicle components that adapt to planned and unplanned multipoint mission requirements (10). The adaptation or morphing requires changing system features such as including vehicle states, such as vehicle shape, during in-flight operation.
The term morphing can be applied to almost any activity in which in-flight vehicle features are changed. As such, morphing has become a buzzword loosely applied to a wide variety of activities, some of which are disconnected from air vehicle morphing development.
This has led to three myths (10):
morphing shape change is too expensive,
morphing aircraft must weigh more than non-morphing aircraft, and
morphing requires exotic materials and complex systems.
A study attempted to dispel these myths by reviewing early morphing aircraft history to identify inventions and innovations that led to both successes and failures.
Also discussed were some recent government-sponsored activities in the United States. In particular, morphing systems development sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency viewed from the author:s perspective as a former Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Program Manager. The review concludes with identification of possible avenues for future morphing aircraft evolution and morphing device development (10).
1.3 Special Materials
1.3.1 Glare
Glare (derived from GLAss REinforced laminate) is a fiber metal laminate composed of several very thin layers of metal (usually aluminum) interspersed with layers of S-2 glass fiber pre-impregnated, bonded together with a matrix such as epoxy. The unidirectional pre-impregnated layers may be aligned in different directions to suit predicted stress conditions (11).
The history of the development of a new aircraft material, Glare, has been documented (12, 13). Glare is a fiber metal laminate composed of several thin layers of aluminum. Thus, early metal aircraft have been shown to be prone to persistent corrosion.
1.3.2 Thermal Coatings
In a study, thin thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) for protecting aircraft turbine section air foils were examined (14).
The study focused on those advances that led first to TBC use for component life extension and more recently as an integral part of airfoil design. The designs are also detailed in a monograph (15).
Development has been driven by laboratory rig and furnace testing, corroborated by engine testing and engine field experience. The technology has also been supported by performance modeling to demonstrate benefits and life modeling for mission analysis. Factors that have led to the selection of current state-of-the-art plasma-sprayed and physical vapor-deposited zirconia-yttria/MCrAlX TBCs are emphasized, as are observations fundamentally related to their behavior. Also, some directions in research into TBCs and the progress at NASA were noted (14).
References
1. J.J. Lee, S.P. Lukachko, I.A. Waitz, and A. Schafer, Historical and future trends in aircraft performance, cost, and emissions,
Annual Review of Energy and the Environment
, Vol. 26, p. 167, 2001.
2. D. Crane et al.,
Aviation Mechanic Handbook
, Aviation Supplies & Academics, 2006.
3. J.F. Keane and S.S. Carr, A brief history of early unmanned aircraft,
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest
, Vol. 32, p. 558, 2013.
4. R.M. Clark,
Uninhabited combat aerial vehicles: Airpower by the people, for the people, but not with the people
, number 8, Air University Press Alabama, 2000.
5. L. Dingle and M. Tooley,
Aircraft Engineering Principles
, Routledge, 2006.
6. P.E. Coletta,
Patrick NL Bellinger and US Naval Aviation
, University Press of America, 1987.
7. A.O. Van Wyen,
Naval Aviation in World War I
, Vol. 2, Chief of Naval Operations, 1969.
8. L.S. Howeth,
History of communications electronics in the United States Navy
, US Government Printing Office, 1963.
9. L.N. Scott,
Naval consulting board of the United States
, US Government Printing Office, 1920.
10. T.A. Weisshaar, Morphing aircraft systems: Historical perspectives and future challenges,
Journal of Aircraft
, Vol. 50, p. 337, 2013.
11. Wikipedia contributors, Glare — Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GLARE
, 2024. [Online; accessed 28-January-2024].
12. A. Vlot,
Glare: History of the Development of a New Aircraft Material
, Springer Science & Business Media, 2001.
13. A. Vlot,
Glare: History of the Development of a New Aircraft Material
, Springer Science & Business Media, 2007.
14. R.A. Miller, Thermal barrier coatings for aircraft engines: History and directions,
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
, Vol. 6, p. 35, 1997.
15. D. Stinton,
The Design of the Airplane
, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2001.
2Standards
The Standard Aircraft Handbook for Mechanics and Technicians is now available (1).
2.1 ASTM Standards
At ASTM International, a standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical international standards, when the term "Aircraft and Helicopter" is searched for on the internet, only 24 results are found.
2.2 ASTM Aircraft Standards
Some ASTM Aircraft Standards are collected in Table 2.1.
2.2.1 Standard Terminology for Aircraft
The terminology standard for Aircraft contains a listing of terms, abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols related to aircraft covered by ASTM Committees F37 and F44 airworthiness design standards (2).
2.2.2 Standard Specification for Aircraft Powerplant Installation
A detailed explanation of a powerplant is presented in a monograph (3). This specification provides minimum requirements for the installation and integration of powerplant system units and is applicable to small airplanes as defined in the F44 terminology standard (4).
Table 2.1 List of ASTM Aircraft Standards.
Number
Name
Reference
F3060-20
Standard Terminology for Aircraft
(
2
)
F3062/F3062M-20
Standard Specification for Aircraft Powerplant Installation
(
4
)
F3235-22
Standard Specification for Aircraft Storage Batteries
(
5
)
F3341/F3341M-23
Standard Terminology for Unmanned Aircraft Systems
(
6
)
F2109-01
Standard Test Method to Determine Color Change and Staining Caused by Aircraft Maintenance Chemicals upon Aircraft Cabin Interior Hard Surfaces
(
7
)
F3245-19
Standard Guide for Aircraft Electronics Technician Personnel Certification
(
8
)
F3234/F3234M-21
Standard Specification for Exterior Lighting in Small Aircraft
(
9
)
F3065/F3065M-21a
Standard Specification for Aircraft Propeller System Installation
(
10
)
F3227/F3227M-22
Standard Specification for Environmental Systems in Aircraft
(
11
)
F3409-19e1
Standard Practice for Simplified Aircraft Loads Determination
(
12
)
ASTM D 2240
Standard Test Method for Rubber Property–Durometer Hardness
(
13
)
ASTM D 412
Standard Test Methods for Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Elastomers–Tension
(
14
)
ASTM D 624
Standard Test Method for Tear Strength of Conventional Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Elastomers
(
14
)
ASTM D 297
Standard Test Methods for Rubber Products–Chemical Analysis
(
15
)
The specification contains: An air induction system for each engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) and their accessories, powerplant exhaust system, forced air induction and bleed air systems, oil system, liquid cooling, turbojet and turbofan reversing systems, and powerplant accessories and components. Also specified are tank tests for pressure, vibration, and tank sloshing.
So, this specification covers minimum requirements for the installation and integration of powerplant system units. It is applicable to small aeroplanes as defined in the F44 terminology standard.
2.2.3 Standard Specification for Aircraft Storage Batteries
This specification establishes the requirements for the electrical storage battery aspects of airworthiness and design for small aircraft.
It prescribes the Aircraft Type Code (ATC) compliance matrix (4) based on airworthiness level, number of engines, type of engine(s), stall speed, cruise speed, meteorological conditions, altitude, and maneuvers.
An ATC is defined by taking into account both the technical considerations regarding the design of the aircraft and the airworthiness level established based upon risk-based criteria. The installation requirements defined by this specification cover nickel cadmium batteries. For each nickel cadmium battery installation capable of being used to start an engine or APU, there must be provisions to prevent any hazardous effect on structure or essential systems that may be caused by the maximum amount of heat the battery can generate during a short circuit of the battery or of its individual cells.
The specification covers electrical storage battery aspects of airworthiness and design for airplanes. The material was developed through open consensus of international experts in general aviation. This information was created by focusing on Normal Category aeroplanes. The content may be more broadly applicable; it is the responsibility of the applicant to substantiate broader applicability as a specific means of compliance. The topics covered within this document are electrical storage batteries, nickel cadmium batteries, and rechargeable lithium batteries.
The standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
2.2.4 Standard Terminology for Unmanned Aircraft Systems
This terminology standard covers definitions of terms and concepts related to unmanned aircraft systems (UASs) (6).
2.2.5 Practice for Simplified Aircraft Loads Determination
This practice provides an acceptable, and simplified, means of determining certain design loads criteria and conditions for fixed wing aircraft (12). In particular, the practice provides overall aircraft flight loads and flight conditions
2.2.6 Search and Rescue Operations Standards
The ASTM search and rescue operations standards cover the personnel, equipment, and procedures relevant in the performance of search and rescue (SAR) operations. These procedures involve the use of available personnel and facilities in locating and providing immediate aid to persons, other living beings, or property that are in actual or imminent distress. These operations are most commonly carried out in urban and suburban locations, combat sites, areas of large bodies of water, and rugged terrains such as mountains, deserts, and forests. These standards help guide SAR organizations and emergency response teams in conforming to the proper methods of conducting these emergency aid procedures.
2.2.7 Rubber Property–Durometer Hardness
The ASTM D 2240 test method is based on the penetration of a specific type of indentor when forced into the material under specified conditions (13). The indentation hardness is inversely related to the penetration and is dependent on the elastic modulus and viscoelastic behavior of the material.
Table 2.2 List of ASTM standards.
Number
Year
Name
F1956-20
2020
Standard Specification for Rescue Carabiners
F2491-20
2020
Standard Guide for Determining Safety Factors for Technical Rescue Systems and Equipment
F2684/F2684M-07
2022
Standard Test Method for Portable High Anchor Devices
F1764-97
2024
Standard Guide for Selection of Hardline Communication Systems for Confined-Space Rescue
F2822-10
20204
Standard Specification for Fixed Anchorages Installed on Structures Used for Rope Rescue Training
F2266-24e1
2024
Standard Specification for Masses Used in Testing Rescue Systems and Components
F1772-24
2024
Standard Specification for Harnesses for Rescue and Sport Activities Management and Operations
F1583-95
2019
Standard Practice for Communications Procedures-Phonetics
F1422-08
2020
Standard Guide for Using the Incident Command System Framework in Managing Search and Rescue Operations
F2047-00
2019
Standard Practice for Workers Compensation Coverage of Emergency Services Volunteers
F1591-95
2019
Standard Practice for Visual Signals Between Persons on the Ground and in Aircraft During Ground Emergencies
F2752-19
2019
Standard Guide for Training for Basic Rope Rescuer Endorsement
F1730-96
2020
Standard Guide for Throwing a Water Rescue Throwbag
F1729-96
2020
Standard Practice for Single Person Cold Water Survival/Rescue Technique: HELP Position
F1728-96
2020
Standard Practice for Multiple Persons Cold Water Survival/Rescue Technique: Huddle Position
F1422-08
2020
Standard Guide for Using the Incident Command System Framework in Managing Search and Rescue Operations
The geometry of the indentor and the applied force influence the measurements such that no simple relationship exists between the measurements obtained with one type of durometer and those obtained with another type of durometer or other instruments used for measuring hardness. This test method is an empirical test intended primarily for control purposes. No simple relationship exists between indentation hardness determined by this test method and any fundamental property of the material tested (13).
2.2.8 Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Elastomers
All materials and products covered by the test method ASTM D 412 must withstand tensile forces for adequate performance in certain applications. These test methods allow for the measurement of such tensile properties. However, tensile properties alone may not directly relate to the total end use performance of the product because of the wide range of potential performance requirements in actual use (14).
The tensile properties depend both on the material and the conditions of test, i.e., extension rate, temperature, humidity, specimen geometry, pretest conditioning. Therefore, materials should be compared only when tested under the same conditions.
The temperature and the rate of extension may have substantial effects on tensile properties and therefore should be controlled. These effects will vary depending on the type of material being tested.
Tensile set represents residual deformation which is partly permanent and partly recoverable after stretching and retraction. For this reason, the periods of extension and recovery (and other conditions of test) must be controlled to obtain comparable results.
2.2.9 Tear Strength
The test method ASTM D 624 describes procedures for measuring a property of conventional vulcanized rubber and thermoplastic elastomers called tear strength (14).
Vulcanized rubber and thermoplastic elastomers often fail in service due to the generation and propagation of a special type of rupture called a tear (14).
The tear strength may be influenced to a large degree by stress-induced anisotropy (mechanical fibering), stress distribution, strain rate, and test piece size. The results obtained in a tear strength test can only be regarded as a measure under the conditions of that particular test and may not have any direct relation to service performance. The significance of tear testing must be determined on an individual application or product performance basis.
2.2.10 Chemical Analysis of Rubber Products
The ASTM D 297 test methods cover the qualitative and quantitative analyses of the composition of natural and synthetic crude rubbers (15). These methods are divided into general and specific test methods.
General test methods shall be performed to determine the amount and type of some or all of the major constituents of a rubber product, and shall include determination of rubber polymer content by the indirect method, determination of density, and extract, sulfur, fillers, and ash analyses. Specific test methods, on the other hand, shall be performed to determine specific rubber polymers present in a rubber product such as crude, unvulcanized, reclaimed, and vulcanized rubbers (15).
2.3 Examples of Usage
2.3.1 Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrices
The test method ASTM D3039/D3039M-08 is designed to produce tensile property data for material specifications, research and development, quality assurance, and structural design and analysis (16). Factors that influence the tensile response and should therefore be reported include the following: material, methods of material preparation and lay-up, specimen stacking sequence, specimen preparation, specimen conditioning, environment of testing, specimen alignment and gripping, speed of testing, time at temperature, void content, and volume percent reinforcement. Properties, in the test direction, which may be obtained from this test method include the following (16):
Ultimate tensile strength,
Ultimate tensile strain,
Tensile chord modulus of elasticity,
Poisson’s ratio, and
Transition strain.
This test method determines the in-plane tensile properties of polymer matrix composite materials reinforced by high-modulus fibers. The composite material forms are limited to continuous fiber or discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites in which the laminate is balanced and symmetric with respect to the test direction (16).
The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. Within the text, the inch-pound units are shown in brackets. The values stated in each system are not exact equivalents; therefore, each system must be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard (16).
2.3.2 Flexural Properties of Polymer Matrices
The test method ASTM D7264 determines the flexural properties (including strength, stiffness, and load/deflection behavior) of polymer matrix composite materials under the conditions defined (17).
Procedure A is used for three-point loading and Procedure B is used for four-point loading. This test method was developed for optimum use with continuous fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites and differs in several respects from other flexure methods, including the use of a standard span-to-thickness ratio of 32:1 versus the 16:1 ratio used by Test Methods D790 (a plastics-focused method covering three-point flexure) and D6272 (a plastics-focused method covering four-point flexure) (17).
This test method is intended to interrogate long-beam strength in contrast to the short-beam strength evaluated by Test Method D2344/D2344M.
Flexural properties determined by these procedures can be used for quality control and specification purposes, and may find design applications. In addition, these procedures can be useful in the evaluation of multiple environmental conditions to determine which are design drivers and may require further testing. These procedures may also be used to determine the flexural properties of structures.
A four-point loading system utilizes two load points equally spaced from their adjacent support points, with a distance between load points of one-half of the support span.
Unlike the Test Method D6272, which allows loading at both one-third and one-half of the support span, in order to standardize geometry and simplify calculations, this standard permits loading at only one-half the support span.
For comparison purposes, tests may be conducted according to either test procedure, provided that the same procedure is used for all tests, since the two procedures generally give slightly different property values.
The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system are not necessarily exact equivalents; therefore, to ensure conformance with the standard, each system shall be used independently of the other, and values from the two systems shall not be combined.
This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use (17).
2.3.3 Run-Time Assurance
The philosophy and editorial considerations are discussed behind the ongoing second revision of the ASTM F38 Committee standard on run-time assurance (RTA) for aircraft systems, ASTM F3269, titled Standard Practice for Methods to Safely Bound Flight Behavior of Unmanned Aircraft Systems Containing Complex Functions (18).
This describes the key aspects of the RTA architecture as depicted in the current revision of the standard and provides some insights on the design best practices suggested in the standard. RTA is a certification strategy for UASs that contain complex functions, which may not be certifiable using traditional design assurance practices. This challenge may arise in part due to the inherent algorithmic complexity of these functions (18).
It may also be due to the inability to produce design assurance artifacts according to industry standards such as RTCA DO-178C (software) or DO-254 (hardware) for commercial off-the-shelf components used onboard the aircraft. RTA adds value not only to unmanned applications, but also to manned aviation, particularly in General Aviation and Advanced Air Mobility. It has the potential to enable technologies for autonomous aircraft systems and simplified vehicle operations. The strategy will also play a role in the design assurance and certification of adaptive controllers and functions using artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms (18).
2.3.4 Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems
The range of applications of remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPASs) in various industries indicates that their increased usage could reduce operational costs and time (19). They can be deployed quickly and effectively in numerous distribution systems and even during a crisis by eliminating existing problems in ground transport due to their structure and flexibility.
Moreover, they can also be useful in data collection in damaged areas by correctly defining the condition of flight trajectories. Hence, defining a framework and model for better regulation and management of RPAS-based systems appears necessary; a model that could accurately predict what will happen in practice through the real simulation of the circumstances of distribution systems. Therefore, this study attempts to propose a multi-objective location-routing optimization model by specifying time window constraints, simultaneous pick-up and delivery demands, and the possibility of recharging the used batteries to reduce (19):
Transport costs,
Delivery times, and
Estimated risks.
Furthermore, the delivery time of the model has been optimized to increase its accuracy based on the uncertain conditions of possible traffic scenarios. It is also imperative to note that the assessment of risk indicators was conducted based on the specific operations risk assessment (SORA) standard to define the third objective function, which was conducted in a few previous studies (19).
Finally, it shows how the developed NSGA-II algorithm in this study performed successfully and reduced the objective function by 31%. Comparing the obtained results using an NSGA-II metaheuristic approach, through the rigorous method GAMS, indicates that the results are valid and reliable (19).
2.3.5 Aerial Firefighting
Aircraft selection decisions can be challenging due to their multidimensional and interdisciplinary nature (20, 21). The decisions involve multiple stakeholders with conflicting objectives and numerous alternative options with uncertain outcomes.
An analysis of aerial firefighting aircraft was conducted to determine which is chosen for the Air Fire Service to extinguish forest fires. To make such a selection, the characteristics of the fire zones must be considered, and the capability to manage the logistics involved in such operations, as well as the purchase and maintenance of the aircraft, must be determined.
The selection of firefighting aircraft is particularly complex because they have longer fleet lives and require more demanding operation and maintenance than scheduled passenger air service.
An atttemt was made to use the fuzzy proximity measure method to select the most appropriate aerial firefighting aircraft based on decision criteria using multiple attribute decision-making analysis. Following fuzzy decision analysis, the most suitable aerial firefighting aircraft is ranked and determined for the Air Fire Service (20, 21).
Türkiye is one of the most vulnerable forested countries in Eurasia due to its natural forest cover. The forests are home to a diverse range of flora and fauna, including indigenous plant species. As many forested areas cannot be accessed by road, it is crucial to establish an aerial firefighting fleet to combat wildfires effectively. Protecting forests and biodiversity is essential to maintaining a sustainable forest nature in Türkiye.
Fleet planning for aerial firefighting is a challenging task that involves several variables such as aircraft economics, market analysis, performance, finance, and environmental factors. In the literature reviews, multiple criteria analysis is frequently used to select an optimal aerial firefighting aircraft for fleet planning. Choosing an aircraft involves complex decision-making as it has socio-political, environmental, economic, technical, and ethical implications (20, 21).
Making decisions can become complicated by overall goals, which often require comparing alternatives that are incommensurate and high dimensional. One-off decisions with high stakes in complex contexts can be particularly challenging since the objectives must first be identified jointly with the decision-makers. Aircraft selection decisions are often of this complex decision type. To tackle this complexity, decision analysis methods combine problem structuring and multiple attribute decision-making analysis models. When presented with a set of alternatives, these methods help structure the decision problem, systematize goals, and evaluate the measurable qualities of the alternatives. This allows for comparison between alternatives and supports decision-makers to explore the decision space and model outcomes. As a result, decisions become more transparent, traceable, and repeatable. Multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) analysis methods are used to determine how well an alternative satisfies a set of criteria or objectives (22). These MCDM methods are typically classified based on how goal attainment is defined:
Overall value (score or rank),
Goal or aspiration level, and
Outranking.
Summarizing value methods use a numerical score to indicate the preference of an alternative compared to others, such as multiple attribute utility value, TOPSIS, and VIKOR (23).
Aspiration level methods assess solutions based on the level of attainment of a set of goals, such as goal programming. Outranking methods use pairwise comparison of alternatives to identify a ranking of preferences, such as ELECTRE (24, 25), ORESTE and PROMETHEE (26, 27) methods (22–24, 26–36).
MCDM models are used after the decision problem is structured, which requires clarity about who participates in the decision, which objectives and criteria are considered, and which alternatives are feasible. For a summarizing value approach, it is necessary to understand and quantify the impacts of the alternatives on the attributes. The impact of aerial firefighting aircraft selection with standard fuzzy sets using multiple criteria group decision-making analysis can be obtained from conceptual or mathematical models that make these assumed relationships explicit or from estimates obtained from data or expert knowledge. An assessment model is used to map the alternatives to the expected outcomes on the attributes.
MCDM models require a preference model that takes into account the different perspectives of stakeholders, trade-offs among competing objectives, risk attitudes, and ambiguity attitudes of decision-makers. The purpose of an MCDM model in addressing a complex decision problem is to provide a focus for discussion, not to prescribe a solution. The model is useful for learning about trade-offs among alternatives and constructing decision-maker preferences.
Decision-making involves judgment and valuation, so subjectivity cannot be avoided, and the responsibility for the decision and its consequences remain with the decision-makers. MCDM methods are generally used to evaluate different alternatives, in many cases, the actions to be taken go beyond a single alternative, and a set of potential alternatives must be identified. The number and combination of alternatives are subject to constraints, such as the available budget or other factors.
Multiple attribute decision analysis (MADA) models are designed to estimate the utility or attainment of an objective based on a set of hierarchically structured attributes or criteria. This requires the construction of a preference model by aggregating different attributes. MADA models are simple to conceptualize and suitable for including risky choices.
Preference models based on multiple attribute value theory consist of three elements: an objectives hierarchy, the assessment of marginal utilities or values, and trade-offs among different objectives. The objectives hierarchy involves breaking down the overall objective of the decision into intermediate objectives, which can be further disaggregated into lowest-level objectives for which measurable attributes are defined. Only fundamental objectives should be included in the hierarchy. Once the objective hierarchy is defined, marginal valuation functions over the attributes and trade-offs among the attributes and objectives are elicited.
The valuation functions may or may not include the risk preferences of decision-makers regarding the attributes and objectives. Trade-offs are elicited by understanding desirable trade-offs, often expressed as importance weights, among the attributes and how they should be aggregated — a value or utility aggregation function. This elicitation process may yield uncertain parameters due to preference instability and limited interaction with decision-makers.
After assessing utilities for attributes and objectives, utilities corresponding to attribute levels are aggregated in the intermediate objectives, and later towards the overall objective. This requires defining relative importance weights of each attribute or objective and the aggregation function. Therefore, the evaluation of portfolios requires a separate analysis, where the aggregation function and importance weights are defined to determine how to combine the individual utilities of the alternatives into a single score. This aggregation function can be either compensatory or non-compensatory, depending on the preferences of the decision-makers.
The analysis of portfolios often involves the consideration of constraints, such as budget or resource limitations, which may affect the feasibility of certain portfolios. Additionally, sensitivity analysis can be conducted to evaluate the robustness of the results to changes in the preference model or the assessment model. Overall, the evaluation of portfolios requires a comprehensive and structured approach that considers the interactions and trade-offs among the individual alternatives and their corresponding actions, as well as the preferences and objectives of the decision-makers.
Although this study utilizes fuzzy proximity measure method (PMM), it provides theoretical information for both PMM proximity measure method and fuzzy PMM approach. MCDM techniques are widely used in complex decision-making environments. PMM, which was developed by Ardil,. is one of the most effective MCDM methods. The method uses the ideal solution as a benchmark for comparison, with the alternative that deviates the least from the ideal solution being selected.
The best option is one that maximizes every benefit criterion and reduces every cost criterion. The traditional PMM technique is based on precise numerical values provided by the decision-maker or expert. However, in some situations, the decision-maker may not be able to express the ratings of alternatives accurately or may use linguistic terms. In such cases, other data formats. such as interval numbers, fuzzy numbers, ordered fuzzy numbers, hesitant fuzzy sets, and gintuitionistic fuzzy sets,. may be used.
As decision problems become more complex, it becomes impractical for a single decision-maker to analyze all relevant aspects of the problem. Therefore, a group of decision-makers are involved in making decisions for real-life problems. The individual decisions made by each decision-maker are often combined to create a collective decision, usually in the form of an individual or collective decision matrix, which serves as the basis for rating options and selecting the best one.
The PMM method is effectively used in MCDM to aggregate evaluations from multiple decision-makers. The arithmetic mean is often used to combine the individual scores given by each decision-maker to determine the final score of each alternative. However, in situations where decision-makers provide fuzzy or imprecise data, this method involves transforming the individual choice matrices provided by each decision-maker into aggregated matrices of alternatives. These matrices organize the evaluations of each alternative based on each criterion, allowing for the selection of the optimal alternative. In this approach, the optimal decision matrix or ideal solution vector is a matrix composed of maximal assessments, as all individual decision matrices are normalized based on the criterion type. Unlike traditional PMM and techniques that rely on the accumulation of transport and vehicle engineering, the distances between matrices represent the distances of alternatives from the ideal solution. The best alternative is identified by ranking the alternatives using the proximity measure value of each alternative to the ideal solution. Standard fuzzy sets were reviewed and then classified as determinate fuzzy sets and indeterminate fuzzy sets. Also, numerical examples of MCDM were provided for an aerial firefighting aircraft selection problem (20).
References
1. R. Sterkenburg and P.H. Wang,
Standard aircraft handbook for mechanics and technicians
, McGraw Hill, 6th edition, 2021.
2. Standard terminology for aircraft, ASTM Standard F3060-20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020.
https://www.astm.org/f3060-20.html
.
3. D. Crane, T. Michmerhuizen, L. Wylie, and R. Aardema,
Powerplant
, Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1996.
4. Standard specification for aircraft powerplant installation, ASTM Standard F3062/F3062M-20, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020.
https://www.astm.org/f3062_f3062m-20.html
.
5. Standard specification for aircraft storage batteries, ASTM Standard F3235-22, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022.
https://www.astm.org/F3235-22.html
.
6. Standard terminology for unmanned aircraft systems, ASTM Standard F3341/F3341M-23, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2023.
https://www.astm.org/f3341_f3341m-23.html
.
7. Standard test method to determine color change and staining caused by aircraft maintenance chemicals upon aircraft cabin interior hard surfaces, ASTM Standard F2109-01, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022.
https://www.astm.org/f2109-01r22.html
.
8. Standard guide for aircraft electronics technician personnel certification, ASTM Standard F3245-19, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2019.
https://www.astm.org/f3245-19.html
.
9. Standard specification for exterior lighting in small aircraft, ASTM Standard F3234/F3234M-21, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/f3234_f3234m-21.html
.
10. Standard specification for aircraft propeller system installation, ASTM Standard F3065/F3065M-21a, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/f3065_f3065m-21a.html
.
11. Standard specification for environmental systems in aircraft, ASTM Standard F3227/F3227M-22, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022.
https://www.astm.org/f3227_f3227m-22.html
.
12. Standard practice for simplified aircraft loads determination, ASTM Standard F3409-19e1, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022.
https://www.astm.org/f3409-19e01.html
.
13. Standard test method for rubber property–durometer hardness, ASTM Standard D2240-15, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/standards/d2240
.
14. Standard test methods for vulcanized rubber and thermoplastic elastomers–tension, ASTM Standard D412-16, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/d0412-16r21.html
.
15. Standard test methods for rubber products–chemical analysis, ASTM Standard 297-21, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/d0297-21.html
.
16. Standard test method for tensile properties of polymer matrix composite materials, ASTM Standard D3039-17, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017.
https://www.astm.org/catalogsearch/result/?q=ASTM+D3039
.
17. Standard test method for flexural properties of polymer matrix composite materials, ASTM Standard D7264-21, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021.
https://www.astm.org/catalogsearch/result/?q=ASTM+D7264
.
18. P. Nagarajan, S.K. Kannan, C. Torens, M.E. Vukas, and G.F. Wilber, ASTM F3269 – an industry standard on run time assurance for aircraft systems, in
AIAA Scitech 2021 Forum
, p. 0525, 2021.
19. A. Mahmoodi, L. Hashemi, J. Laliberté, and R.C. Millar, Secured multi-dimensional robust optimization model for remotely piloted aircraft system (RPAS) delivery network based on the SORA standard,
Designs
, Vol. 6, p. 55, 2022.
20. C. Ardil, Aerial firefighting aircraft selection with standard fuzzy sets using multiple criteria group decision making analysis,
International Journal of Transport and Vehicle Engineering
, Vol. 17, p. 136, 2023.
21. C. Wang, L. Yao, W. He, X. Cui, J. Wu, and D. Xie, Effect of elliptical notches on mechanical response and progressive damage of fmls under tensile loading,
Thin-Walled Structures
, Vol. 154, p. 106866, 2020.
22. H. Taherdoost and M. Madanchian, Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods and concepts,
Encyclopedia
, Vol. 3, p. 77, 2023.
23. Compromise solution by MCDM methods: A comparative analysis of vikor and topsis.
24. B. Roy, The outranking approach and the foundations of electre methods,
Theory and Decision
, Vol. 31, p. 49, 1991.
25. L. Fei, J. Xia, Y. Feng, and L. Liu, An electre-based multiple criteria decision making method for supplier selection using dempster-shafer theory,
IEEE Access
, Vol. 7, p. 84701, 2019.
26. J.-P. Brans and P. Vincke, Note – a preference ranking organisation method: (the Promethee method for multiple criteria decision-making),
Management science
, Vol. 31, p. 647, 1985.
27. J.-P. Brans, P. Vincke, and B. Mareschal, How to select and how to rank projects: The promethee method,
European Journal of Operational Research
, Vol. 24, p. 228, 1986.
28. T.L. Saaty, How to make a decision: the analytic hierarchy process,
European Journal of Operational Research
, Vol. 48, p. 9, 1990.
29. T.L. Saaty, Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process,
International Journal of Services Sciences
, Vol. 1, p. 83, 2008.
30. J.J. Buckley, Fuzzy hierarchical analysis,
Fuzzy Sets and Systems
, Vol. 17, p. 233, 1985.
31. J.S. Dyer, Multiattribute utility theory (maut),
Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis: State of the Art Surveys
, pp. 285–314, 2016.
32. C.-L. Hwang and K. Yoon,
Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications: A State of the Art Surveys
, Vol. 186, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
33. T.-C. Chu, Facility location selection using fuzzy topsis under group decisions,
International Journal of Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Systems
, Vol. 10, p. 687, 2002.
34. S. Opricovic, A fuzzy compromise solution for multicriteria problems,
International Journal of Uncertainty, Fuzziness and Knowledge-Based Systems
, Vol. 15, p. 363, 2007.
35. J.-P. Brans, B. Mareschal, J. Figueira, S. Greco, et al., Multiple criteria decision analysis: State of the art surveys,
