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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
Materials Science and Engineering in Food Product Development A comprehensive and accessible guide to the food development applications of cutting-edge materials science In Materials Science and Engineering in Food Product Development, distinguished researcher Wing-Fu Lai delivers an authoritative exploration of the roles played by materials science and engineering in food product development. In the book, the authors employ a practical, industrial perspective to illustrate how food products, especially functional foods, can benefit from the incorporation of materials science technologies. The book includes helpful glossary sections in each chapter, as well as important notes to highlight information useful to food manufacturers engaged in the real-world development and manufacture of foods. This book is appropriate for both early and advanced researchers interested in the design, improvement, and engineering of food products using the most current advances in food materials science. Readers will also find: * A thorough overview of the most critical advances in food materials science * Comprehensive explorations of a materials science approach to food product design and discussions of techniques for the characterization of food materials and products * Practical discussions of the design and use of hydrogels, polymers, and lipid-based systems for food component encapsulation * Comprehensive treatments of the optimization of pasting and textural properties of food products by rheological manipulation Perfect for students, researchers, and scholars in the fields of nutritional science, materials engineering, food science, food engineering, and nanotechnology, Materials Science and Engineering in Food Product Development will also benefit food manufacturing professionals during food product development.
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Materials Science and Engineering in Food Product Development
Edited by
Wing-Fu Lai
The Hong Kong Polytechnic UniversityHong Kong
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Wing-Fu Lai to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lai, Wing-Fu, editor. | John Wiley & Sons, publisher.
Title: Materials science and engineering in food product development / edited by Wing Fu Lai.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023000273 (print) | LCCN 2023000274 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119860358 (Hardback) | ISBN 9781119860365 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119860587 (epub) | ISBN 9781119860594 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Food industry and trade--Technological innovations | Food--Composition | Food--Analysis. | Food science.
Classification: LCC TP370 .M365 2023 (print) | LCC TP370 (ebook) | DDC 664/.07--dc23/eng/20230213
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000273
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000274
Cover Image: © Sompong Sriphet/EyeEm/Getty Images
Cover Design: Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
About the Editor
List of Contributors
Preface
List of Abbreviations
1 Overview of Different Materials Used in Food Production
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Advanced Materials Engineering for Food Product Development
1.2.1 Microstructured and Nanostructured Materials
1.2.2 Preparation Methods
1.2.2.1 Spray-Drying Technique
1.2.2.2 Electrospinning Technique
1.2.2.3 Coacervation Technique
1.2.2.4 Emulsion Technique
1.2.2.5 Ionic Gelation Technique
1.2.2.6 Liposome Formulations
1.3 Encapsulation of Food Ingredients for Food Product Development
1.3.1 Encapsulation Based on Polysaccharides
1.3.1.1 Chitosan
1.3.1.2 Starch
1.3.1.3 Alginate
1.3.1.4 Carrageenans
1.3.2 Encapsulation Based on Liposomes
1.3.3 Encapsulation Based on Proteins
1.4 Food Packaging Approach for Food Product Development
1.4.1 Polysaccharide-Based Food Packaging
1.4.1.1 Chitosan
1.4.1.2 Alginate
1.4.1.3 Starch
1.4.2 Protein-Based Food Packaging
1.4.2.1 Gelatin
1.4.2.2 Casein
1.5 Hydrogel Structures and Their Efficiency in Food Development
1.6 Conclusion
Glossary
References
2 Introduction to Food Properties and Techniques in Food Product Development
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structural Impact on Properties
2.2.1 Food Materials Science
2.2.2 Food Matrix
2.2.3 Food Characterization and Study Standardization
2.3 Food Consumer Demands
2.4 Food Properties to Be Improved
2.4.1 Introduction to Food Properties
2.4.2 Functional Ingredients and Health Properties
2.4.3 Physiochemical and Sensory Properties
2.4.4 Physical Properties
2.4.5 Food Stability
2.4.6 Kinetic Properties
2.5 Food Materials Synthesis Techniques
2.5.1 Food Formulation
2.5.2 Food Processing
2.5.3 3D Printing
2.6 Concluding Remarks
Glossary
References
3 Basic Concepts of Bulk Rheology in Food Emulsions
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Emulsification Process
3.3 Rheology of Continuous Phase
3.4 Rheology of Emulsions
3.5 Microstructure
3.6 Destabilization Mechanisms
3.7 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
4 Understanding Interfacial Rheology in Food Emulsions
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Interfacial Engineering of Food Emulsifiers
4.3 Rheological Techniques for the Characterization of Interfacial Films
4.3.1 Interfacial Dilatational Rheology
4.3.1.1 Oscillating Droplet Techniques
4.3.1.2 Trough Methods
4.3.2 Interfacial Shear Rheology
4.3.2.1 Du Noüy Ring Tool
4.3.2.2 Bicone Tool
4.3.2.3 DWR Tool
4.3.2.4 Magnetic Rods Based Tools
4.3.3 Comparison Between Interfacial Dilatational and Shear Rheology
4.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
5 Overview of Types of Materials Used for Food Component Encapsulation
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Major Techniques Used for Food Component Encapsulation
5.3 Materials Used as Carrier Source for Encapsulation
5.4 Protein-Based Carriers
5.4.1 Soy Proteins
5.4.2 Cereal Proteins
5.4.3 Egg Proteins
5.4.4 Pulse Proteins
5.4.5 Silk Proteins
5.4.6 Meat Proteins
5.4.6.1 Milk Proteins
5.5 Carbohydrate-Based Carriers
5.5.1 Agar
5.5.2 Starch
5.5.3 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
5.5.4 Pectin
5.5.5 Gums
5.5.6 Chitin and Chitosan
5.5.7 Alginate
5.5.8 Carrageenan
5.5.9 Dextran
5.5.10 Cyclodextrins
5.6 Lipid-Based Carrier
5.6.1 Emulsions
5.6.2 Liposomes
5.6.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLN)
5.6.4 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC)
5.7 Roles Played by Materials in Food Component Encapsulation
5.8 Improved Dispersibility
5.9 Addition of Inhibitors
5.10 Reducing the Interactions
5.11 Control of Light Scattering and Absorption
5.12 Increased Bioavailability
5.13 Controlled or Targeted Release
5.14 Conclusions
Glossary
Reference
6 Design and Use of Microcarriers for the Delivery of Nutraceuticals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Protection Against Environmental Conditions
6.3 Controlled Release by Responsive Carrier Material
6.4 Active Enhancement of M&Ns’ Bioavailability Through Microencapsulation
6.5 Conclusion
Glossary
Reference
7 Design and Use of Lipid-Based Systems for Food Component Encapsulation
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lipid-Based Nano Delivery Systems for Food Component Encapsulation
7.2.1 Nanoemulsions
7.2.2 Liposome
7.2.3 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
7.2.4 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
7.3 Mechanism of Action of Encapsulated Food Components
7.4 Encapsulation of Food Components in Lipid-Based Nano Delivery Systems
7.4.1 Essential Oils
7.4.2 Antioxidants
7.4.3 Natural Colorants
7.4.4 Flavors
7.4.5 Vitamins
7.4.6 Probiotics
7.4.7 Fatty Acids
7.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Glossary
Reference
8 Working Principles and Use of Gelatin for Food Component Encapsulation
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Why Use Gelatin in Encapsulation Technology?
8.3 Techniques for Food Encapsulation Using Gelatin
8.3.1 Coacervation
8.3.2 Extrusion
8.3.3 Fluid-Bed Coating System
8.3.4 Spray Drying
8.4 Microencapsulation Using Gelatin
8.5 Nanoencapsulation of Food Components Using Gelatin
8.6 Mechanisms of Release of Gelatin Encapsulation Systems for Food Components
8.7 Conclusion
Glossary
Reference
9 Working Principles and Use of Chitosan for Food Component Encapsulation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Encapsulation Technologies
9.3 Agent Encapsulation Using Chitosan as Polymeric Matrix
9.3.1 Encapsulation of Vitamins and Omega Fatty Acids
9.3.2 Encapsulation of Peptides and Proteins
9.3.3 Encapsulation of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Enzymes
9.3.4 Encapsulation of Essential Oils
9.3.5 Encapsulation of Phenolic Compounds
9.3.6 Encapsulation of Carotenoids
9.4 Potential Applications of Microencapsulated Materials in Food Packaging
9.4.1 3D Food Printing
9.4.2 Spinning Technology
9.5 Market for Chitosan Uses in Food Application
9.6 Concluding Remarks
Glossary
Reference
10 Design and Use of Hydrogels for Food Component Encapsulation
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification of Hydrogels
10.3 Hydrogel Formation
10.4 Recent Advances in Hydrogel Development
10.4.1 3D Printed Hydrogels
10.4.2 Superabsorbent Hybrid Hydrogels
10.4.3 Conducting Polymer Hydrogels
10.5 Retention and Release Properties
10.6 Applications of Hydrogels in Food Production
10.6.1 Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds
10.6.2 Encapsulation of Fats and Oils
10.7 Conclusions
Glossary
References
11 Optimization of Pasting and Textural Properties of Food Products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Physical and Chemical Modification of Starch Structures
11.3 Manipulation of Starch Properties Using Hydrocolloids
11.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch Properties
11.5 Use of Starch Modification in Food Production
11.6 Concluding Remarks
Glossary
References
12 Phase Change Materials in Food Dryers
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Phase Change Materials and Their Properties
12.2.1 Basic Mechanism
12.2.2 Classification
12.2.2.1 Based on Melting Temperature
12.2.2.2 Based on the Mode of Phase Change
12.2.2.3 Based on Chemical Composition
12.2.3 Key Properties
12.2.3.1 Thermal Properties
12.2.3.2 Physical Properties
12.2.3.3 Kinetic and Chemical Properties
12.3 Potential of PCMs in Food Drying
12.3.1 Energy Potential of the Upgrade
12.3.2 Economy of PCM Integration
12.3.3 Safety Concerns Related to Food and PCMs
12.4 Current Status of Utilizing PCMs for Food Drying
12.5 Recommendation for Optimization of PCM for Use in Solar Dryers
12.5.1 Thermal Conductivity
12.5.2 Long-Term Stability
12.5.3 Environmental Impact
12.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Glossary
References
13 Multi-Functional Properties of Halloysite Nano-Clays in Food Safety and Security
13.1 Overview
13.2 Halloysite Nanotubes (HNT): A Versatile Natural Nanomaterial
13.2.1 Halloysite as Nanofillers in Packaging Matrix
13.2.2 Halloysite as Nano-Carrier in Active Packaging Systems
13.2.3 Halloysite as a Colorimetric Indicator in Intelligent Packaging Systems
13.2.4 Halloysite in Food Coatings, Capsules, and Fibrous Films
13.2.5 Halloysite in Plant and Animal Agriculture
13.3 Toxicity and Migration Associated with Halloysite
13.4 Future Perspectives
13.5 Conclusive Remarks
Glossary
References
14 Electrospinning Technologies for Encapsulation of Probiotics
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Major Methods for Encapsulation of Probiotics
14.2.1 Freeze Drying
14.2.2 Spray Drying
14.2.3 Electrospinning
14.2.4 Our Approach to Encapsulate
L. Rhamnosus
CRD11 by Electrospinning
14.2.4.1 Determining the Viability and Properties of Encapsulated
L. Rhamnosus
14.2.4.2 Determining the Effect of Prebiotics on the Electrospinning of
L. Rhamnosus
14.2.5 Comparisons of Electrospinning with Other Encapsulation Methods
14.3 Conclusions
Glossary
References
15 Three-Dimensional Printing in Food Manufacturing and Mechanics
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Print Process
15.3 Material Preparation
15.4 Printing Parameters
15.5 Food Mechanics
15.6 Consumer Validation
15.7 Concluding Remarks
Glossary
References
16 Techniques for Characterization of Food-Packaging Materials
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Characterization of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.1 Microstructure of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscope
16.2.1.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy
16.2.1.3 Atomic Force Microscopy
16.2.2 Optical Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.2.1 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
16.2.2.2 ColorQuest XE Spectrophotometer
16.2.2.3 Dynamic Light Scattering Spectroscopy
16.2.2.4 Zeta Potential Spectroscopy
16.2.3 Chemical Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.4 Thickness of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.5 Oxygen Barrier Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.6 Mechanical Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.7 Thermal Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.7.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis
16.2.7.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
16.2.8 Permeation Properties of Food-Packaging Material
16.2.8.1 Water Contact Angle
16.2.8.2 Water Vapor Permeability
16.2.9 Biodegradability of Food-Packaging Material
16.3 Conclusion and Prospects
Glossary
References
17 Development and Use of Edible Materials for Food Protection and Packaging
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Active Agents Used in the Field of Food Packaging
17.2.1 EOs Used as AMA and AOA in Food Packaging
17.2.2 Peptides and Organic Acids Used as AMA and AOA in Food Packaging
17.2.3 Natural Extracts and Other Agents Used as AMA and AOA in Food Packaging
17.3 Carriers Applied in Food-Packaging Applications
17.3.1 Starch and Chitosan
17.3.2 Cellulose and Edible Bioplastics
17.3.3 Other Materials Used as Carriers in Food Packaging
17.4 Methods of Fabrication or the Enhancement Activity of Edible Packaging Films
17.4.1 Coacervation
17.4.2 Electrospinning
17.4.3 Liposomes
17.5 Controlled Release of the BACs from Encapsulation Materials
17.6 Conclusion
Glossary
References
18 Packaging Design as Part of a Holistic Food Quality Assurance Process
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Essence of Quality-Oriented Product Designing and Its Role in Quality Assurance
18.3 Quality-Oriented Product-Designing Process
18.4 Integrated Product Designing as the New Approach to Packaged Product Designing Process
18.5 Methods to Aid Shaping of Quality of Products Being Designed
18.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
19 Determinants of the Quality and Safety of Food Packaging
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Literature Review Concerning Food-Packaging Safety
19.3 Packaging Safety Hazards
19.4 Legal Requirements for the Safety of Food Packaging
19.5 The Process of Ensuring Security – the Supply Chain
19.6 Packaging Safety Features and Attributes of Food Packaging
19.7 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Glossary
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 01
Table 1.1 Encapsulation of various...
Table 1.2 Reported edible films...
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 Food structures and...
CHAPTER 05
Table 5.1 Principles of encapsulation...
Table 5.2 Lipid-based encapsulating...
CHAPTER 06
Table 6.1 General overview of...
Table 6.2 Examples of encapsulated...
Table 6.3 Examples of responsive...
Table 6.4 Examples of encapsulation...
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.1 Recent studies on...
Table 7.2 Pros and cons...
CHAPTER 08
Table 8.1 Summary of properties...
Table 8.2 A summary of...
Table 8.3 Various active compounds...
Table 8.4 Benefits of gelatin...
Table 8.5 Summary of the...
Table 8.6 Equations used in...
CHAPTER 09
Table 9.1 Composition of chitosan...
Table 9.2 Packaging system, food...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 Sources of hydrogel...
Table 10.2 Applications of hydrogel...
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 Shows the different...
Table 11.2 Major chemical methods...
CHAPTER 12
Table 12.2 Effect of incorporating...
CHAPTER 14
Table 14.1 Viability of L...
Table 14.2 Fermentation ability of...
Table 14.3 Viability of L...
Table 14.4 Survival rate of...
Table 14.5 Viability of encapsulated...
CHAPTER 16
Table 16.1 Characterization techniques...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Different advanced material...
Figure 1.2 Schematic illustration of...
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of...
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 (a) General viscoelastic...
Figure 3.2 Overview of destabilization...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Graphic representation of...
Figure 4.2 Graphic representation comparing...
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of...
Figure 5.2 Comparison of different...
Figure 5.3 Carrier source for...
Figure 5.4 Multiscale properties of...
Figure 5.5 Schematic diagram of...
Figure 5.6 Structural features of...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 Different sections of...
Figure 6.2 Different transport pathways...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 Lipid-based delivery...
Figure 7.2 Structure of an...
Figure 7.3 The structure of...
Figure 7.4 Structure of a...
Figure 7.5 Intestinal transport mechanism...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 Sources, chemical structure...
Figure 9.2 Nanoencapsulation technologies applied...
Figure 9.3 Simple coacervation and...
Figure 9.4 Schematic representation of...
Figure 9.5 Patents from 2016...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Structural chemistry of...
Figure 10.2 Environmental stimuli sensitive...
Figure 10.3 Classification of hydrogels...
Figure 10.4 Release and retention...
Figure 10.5 Release and retention...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 A scheme shows...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 PCM classification...
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.1 The (a) TEM...
Figure 13.2 (a) The surface...
Figure 13.3 Effect of (a...
Figure 13.4 The application of...
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 Methods of encapsulation...
Figure 14.2 Electrospinning setup...
Figure 14.4 FESEM images of...
CHAPTER 15
Figure 15.1 3D food printing...
Figure 15.2 Three-dimensional (3D...
Figure 15.3 Sample fabrications of...
Figure 15.4 Imaging for 3D...
Figure 15.5 (a) Instrument used...
Figure 15.6 (a) Fabrication fidelity...
CHAPTER 16
Figure 16.1 Scanning electron microscopy...
Figure 16.2 TGA of PLA...
CHAPTER 17
Figure 17.1 Principle of the...
Figure 17.2 Electrospinning technique diagram...
Figure 17.3 Liposome formation: example...
Figure 17.4 Controlled release systems...
CHAPTER 18
Figure 18.1 Model of the...
Figure 18.2 Interrelations of the...
Figure 18.3 Theoretical model of...
CHAPTER 19
Figure 19.1 Interactions of packaging...
Figure 19.2 Decision tree supporting...
Figure 19.3 Structure of the...
Figure 19.4 Food-packaging safety...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
About the Editor
List of Contributors
Preface
List of Abbreviations
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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About the Editor
Wing-Fu Lai
Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Wing-Fu Lai received his MSc degree in materials engineering and nanotechnology from the City University of Hong Kong, and earned his PhD in chemistry from the University of Hong Kong. He has been accredited as Shenzhen Municipal “Overseas High-caliber Personnel”. Professionally, he is a registered nutritionist in the United Kingdom, and a Fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy. He has also received his certified food scientist credential from the International Food Science Certification Commission in the United States. His research focus is on the development and engineering of polymeric materials for food and pharmaceutical applications.
List of Contributors
Nahed A. Abd El-GhanyCairo UniversityEgypt
Youssef S. AbdelazizCairo UniversityEgypt
Mariam Khaled Abdel-LatifCairo UniversityEgypt
Mohamed Abdel-Shafi Abdel-SamieArish UniversityEgypt
Abdulrahman M. AbdulrahmanCairo UniversityEgypt
Sherif M. AbedArish UniversityEgypt
Mahmoud H. Abu ElellaCairo University,Egypt
Sukumar P. AdityaICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
José Manuel AguilarUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Ghada A. AhmedCairo UniversityEgypt
Nufile Uddin AhmedRajshahi University of Engineering andTechnology Bangladesh
Omar A. AlaboudiCairo UniversityEgypt
Sara A. Al-HafiryCairo UniversityEgypt
Estefanía Álvarez-CastilloUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Bissera Asenova-PilichevaMedical University of PlovdivBulgaria
Liliam Becheran-MaronUniversity of HabanaCuba
Carlos BengoecheaUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Martin BinksTexas Tech UniversityUSA
Gastón Bravo-ArrepolUniversidad de ConcepciónChile
Gustavo Cabrera-BarjasUniversidad de ConcepciónChile
Cecilio CarreraUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Johanna CastañoUniversidad San SebastiánChile
Cheryl Yingxue ChiaAgency for Science Technology andResearch (A*STAR)Singapore
Agnieszka S. Cholewa-WójcikCracow University of Economics, Poland
Haiying CuiJiangsu University,China
Cédric DelattreUniversité Clermont AuvergneFrance
P. DevikrishnaICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Brendan DuffyTechnological University Dublin – City CampusIreland
Paul F. EganTexas Tech UniversityUS
Ali EkramiUniversity of TehranIran
Mohammad EkramiUniversity of TehranIran
Zahra Emam-DjomehUniversity of TehranIran
Magdaline Eljeeva EmeraldICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Danilo Escobar-AvelloUniversidad de ConcepciónChile
Heba Mohamed FahmyBadr University in CairoEgypt
Manuel FelixUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Lorenzo GarcíaUniversity of HavanaCuba
Saji GeorgeMcGill UniversityCanada
Chandram GroverICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Antonio GuerreroUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Sabit HasanRajshahi University of Engineering and Technology Bangladesh
Hasibul Hasan HimelRajshahi University of Engineering and Technology Bangladesh
Habiba Mohamad IbrahimCairo UniversityEgypt
Amit K. JaiswalTechnological University Dublin-City CampusIreland
Swarna JaiswalTechnological University Dublin-City CampusIreland
Plamen Dimitrov KatsarovMedical University of PlovdivBulgaria
Agnieszka K. KaweckaCracow University of EconomicsPoland
Mariam Ashraf Fouad KhalilCairo UniversityEgypt
Maxim V. KiryukhinSingapore Institute of Food and Biotechnology InnovationA*STAR Singapore
Harshvardhan KulkarniICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Su Hui LimAgency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) Singapore
Lin LinJiangsu UniversityChina
Maria Dolores LopezUniversidad de ConcepciónChile
María Luisa López-CastejónUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Paolina Kancheva-LukovaMedical University of PlovdivBulgaria
Satwik MajumderMcGill UniversityCanada
Mahadi Hasan MasudRajshahi University of Engineering & Technology Bangladesh
Philippe MichaudUniversité Clermont Auvergne France
Radwa Magdy MohamedCairo UniversityEgypt
Salma Hossam MohamedCairo UniversityEgypt
Omaima Ali Mostafa MohammedCairo UniversityEgypt
Filopateer NasserCairo UniversityEgypt
Aleksandra NesicUniversidad de ConcepciónChile
Hazel PenicheUniversity of HavanaCuba
Carlos Peniche-CovasUniversity of HavanaCuba
Kalpani Y. PereraTechnological University Dublin-City CampusIreland
Víctor Manuel PizonesUniversidad de Sevilla Spain
Dileswar PradhanTechnological University Dublin-City CampusIreland
Heartwin A. PushpadassICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Sohaila Mohammed Salah SalehCairo UniversityEgypt
Stefania Chirico ScheeleTexas Tech UniversityUS
B. G. SeethuICAR-National Dairy Research InstituteIndia
Shubham SharmaTechnological University Dublin-City CampusIreland
Rana TarekCairo UniversityEgypt
Oscar ValdesUniversidad Católica del MauleChile
Donia G. YoussefCairo UniversityEgypt
Preface
Food materials science is a discipline focusing on the development, characterization, processing, and engineering of materials used in food. Although it has practical significance in the food industry, it is an emerging area in the larger field of food science and little scholarly works are available in this field. Among those available works, most of them only focus on the characterization and properties of food materials per se. Efforts paid to explore how related advances can be translated into the development and improvement of a functional food product are almost absent. The objective of this book is to fill this gap by exploring and illustrating the roles played by materials science and engineering in the process of food production, particularly food microencapsulation and food packaging.
This book covers a wide range of topics in food materials science and engineering. Chapters 1–6 will present major concepts related to material properties in food science. An overview of different types of materials used in food applications will be provided. Concepts of bulk rheology and interfacial rheology in food emulsions will also be presented. This section lays a theoretical foundation for subsequent sections in this book. In Chapters 7–10, detailed discussions about the design and use of lipid-based and polymer-based materials in enrichment and protection of food components will be provided. Apart from chemical means, various engineering techniques (including 3D printing and electrospinning) can be applied to manipulate the properties of food materials or those used for food microencapsulation. Some of the major engineering techniques relevant to the process of food production will be discussed in Chapters 11–15. Chapters 16–19 will focus mainly on the design, characterization, and use of materials for food packaging. Various determinants of the quality and safety of food packaging, as well as concepts for the design of food packages, will be covered.
Contrary to existing books that largely focus on the chemical and physical principles of food materials science and hence are sometimes too theoretical to be directly adopted by food manufacturers in their professional practice, this book will approach the subject of food materials science with practical and industrial perspectives. Real-life examples will be provided to demonstrate how food products, especially functional foods, can benefit from the incorporation of materials science technologies. In addition, to benefit scholars, students, and a broader audience of interested readers, the book includes helpful glossary sections in each chapter. Important notes and tips to food manufacturers to translate the contents of the chapter from theory to real-life practice will also be provided in each chapter. This is the first book of its kind. It is not only a valuable reference book to researchers in the field, but can also serve as a guide for food manufacturers during the development of the food product.
Here I would like to express my gratitude to the contributors of different chapters of this book. Their support and efforts have made publication of this book possible. Thanks are extended to the staff in Wiley. The quality of this book, and its value to its readers, depends largely on the promptness with which submitted manuscripts are reviewed. I would like to thank the reviewers for putting their efforts to evaluate and select the best manuscripts for inclusion in this book, and for providing constructive suggestions to the contributors of those selected chapters. Haotian Zhang from the Chinese University of Hong Kong is also acknowledged for his editorial assistance throughout the process of this book’s publication. I would like to express my appreciation in advance for every observation and suggestion toward further improvement of this material.
Wing-Fu Lai
List of Abbreviations
AFM
Atomic force microscopy
AMA
Antimicrobial agents
AMR
Antimicrobial resistance
AN
Anthocyanin nanoliposomes
AOA
Antioxidant agents
BSA
Bovine serum albumin
CAD
Computer-aided design
CEO
Clove essential oil
DD
Degree of deacetylation
DLS
Dynamic light scattering
DoE
Design of experiment
DP
Degree of polymerization
DQM
Design quality management
DS
Degree of substitution
DSC
Differential scanning calorimetry
DSD
Droplet size distribution
DWR
Double-wall ring
EAMPS
Edible antimicrobial packaging systems
EB
Elongation at break
EM
Electron microscopy
EMA
European Medicines Agency
EO
Essential oil
EVA
Ethylene vinyl acetate
F&D
Food and Drugs
FD&C
Food Drug and Cosmetic
FDA
Food and Drug Administration
FESEM
Field emission gun scanning electron microscope
FOS
Fructo-oligosaccharides
GA
Gum arabic
GK
Garcinia kola
GMP
Good manufacturing practice
GOS
Galacto-oligosaccharides
GRAS
Generally recognized as safe
GTE
Green tea extract
HIU
High-intensity ultrasound
HOSO
High-oleic sunflower oil
HSH
High-shear homogenization
HU
Hunteria umbellata
LA
Lactic acid
LH
Latent heat
LHS
Latent heat storage
LMWE
Low molecular weight emulsifiers
M&N
Micronutrients and nutraceuticals
MW
Molecular weight
NLC
Nanostructured lipid carrier
NMR
Nuclear magnetic resonance
OEO
Oregano essential oil
OP
Oxygen permeability
OSD
Open sun-drying
OTR
Oxygen transmission rate
PBAT
Polyadipate butylene terephthalate
PCM
Phase change materials
PPE
Pineapple peel extract
PV
Peak viscosity
QFD
Quality function deployment
RA
Rosmarinic acid
RB
Relative breakdown
RS
Resistant starch
SAOS
Small amplitude oscillatory shear
SDS
Sodium dodecyl sulfate
SEM
Scanning electron microscopy
SH
Sensible heat
SLN
Solid lipid nanoparticle
SPI
Soy protein isolate
SPM
Scanning probe microscopy
TC
Thermal conductivity
TEM
Transmission electron microscopy
TES
Thermal energy storage
TGA
Thermogravimetric analysis
TP
Tea polyphenol
TS
Tapioca starch
WPI
Whey protein isolate
WVP
Water vapor permeability
ZLO
Zanthoxylum limonella
oil
1 Overview of Different Materials Used in Food Production
Nahed A. Abd El-Ghany* and Mahmoud H. Abu Elella
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt* Corresponding author
Highlights
Materials science and engineering can be applied to different aspects of food science, ranging from encapsulation of food ingredients to food packaging.
Materials engineering, depending on biopolymers, has gained extensive interest because polymers have shown outstanding properties, such as nontoxicity, ease of availability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low cost.
Materials engineering can enhance food product quality, which is all about sensory features, such as taste, flavor, palatability, and semblance.
Advances in materials science and engineering are expected to bring new opportunities to the food industry.
1.1 Introduction
Rapid growth of materials engineering science has provided a lot of functionalized materials for food product development application in the recent years. Three advanced types of functional materials that have been widely applied in food industry are nanostructured and microstructured materials, and three-dimensional hydrogels [1]. In general, materials engineering science normally represents a solid state of matter and is an integrated field comprising chemistry, physical attributes, and processing. Additionally, it involves the maintenance of the materials’ properties, for example, chemical (structure and composition), physical (thermal and optical), dimensional (shape and size), and mechanical (toughness and strength). On the other hand, food product development has been gaining more interest among many industrial and academic researchers around the world to improve the quality of food products. Notably, the major components of food are carbohydrates, and proteins that are called biopolymers [2]. In general, nowadays, polymeric materials are considered as an important class of materials in a wide range of applications, thanks to their physicochemical properties [3]. They are macromolecules composed of repeating units that are known as monomers joined by covalent bonds. According to their origin, they are classified as either natural (if produced from natural sources, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms) or synthetic [4]. Recently, biopolymers have gained more attention from global researchers in food development applications since they have fabulous properties, such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, low cost, nontoxicity, and ease of availability [4a, 5]. They include naturally extracted polymers from animal and plant origins, for example, polysaccharides and proteins. Their repeated units include sugar or protein chains [6].
Polysaccharides are an example of natural biopolymers that are composed of carbohydrate chains with a large polymeric oligosaccharide formed through glycosidic linkages between multiple monosaccharides as repeating units [7]. Polysaccharides are the most abundant natural organic compounds. Additionally, they can be extracted from natural renewable resources, including plants (e.g. cellulose), animals (e.g. chitosan and alginate), and microorganisms (e.g. xanthan gum) [5a, 7a, 8]. Also, they are classified into two categories, for instance, homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides are composed of the same monosaccharide-repeating unit as cellulose, whereas, heteropolysaccharides are composed of various repeating units including alginate [9]. Furthermore, polysaccharides have been used in various applications owing to their sustainable properties, such as ease of availability at less cost, ease of modifications and manufacturing, biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, and bioactivity [5a, 7a, 10]. Conversely, proteins have polyamide chains, and they are one of the main constituents of the human body because they play both dynamic and diverse roles, such as catalyzing reactions, building cellular structures, and controlling cell fates. They have fabulous physicochemical properties, including isoelectric point (pI), chemical compositions, denaturation thermal temperature (Tm), and solubility [11].
Nanotechnology has revolutionized several scientific and industrial fields, including the food business. Food processing, food packaging, functional food development, food safety, detection of foodborne pathogens, and shelf-life extension of food and/or food products have emerged because of the growing need for nanoparticles in various fields of food science and food microbiology. On the other hand, hydrogels in the food science sector are efficient materials in the field of food quality improvement, nutrient-modification, sensory perception optimization, targeted nutrient delivery and protection, calorie control, risk monitoring for food safety, and food packaging. Although applications of hydrogels in the food industry are still limited, there are large areas to promote their use in food science. As a result, it is expected that the hydrogel structure’s reasonable design will lead to more useful applications in order to keep up with the development of new foods [12]. In this chapter, we focus on shaping up the biopolymer-based nanostructured, microstructured, and hydrogel materials as shown in Figure 1.1, for encapsulation of different vital food ingredients in the food packaging field and explore their effect on food safety and quality that are essential for food development.
Figure 1.1 Different advanced material engineering formulations: (a) nanoparticles [13] / from ELSEVIER, (b) microparticles [14] / from ELSEVIER, and (c) hydrogel, formulations for food industry [15] / with permission of Elsevier.
1.2 Advanced Materials Engineering for Food Product Development
1.2.1 Microstructured and Nanostructured Materials
Microstructured materials refer to the formulation of particle-sized compounds in the range of 1–1000 μm in diameter for different purposes, such as controlling and sustained bioactive compounds delivery, in addition to protecting the bioactive compounds from harsh environmental conditions. They have outstanding properties including a micro-size diameter and have the ability to encapsulate macromolecules with a high molecular weight [16]. For example, microcapsules based on the biopolymer mixture of chitosan and alginate have been reported in the literature [17], for encapsulating biologically active compounds, such as Garcinia kola (GK) and Hunteria umbellata (HU) seeds. The results showed that the extracted seeds have selective release patterns based on the pH of the medium. Also, a slower release of GK and HU from microcapsules was observed in an acidic medium (pH 1.2), but rose in a slightly neutral medium (pH 6.8). Nanostructured materials can be described as chemically and morphologically deposited matters in the range of 1–300 nm in diameter. All sorted materials used form the nanoscale and are classified from atoms to polymers. Moreover, nanostructured biopolymers are functional materials and controlling their architecture leads to achieved materials with amazing properties. For example, due to their nanometric dimension, which is less than the wavelength of light, they can display optical properties such as anti-reflectivity and structural colors [18].
1.2.2 Preparation Methods
1.2.2.1 Spray-Drying Technique
Spray-drying technique has been one of most widely used methods to design microparticle materials in the past decades due to its fabulous features, such as simplicity, speed, low cost, ease of scaling up, and flexibility [19]. It is also used to prepare microcapsule formulations for drug delivery applications in which the core material is dispersed in the solution of the shell material, such as water, after which, it is fed into the drying chamber while atomized under hot air coming from a pressure nozzle. Subsequently, the solvent is evaporated under the hot air stream, leaving a microparticle of solid. Additionally, this approach is a simple and flexible one to yield consistently distributed particle size in the range of 10–40 μm in diameter (Figure 1.2a) [20]. The spray-drying method allows a large-scale yield and high encapsulation efficiency in pharmaceutical applications, as well as excellent stability of the prepared product and ease of handling and maintenance of their properties [21].
Figure 1.2 Schematic illustration of the (a) spray-drying technique Adapted from [20b], (b) electrospinning technique [22b] / with permission of Elsevier, and (c) coacervation technique [25b] / with permission of ScienceAsia.
1.2.2.2 Electrospinning Technique
Electrospinning technique is an effective method of fabricating micro- and nanoscale fibrous materials based on different biopolymers owing to their sustainable properties, including effectivity, low cost, and versatile technique. Also, it has been widely applied in recent years since it has many valuable advantages, such as high surface-to-volume ratio, high porosity, and ultrafine structures of the prepared fibers (Figure 1.2b). Figure 1.2b shows that it is non-mechanical technique and includes a high-voltage electrostatic field to charge droplets on a polymer solution surface, and then, induce the ejection of a liquid jet via a spinneret [22].
In this route, different natural polymers, such as biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides), and biocompatible synthetic polymers, including polyvinyl alcohol and polycaprolactone, may be used individually or by mixing according to the specific type of usage of the food ingredients. Because these polymers are biodegradable, biocompatible, and nontoxic compounds, their micro- and nano-electrospun fibers have been applied for food and biomedical applications [22b, 23].
1.2.2.3 Coacervation Technique
Coacervation technique is widely used in food applications to prepare micro- and nanoparticle formulation. It involves the phase separation between the hydrocolloids phase from its starting solution using the change of ionic strength, temperature, solvent type, and pH. And then, subsequent deposition of the separated coacervate on the droplet core surface in the solution is noticed [24]. Generally, the coacervation technique involves many steps as shown in Figure 1.2c. The first step includes the dispersion of oil phase in the hydrocolloid solution to form oil/water emulsion. After that, the precipitation of hydrocolloid is put through different conditions, such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, and solvent polarity, to form a polyelectrolyte complex using the salting out method in the presence of salts, such as sodium sulfate, or the desolvation method in simple coacervation using a water miscible non-solvent [25]. However, in the complex coacervation method, there are polymer/polymer electrostatic interactions between two different and opposite charges that hydrocolloid. In addition, it contains other weak interaction bonds such as H-bonding and hydrophobic interactions. The obtained complex is stabilized through crosslinking interaction using tripolyphosphate, calcium chloride, and glutaraldehyde as crosslinkers. It is advantageous, thanks to high-encapsulated bioactive ingredients, up to 99% [25a, 26]. This technique is vastly applied in food industry, particularly, for encapsulating lipophilic ingredients, for example, essential oil, vegetable oil, and palm oil [27].
1.2.2.4 Emulsion Technique
Emulsion method based on the polymer hydrocolloid-delivery system is vastly applied in food and pharmaceutical applications to encapsulate, protect, and deliver bioactive ingredients. Based on the droplet size diameter, the emulsion product can be classified into three forms as shown in Figure 1.3a: nanoemulsion, miniemulsion, and macroemulsion formulations [28]. This technique basically depends on the mixing of two totally or partially immiscible liquids. Additionally, it involves amphiphilic surface-active surfactants that decrease the interfacial tension among both the liquids used to achieve good stability (Figure 1.3b). Generally, emulsion method can be found in two forms: oil-in-water (o/w) and water-in-oil (w/o) types that depend on oil dispersed as droplets in water or vice versa [28a, 29].
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of (a) emulsion fabricated products: nanoemulsion, miniemulsion, and macroemulsion formulations, (b) emulsion technique [28b] / with permission of Elsevier, (c) ionic gelation technique; and (d) liposomes formulation [25b] / with permission of ScienceAsia.
1.2.2.5 Ionic Gelation Technique
Ionic gelation method includes the reaction between polycation polymer as chitosan and polyanions, such as proteins, alginate, hyaluronic acid, etc., in the presence of crosslinking agents, including tripolyphosphate, aluminum chloride, calcium chloride, etc. (Figure 1.3c), to produce the desired nanoparticle formulation in different ranges of 84–600 nm. Ionic gelation technique has several outstanding advantages such as (i) a simple, easy, nontoxic, and mild technique, (ii) an organic solvent-free method; and (iii) prepared nanoparticles with excellent encapsulation efficiency. Additionally, it has main drawbacks as the prepared nanoparticles often appear with a broad size distribution and non-uniform composition [25b, 30].
1.2.2.6 Liposome Formulations
Liposome formulations are bilayer phospholipid vesicles with a definite diameter of 25 nm–10 μm. They could encapsulate polar materials inside their core and the hydrophobic materials through their lipid bilayer. They fabricate by the film hydration method (Figure 1.3d) with lipid and cholesterol and solvent as well. However, it has many instability issues referred to as aggregation, hydrolysis, and oxidation. So, to decrease its oxidation, an appropriate buffer is used, and the freeze-drying technique is also used to overcome the effect of temperature on liposomes [31]. Gomez et al. [32] reported the encapsulation efficiency of any liposome preparation based on the encapsulated active ingredient.
The aforementioned techniques of design or engineering of the materials science for food product development is governed by some factors summarized in Box 1.1.
Box 1.1 Developing the product’s concept
A product is an amalgamation of hard values, or basic attributes, and soft values, or distinguishing qualities, such as aesthetic appearance and environmental friendliness that the consumer expects.
Product design, or the process of creating a product, is a synthesis of consumer and market research and technological and engineering studies.
The areas of engineering the product include: (i) determining what consumers want; (ii) creating a product brief for the target market; (iii) comparing with similar items; (iv) generating new ideas.
1.3 Encapsulation of Food Ingredients for Food Product Development
Encapsulation is a common technology in the food business for creating engineered products, especially in functional and specialized food industrialization, food processing, and product invention. Encasing a functionally active core material into an inert substance is what is required (Figure 1.4). The material that will be encapsulated is referred to as the core or active material. It is also known as the payload state, the fill state, or the internal state. The substance used to encapsulate the active component is known as the coating material, shell, matrix, membrane, wall, capsule, or carrier material [33]. As the first to uncover the concept of cell encapsulation [34], pressure-sensitive coatings for carbonless copying paper were created using encapsulation technology for the first time in industry about two decades ago [35]. The main branches of nanotechnology, nanoencapsulation, and microencapsulation have been widely used in the food industry to protect bioactive food ingredients from processing and environmental stresses [36], as well as for controlled-release applications to solve the major problem of food ingredients that food industries face. They have received a lot of attention in the industrial world because of their capacity to safeguard unstable bioactive components, add new functional features into sophisticated food products, and release active material at a controlled rate. As a result, abundant encapsulation approaches have been studied for a long time.
Figure 1.4 Schematic illustration of encapsulation of food ingredients.
The process selection is influenced by the nature of the active ingredient, the qualities of the shell material, and the wanted attributes of the final product based on the intended use. To improve shelf life and/or hide a disagreeable flavor or taste, food-grade proteins and polysaccharides are used to encapsulate sensitive and bioactive food constituents, such as highly unsaturated edible oils (e.g. fish oils), enzymes, vitamins, or diverse flavors [37]. However, recent research works have focused on enhancing the functionality and health benefits of processed foods, as well as enhancing the efficacy of probiotics and transportation of various enzymes or coenzymes, bioactive peptides, and so on [38]. Controlled and prolonged release and targeted delivery have been achieved by encapsulating artificial sweeteners, therapeutic proteins, and other bioactive ingredients [39]. Although the primary objectives of encapsulation research are to control the release of active ingredients with a desired rate, in the appropriate place at the appropriate time, and to protect bioactive food species from environmental factors (radiation, oxygen, light, moisture, and different pH states), recent developments have been made to improve product handling in terms of reduced toxicity, lowered cost, and reinforced nutrient bioavailability. The ultimate goal is to extend the shelf life of the designed product and promote its overall acceptability [40]. The physical and chemical properties of the resulting encapsulation are determined by the wall material chosen [33b]. As a result, the module that forms the wall is chosen based on the following criteria: (i) compatibility and degree of reactivity or inertness with the core and external environment; (ii) the material used as a wall should be certified as safe for food applications, i.e. “generally recognized as safe” by the Food and Drug Administration or the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA); (iii) cost-effectiveness; (iv) good encapsulation capability; (v) submissiveness to the specifications of the final product.
1.3.1 Encapsulation Based on Polysaccharides
1.3.1.1 Chitosan
Chitosan (CS), which has multiple amino and hydroxyl functional groups, is the second most prevalent natural biopolymer after cellulose [41]. Chitosan is the only commercially available cationic polymer so far due to the presence of the positive charge on its amino groups. Labile substances, such as tea polyphenols, essential oils, vitamins, enzymes, and others, are encapsulated with chitosan and its derivatives, because they are unstable and can lose their bioactivities during formulation, food processing, digestion, and delivery [42].
Nanoencapsulation allows for the regulated release and stability of bioactive food ingredients at the appropriate time and location. Vitamins’ low stability and sensitivity to harsh environmental conditions, such as freezing, heating, and oxidation, limit their use in the food industry [43]. Vitamins have been encapsulated using chitosan-based nanoparticles. Ionotropic gelation was used to encapsulate vitamin C utilizing the chitosan nanostructure. Using the ionotropic polyelectrolyte pre-gelation approach, vitamin B2 was encapsulated by alginate/chitosan nanoparticles with a 59.6% encapsulation efficiency [36].
Several long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids extracted from fish oil were microencapsulated into chitosan shell to lower their susceptibility to atmospheric oxidation, using a spray-drying process. The results showed that these fish oil extracts had improved stability and storage time [44]. Chitosan encapsulation of fish oil was also achieved utilizing an ultrasonic atomizer and an emulsification process in a study. As a result, chitosan not only produced a stable emulsion, but it also improved its stability when combined with maltodextrin [45].
1.3.1.2 Starch
Starches are extracted from various sources, but maize is the most common source. They have been used to encapsulate a wide array of essential food compounds. Different modifications of starch, such as gelatinization, hydrogel, and acetylation have been mentioned. Different food types, including essential oils, flavors, lipids, vitamins, and probiotics, are encapsulated within starch modification using various preparation methods: electrospinning, extrusion, spray drying, physical trapping, freeze drying, and co-precipitation. Porous starch is a hollow particle that has high absorbency and can retain a wide range of chemicals [46]. The microencapsulated loading rate of olive oil with porous starch was higher than that of free olive oil, and the best porous starch adsorption capacity was obtained after a 12-hour reaction at a temperature of 45°C and a pH of 5.0 [46]. Nanoencapsulated flaxseed oil by high-amylose corn starch nanoparticles and impregnation into bread developed biofunctional food products with no impact on sensorial features. Beside the sensorial benefits, nanoencapsulation diminished the oxidation of lipids during the baking process [47]. Further, antioxidant compounds as curcumin yellow dye were microencapsulated in a mixture of modified starch with gum arabic and maltodextrin, which controlled the high loading rate after spray drying [48].
1.3.1.3 Alginate
Alginate is an unbranched anionic polysaccharide made up of glycosidic linkages between -D-mannuronic acid (M) and -L-guluronic acid (G). Because of its excellent thickening and film-forming ability, stability, chelation, and biocompatibility, alginate is widely used in microencapsulation applications [49]. Hydrogel, emulsion, emulsion-filled alginate hydrogel, nanoparticle, microparticle, core–shell particle, liposome, edible film, and aerogel are alginate-based delivery methods that have been utilized to encapsulate food ingredients and bioactive species [50]. The ionic gelation process was used to make nanoparticles that might be used as an oral iron delivery mechanism [51]. Iron-loaded alginate nanoparticles with negative surface charges were found to have excellent iron encapsulation (75%) and a prolonged iron release process, making them an appealing delivery system for traditional oral iron supplements [51]. Encapsulation of curcumin in zein/caseinate/sodium alginate nanoparticles improved the water solubility, photochemical stability, and antioxidant activity of curcumin. Important fatty acids, as linoleic and alpha-linolenic, as well as carotenoids, sterols, free and esterified triterpenoids, and isoprenoids, are abundant in sea buckthorn oil. All of these important chemicals are protected by microencapsulation in alginate, which also improves oil stability [52].
1.3.1.4 Carrageenans
Carrageenans are extensively utilized as culinary components because of their stabilizing, gelling, texturizing, and water-binding capacities. Carrageenan is increasingly being employed as a biomaterial in the pharmaceutical sector to improve medication formulations and ensure long-term drug release, and its benefits are currently being researched [53]. The three types of carrageenan identified by Liu et al. are kappa (κ)-carrageenan, lambda (λ)-carrageenan, and iota (ι)-carrageenan [54]. The presence of anhydrous bridges in carrageenan molecules influences their gelation process significantly, especially when utilizing κ and λ carrageenan. Carrageenan was used as a coating material for the microencapsulation of phycocyanin to enhance its application as a food colorant in the industry; the encapsulation efficiency was 68.66% [55]. Spray-drying technology was used to encapsulate several food waste compounds (collagen hydrolysate from squid tunics, polyphenolic extract from pomegranate peel and albedo, and shrimp lipid extract) utilizing iota-carrageenan as the wall material [56].
1.3.2 Encapsulation Based on Liposomes
Liposomes are made up of one or more lipid and/or phospholipid bilayers, and they can also contain other molecules like proteins and carbohydrates. The encapsulation of antioxidants in liposomes is used in the food domain to prevent nutrient oxidation (degradation) [57]. Incorporating α-tocopherol into liposomes [58] or nanoliposomes [57] can improve its efficacy as a dietary antioxidant. Liposomal and nanoliposomal carriers are viable alternatives for protecting enzymes, controlling their release, and enhancing their technological functions. Because of their hydrophilic/hydrophobic properties, enzymes can be entrapped in the core or membranes of liposomes, where they can be shielded from environmental stresses by a liposome layer. Enzymes are widely used in the food industry because of their ability to improve functional, sensory, and nutritional properties of products, such as improving bread quality, developing cheese flavor, producing lipolyzed milk fat, sweetening milk, extending the shelf life of food products, and improving food flavor [59].
Flavourzyme, derived from Aspergillus oryzae, is used in cheese production to speed up the ripening process, resulting in a bitter taste and enhanced flavor. Fish oil could be encapsulated using liposome technology to improve its sensory qualities. Vitamin C encapsulated in liposomes had shelf life extended from up to two months, particularly in the presence of prevalent dietary components that would normally enhance decomposition. Liposomes can also be employed to distribute encapsulated ingredients at a predetermined temperature [33b].
1.3.3 Encapsulation Based on Proteins
Natural proteins are biological macromolecules made up of strings of amino acids connected together by peptide bonds that have developed to provide vital biological functions, such as structure creation, signaling, and so on. Because nanoencapsulated antioxidant biopeptides are extremely permeable through the human intestines, where peptides are rapidly degraded and better absorbed into the bloodstream, their inclusion into food systems can result in a variety of health benefits [60]. Because of their unique nutritional and functional properties, encapsulation of bioactive compounds in protein-based delivery systems has received a lot of attention [61]. Encapsulation and delivery systems made of gelatin, which is produced from collagen, have been widely adopted [62]. Acid or alkaline hydrolysis is commonly used to extract gelatin from collagen; gelatin powder expands in cold water, and it becomes liquid in hot water. Tuna oil has been encapsulated using gelatin–sodium hexametaphosphate; D-limonene has been encapsulated using pectin–whey protein, and sulforaphane has been encapsulated using gelatin–gum arabic and gelatin–pectin complexes [63]. In this chapter, we summarize some reported works on the encapsulation of different food ingredients using various material engineering formulations (Table 1.1). In the food industry, the encapsulation of food ingredients always depends on some factors that help achieve the quality and safety of the final product as illustrated in Box 1.2.
Table 1.1 Encapsulation of various active food ingredients using different material engineering formulations.
Carrier formulation
Wall materials
Active core ingredients
Encapsulation method
Activity and applications
References
Nanoparticles
Chitosan
Clove essential oil (CEO)
Ionic gelation
Enhanced antifungal, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties of CEO due to the controlled release of CEO
[
64
]
Nanoparticles
Alginate/chitosan
Vitamin B2
Ionic gelation
Controlled release of Vitamin B
[
25
b]
Nanoparticles
Chitosan
Curcumin
Coacervation
Enhancing the antioxidant activity
[
25
b]
Nanoparticles
Alginate
Iron
Ionic gelation
Prolong the time of iron release
[
65
]
Nanoparticles
Zein/caseinate/alginate
Curcumin
Coacervation
Water solubility, photochemical stability, and antioxidant activity were all improved
[
66
]
Nanofibers
Chitosan/gelatin
Thyme (
Zataria multiflora Boiss
)
Electrospinning
Produce the best odor and taste sensory characteristics while avoiding color and texture differences
[
67
]
Nanofibers
Potato starch
Thyme (
Thymus vulgarius
)
Electrospinning
Enhances antioxidant action
[
68
]
Nanocapsules
Liposome
α-Tocopherol
Emulsion
Enhances antioxidant action
[
69
]
Nanocapsules
Liposome
Tea polyphenol
Film hydration
Bioavailability is being improved
[
70
]
Nanocapsules
Liposome
Vitamin C with medium chain fatty acids (MCFA)
Film hydration
Improved antioxidant activity and activating dietary supplements
[
71
]
Microcapsules
Liposome
Beta-carotene
Spray drying
Chemical stability and bioavailability are improved
[
37
a]
Microcapsules
Gelatin and gum arabic
f Black raspberry ANCs
Coacervation
Improving the thermal and storage stability
[
72
]
Microcapsules
Cashew gum and gelatin
Pequi oil
Coacervation
Protect pequi oil bioactive compounds to increase kinetic stability and functional activity
[
73
]
Microcapsules
Gelatin–sodium hexametaphosphate
Tuna oil
Coacervation
Decreasing environmental pollution and production costs
[
66
]
Microcapsules
k-Carrageenan
Phycocyanin
Spray drying
Enhance its application as a food colorant in the industry
[
74
]
Microcapsules
Chitosan /k-carrageenan
Pimenta dioica
Coacervation
Increasing a release rate with the chitosan content
[
75
]
Microcapsules
iota-Carrageenan
Polyphenolic and shrimp lipid extract
Spray drying
Enhancing the antioxidant properties
[
76
]
Microcapsule
Corn starch and maltodextrin
Curcumin
Spray drying
Increases antioxidant activity while maintaining a high retention rate
[
77
]
Microcapsule
Maltodextrin and modified starch
Iron
Spray drying
Increases iron bioavailability
[
78
]
Microcapsule
S. alginate
Sea buckthorn oil
Ionic gelation
Increases pressure resistance as well as antioxidant activity
[
79
]
Microspheres
Chitosan and carrageenan
Neem seed oil (NSO)
Coacervation
Pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides can all be utilized effectively
[
42
]
Microcapsule
Chitosan
Fish oil (long-chain polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids)
Spray drying
Reduces fish oil’s susceptibility to environmental oxidation while also improving its stability and storage time
[
80
]
Hydrogel capsules
Gelatin and carrageenan
Gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, and tannic acid
Electrospinning
Hydrogels have the ability to release considerable amounts of tannic acid in different food simulants than others
[
81
]
Hydrogel beads
Alginate
Spirulina
Ionic gelation
Hydrogels are suitable for encapsulation of spirulina protein
[
82
]
Hydrogels
Chitosan and alginate
Plant extracts
Ionic gelation
Improved stability and controlled release
[
83
]
Box 1.2
Industrial application of food encapsulation techniques depends partly on the kind of active food ingredient to be encapsulated, the physicochemical properties of the active ingredient, and the kind of instabilities the chosen ingredient exhibits, with respect to its surrounding environment and processing conditions.
The kind of coating material that should be selected to entrap the chosen active ingredient is a factor that significantly affects the design and optimization of the encapsulation process.
The encapsulation technique to be employed to convert the selected core and wall components to an encapsulated product must be considered during food microencapsulation.
Optimization of the microencapsulation process should take the particle size, density, and stability requirements for the encapsulated ingredient into consideration.
1.4 Food Packaging Approach for Food Product Development
The major functions of food packaging are to protect food products and their effectiveness from chemical, physical, and biological reactions by deferring food deterioration, and preserving and extending the advantages of processing, and maintaining food quality and safety by extending shelf life [84]. Advances in food packaging and processing are critical to keeping the United States’ food supply among the safest in the world. In the food industry, packaging is a critical component for durability and functionality of food products. Many customers are attracted to the design of food packaging; however, food packaging must be appropriate for the function of food packaging, such as protection, security, and consumer information [85].
