Table of Contents
Welcome
Table of Contents
Title Page
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
Usage Rules:
Disclaimer:
Limitation of Liability:
General:
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Part IEnergy from Microalgae: Products and Processes
Perspectives of Energy Production from Microalgae: The Biodiesel and Cogeneration Cases
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Microalgae for Energy Production
Biofuel Production Processes from Microalgae
Biochemical Conversion
Anaerobic Digestion
Alcoholic Fermentation
Photobiological Hydrogen Production
Thermochemical Conversion
Gasification
Thermochemical Liquefaction
Pyrolysis
Algal Biomass to Biodiesel
Biorefineries
Challenges in the Use of Microalgae for Energy Production
SCENARIOS ANALYSIS: SIMULATION FOR COGENERATION AND BIODIESEL CASES
Cogeneration from Extraction Cake Residues
Biodiesel Production Using Basic Catalysis
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Energetic Products from Microalgae: Bioethanol
Abstract
Overview on the renewable energy development
Bioethanol from Microalgae
Effect of cultivation conditions to improve carbo-hydrate production
Effect of Sulfur
Effect of Nitrogen
Effect of Phosphorus
Effect of Carbon Source
Inorganic Carbon
Organic Carbon
Light Intensity
Carbohydrate in microalgae
Cellulose
Starch
microalgae bioethanol production
Pre-treatment & hydrolysis
Physical Pre-treatment
Chemical Pre-Treatment
Enzymatic Pre-treatment
Fermentation process
Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF)
Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF)
Microorganism for Fermentation of Microalgae Biomass
Products recovery
ConclusionS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Acknowledgements
References
Bioethanol Production Process
Abstract
DIFFERENT ROUTES TO ETHANOL PRODUCTION
MICROALGAE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
General Algae Information
Brown and Green Algae Used as Feedstock
Self Fermentation or Intracellular Bioethanol Production Excreted to Supernatant
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE USE OF ALGAE RELATED TO BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Methane Production Process for Microalgae Conversion
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
BIOGAS FROM MICROALGAE: THE HISTORY
THE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
Parameters Affecting AD of Microalgae
Substrate Characteristics
Mixing
Retention Time
Temperature
Alkalinity and pH
Nutrients
Other Causes of Inhibition
LIMITATIONS OF MICROALGAE AS SUBSTRATES FOR AD
Resistance of the Cell Walls
Microalgae Concentration
Carbon:Nitrogen Ratio
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Microalgae, Taking Over the Role in the Hydrogen Future
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Microalgae: When and Why
Microalgae: A Photosynthetic Green Factory
Microalgal Hydrogen Production Considering both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Microalgal Hydrogen Production Systems: The Photobioreactors
Microalgal Hydrogen Production Success Story: The Chlamydomonas Case
Microalgal Hydrogen Production: Keys for the Future
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Algal Production Platforms
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
Lighting
Mixing and Mass Transfer
Control Systems and Construction Materials
CULTIVATION SYSTEMS
Pond Based Systems
Plate Based Systems
Horizontal Tubular Systems
Bubble Columns
Airlift Reactors
PHOTOBIOREACTOR DESIGN SUMMARY
PHOTOBIOREACTOR USE FOR BIOFUELS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Use of Flue Gas as Carbon Source
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
GLOBAL WARMING AND GREENHOUSE GASES
MEASURES FOR GREENHOUSE GASES REDUCTION
CYCLIC MICROALGAE PRODUCTION PROCESS
POTENTIAL USE OF FLUE GASES IN MICROALGAE CULTIVATION
FACTORS INFLUENCING CO2 FIXATION FROM FLUE GAS BY MICROALGAE
Microalgae Strains
CO2 Concentration in Flue Gas
pH
NOX, SOX and Particulate Materials
Temperature and Light
Mass Transfer in Bioreactors
Bioreactor Application in CO2 Fixation by Microalgae
CO2 BIOFIXATION METABOLISM
BIOPRODUCTS FROM MICROALGAL BIOMASS GROWN WITH FLUE GAS
Biofuels
Biopigments
Biopolymers
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Harvesting, Thickening and Dewatering Processes
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE MICROALGAE HARVESTING
MULTI-STAGE APPROACH OF HARVESTING, THICKENING AND DEWATERING
COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION-SEDIMENTATION
Coagulation Mechanisms
Chemical Flocculation
Auto/Alkaline Flocculation
Electro-coagulation
Bioflocculation
Enhanced Settling
FLOTATION
CENTRIFUGATION
FILTRATION
Screening
Membrane Filtration
COMPARING HARVESTING METHODS
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Oil Extraction Processes in Microalgae
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
GENETIC ENGINEERING OF MICROALGAE FOR ENHANCEMENT OF LIPID PRODUCTION
Lipid Production in Microalgae - Mechanism
EXTRACTION OF LIPIDS FROM MICROALGAE
Conventional Solvent Extraction
Super-/Sub-Critical Solvent Extraction
Ionic Liquid Extraction
Novel Approaches
Cell Disruption
Mechanical Disruption Methods
Grinding
Bead Milling
High Pressure Homogenizer
Physical or Chemical Methods
Steam Explosion
Autoclave
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Osmotic Shock, Acid/ Alkaline Treatment
Recent Approaches for Lipid Extraction from Microalgae
Microwave
Ultrasonication
Pulsed Electric Field
Comparison of Various Methods
CONVERSION OF MICROALGAE TO BIO-OIL USING HYDROTHERMAL LIQUEFACTION
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Part II: Production and Economics in Microalgal Applications
Research and Deployment of Renewable Bioenergy Production from Microalgae
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
CURRENT AND PROJECTED FUTURE ENERGY LANDSCAPE
PROMISE AND OPPORTUNITY FOR ALGAE TECHNOLOGY
INTERNATIONAL BIOFUELS POLICY
GLOBAL SUPPORT FOR RESEARCH AND COMMERCIAL DEPLOYMENT
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Current Production of Microalgae at Industrial Scale
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Elements of Microalgal Culture
Microalgal Bioreactors
Operational Modes to Microalgae Culture
Industrial Production of Microalgal-based Products
Comparison between technological routes (open vs. closed systems)
Frontiers in Industrial Photobioreactors
The Bioeconomy of Microalgae-Based Processes at Industrial Scale
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Environmental Applications of Microalgae: CO2 Capture and Nutrient Recycling
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
N AND P REMOVAL BY ALGAE
Mechanism of N and P Utilization by Algae
Impact of N on Intercellular and Extracellular Compounds Production
REACTOR CONFIGURATIONS
Open Pond Systems
Closed Photobioreactors
Immobilized Algal Cultivation Systems (Algal Biofilm Reactors)
Enhanced Algal - Prokaryotic Wastewater Treatment Systems (EAPS) for N Removal
A CASE STUDY ON NUTRIENT RECYCLE IN A CONCENTRATED ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS (CAFOs) ADAPTING ALGAL-BASED WASTEWATER TREATMENT
CO2 CAPTURE BY ALGAE
Impact of pH and CO2 on Algae Growth
Factors Affecting the Gas Transfer Efficiency
Gas Supply Systems
Airlift Photobioreactor
Membrane Sparged Systems
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Maximising Value: The Bio-Refinery Concept
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
THE QUEST FOR SUSTAINABLE ALGAL MANUFACTURING
ARE HIGH VALUE PRODUCTS FROM ALGAL SOURCES REALISABLE?
ASTAXANTHIN AS A MODEL PRODUCT
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Energy and Economic Challenges in the Growth and Harvesting of Microalgae. The Chlorella vulgaris Case
Abstract
CULTURE OF MICROALGAE TODAY
Microalgae and their Importance
Microalgae Chlorella vulgaris
Applications
Biofuels
CO2 Fixation
Human Nutrition
Use in Pharmaceuticals
CHALLENGES IN THE PROCESS OF OIL EXTRACTION FROM MICROALGAE
Culture Stage
Harvesting Stage
Extraction Stage
PROCESS DESIGN FOR THE PRODUCTION OF OIL FROM MICROALGAE
Conditions for the Culture Medium
Definition of the Harvesting Process
Oil Extraction Method
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF Chlorella vulgaris PRODUCTION
METHODOLOGY
Definition of Variables for the Simulation Procedure
Equipment Description
ANALYSIS OF THE YIELDS COMPARED WITH LITERATURE
Economic Analysis
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Techno-economics of a Microalgal Route to Green Diesel
Abstract
Renewable Fuels
BIOFUEL FEEDSTOCKS
Lipid-based Biomass Feedstocks
First Generation Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
Second Generation Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks,
Microalgae Oil
Summary of Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
Non-Lipid-Based Biomass Feedstocks
BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
Biodiesel Production
Green Diesel Production
Green Diesel Production Pathways
Catalytic Cracking
Deoxygenation
Hydrotreating
Green Diesel Production from Microalgae Oil
TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF MICROALGAL ROUTE TO GREEN DIESEL
INTRODUCTION
Process description
Design Basis and Base Case
Growth, Harvest and Extraction
Calculation of Pond Area Productivity and Production Rate
Harvesting and Extraction
ECONOMICS
Capital Cost
Growth-Harvesting-Extraction step
Hydrotreater Step
Animal Feed Plant
Nutraceutical Plant
Summary
Variable Costs
Utility Usages
Credits
Animal Feed
Nutraceuticals
Carbon Dioxide Reduction Credit
Fixed Costs
Case Studies
Base Case
Sensitivity Analysis
Effect of Capital Cost, Oil Content and Productivity
Trade-off between Oil Content and Weight Productivity
Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency
CONCLUSION
NOMENCLATURE
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
References
Greenhouse Gas Balances of Microalgal Biofuels
Abstract
ESTIMATING GREENHOUSE GAS BALANCES
EVALUATION OF AVAILABLE PEER-REVIEWED LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENTS OF MICROALGAL BIOFUELS
The Use of Credits
System Boundaries
Dealing with Methane
Assumptions about Microalgal Yields from Ponds
Decarbonization of Energy Supply
Allocation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Based on Prices
Dealing with Uncertainty
CONCLUSION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Triple Bottom Line Assessment of Algae Bio-crude Production
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
METHODOLOGY
A Brief Introduction to Input-Output (IO) Analysis
Hybird Life-Cycle Assessment
Hybridisation of Process Data with Input-Output Data
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Comparison: Algae Bio-crude Supply Chain vs. Crude Oil Supply Chain
Triple Bottom Line Footprints of Algae Bio-crude Production
CONCLUDING REMARKS
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Recent Advances in Renewable Energy
(Volume 1)
(Microalgae as a Source of Bioenergy:
Products, Processes and Economics)
Edited by
José Carlos Magalhães Pires
Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto,Porto,Portugal
BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD.
End User License Agreement (for non-institutional, personal use)
This is an agreement between you and Bentham Science Publishers Ltd. Please read this License Agreement carefully before using the ebook/echapter/ejournal (“Work”). Your use of the Work constitutes your agreement to the terms and conditions set forth in this License Agreement. If you do not agree to these terms and conditions then you should not use the Work.
Bentham Science Publishers agrees to grant you a non-exclusive, non-transferable limited license to use the Work subject to and in accordance with the following terms and conditions. This License Agreement is for non-library, personal use only. For a library / institutional / multi user license in respect of the Work, please contact: [email protected].
Usage Rules:
All rights reserved: The Work is the subject of copyright and Bentham Science Publishers either owns the Work (and the copyright in it) or is licensed to distribute the Work. You shall not copy, reproduce, modify, remove, delete, augment, add to, publish, transmit, sell, resell, create derivative works from, or in any way exploit the Work or make the Work available for others to do any of the same, in any form or by any means, in whole or in part, in each case without the prior written permission of Bentham Science Publishers, unless stated otherwise in this License Agreement.You may download a copy of the Work on one occasion to one personal computer (including tablet, laptop, desktop, or other such devices). You may make one back-up copy of the Work to avoid losing it. The following DRM (Digital Rights Management) policy may also be applicable to the Work at Bentham Science Publishers’ election, acting in its sole discretion:25 ‘copy’ commands can be executed every 7 days in respect of the Work. The text selected for copying cannot extend to more than a single page. Each time a text ‘copy’ command is executed, irrespective of whether the text selection is made from within one page or from separate pages, it will be considered as a separate / individual ‘copy’ command.25 pages only from the Work can be printed every 7 days.
3. The unauthorised use or distribution of copyrighted or other proprietary content is illegal and could subject you to liability for substantial money damages. You will be liable for any damage resulting from your misuse of the Work or any violation of this License Agreement, including any infringement by you of copyrights or proprietary rights.
Disclaimer:
Bentham Science Publishers does not guarantee that the information in the Work is error-free, or warrant that it will meet your requirements or that access to the Work will be uninterrupted or error-free. The Work is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either express or implied or statutory, including, without limitation, implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk as to the results and performance of the Work is assumed by you. No responsibility is assumed by Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction, advertisements or ideas contained in the Work.
Limitation of Liability:
In no event will Bentham Science Publishers, its staff, editors and/or authors, be liable for any damages, including, without limitation, special, incidental and/or consequential damages and/or damages for lost data and/or profits arising out of (whether directly or indirectly) the use or inability to use the Work. The entire liability of Bentham Science Publishers shall be limited to the amount actually paid by you for the Work.
General:
Any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims) will be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the U.A.E. as applied in the Emirate of Dubai. Each party agrees that the courts of the Emirate of Dubai shall have exclusive jurisdiction to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this License Agreement or the Work (including non-contractual disputes or claims).Your rights under this License Agreement will automatically terminate without notice and without the need for a court order if at any point you breach any terms of this License Agreement. In no event will any delay or failure by Bentham Science Publishers in enforcing your compliance with this License Agreement constitute a waiver of any of its rights.You acknowledge that you have read this License Agreement, and agree to be bound by its terms and conditions. To the extent that any other terms and conditions presented on any website of Bentham Science Publishers conflict with, or are inconsistent with, the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement, you acknowledge that the terms and conditions set out in this License Agreement shall prevail.
Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Executive Suite Y - 2
PO Box 7917, Saif Zone
Sharjah, U.A.E.
Email: [email protected]
PREFACE
The book “Microalgae as a Source of Bioenergy: Products, Processes and Economics” presents recent advances in biofuel production with microalgae. It is composed of 17 well written chapters by leading researchers in this field.
European Union (EU) defined targets for each Member State regarding climate and energy. Microalgae are considered a promising and sustainable source of energy, due to their biomass productivity and ability to capture CO2. Several research studies were performed and new procedures to reduce the biomass production cost were developed. In this context, the proposed book have the contributions of relevant researchers in microalgal research area, focusing on the energy product yields, process developments and economics.
Biodiesel is one of the most studied biofuels, which can be produced by several raw materials. Microalgal biodiesel is the third generation biofuel and it is considered the most sustainable route for the production of this renewable form of energy. Microalgae present high areal productivities and their production does not compete with food market. Besides the biodiesel production with extracted oil, the residual biomass can be used for other energetic applications, reducing the cost of each type of produced energy. Chapter 1 presents the integration of biodiesel production and cogeneration and concludes that microalgae is an economic viable energy solution, if the biorefinery concept is applied, taking part from several products that microalgae can offer. Chapter 2 presents the potential of microalgae for bioethanol production, focusing on cultivation strategies to enhance carbohydrate productivity (which is easier to break down to simple reducing sugar), biomass pre-treatment methods, and hydrolysis and fermentation process. Chapter 3 presents different routes to produce bioethanol and presents a review of the research works about bioethanol production from algae. Chapter 4 introduces the basic principles of anaerobic digestion (biogas production), particularly when using microalgae as substrate. The influence of the most important operating parameters is also described. Biohydrogen is the last focused biofuel product. Chapter 5 shows the recent progresses regarding microalgal cellular mechanisms and production processes. As biofuel should present a lower price, several strategies should be implemented to reduce the production costs. Chapter 6 shows the main characteristics of the most used configurations of photobioreactors. Chapter 7 presents CO2 biofixation from industrial flue gases by microalgae, describing the microalgal metabolism. The use of CO2 from this source has dual benefit: (i) reduction of biomass production cost; and (ii) mitigation of industrial emissions of CO2, which is one of the most important greenhouse gas. Harvesting, thickening and dewatering processes represent a significant cost in the production of microalgal biomass. Chapter 8 gives an overview of the related technologies, presenting their advantages. Chapter 9 summarizes recent developments in microalgal oil extraction processes, including drying methods, cell disruption methods, conventional or supercritical solvent extraction methods, and recent approaches for direct biodiesel production.
Concerning the current production and economics of microalgal production, Chapter 10 places international energy policy in the context of the current and projected energy landscape. It gives an overview of the global and commercially installed infrastructure. Some important research projects are also presented. Chapter 11 presents a current view of the commercial production of microalgae cultivation at a large scale worldwide. It also presents the main variables that influence microalgal cultures and compares different types of photobioreactors. Chapter 12 describes the environmental applications of microalgae: CO2 capture and nutrient recycling. Mechanisms of assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus are discussed in this chapter. Configurations of photobioreactors are compared in terms of wastewater treatment enhancement (and downstream processes) and improving mass transfer of CO2 from the gaseous stream to the culture. Chapter 13 presents a wide range of products obtained from microalgal biomass (biorefinery context) that can enhance the economic viability of biofuel production. Chapter 14 performs a techno-economic assessment of microalgal oil production. Process modelling was performed through simulation software Aspen Plus. Chapter 15 reviews biofuel production from different feedstocks, focusing on the techno-economic challenges. Sensitivity analysis was performed to examine the economic parameters are the sales price was highly dependent on algae doubling time. Chapter 16 presents a life cycle assessment of the greenhouse gases of microalgal biofuels. Chapter 17 shows the results of the triple bottom line (for sustainability evaluation) assessment of algal bio-crude production. The considered stages in the analysis are the cultivation of algae, extraction of bio-crude and transport of bio-crude to a refinery. A region of Australia was selected for algae production. The results show that algae bio-crude production is more sustainable than crude oil production.
I would like to thank all the authors for their efforts in writing such excellent chapters. I also acknowledge the entire team of Bentham Science Publishers, particularly Ms. Fariya Zulfiqar (Assistant Manager Publications) due to the important orientations at different stages in the publication of the book. I am confident that this book will attract the attention of researchers and professionals of microalgal biofuel production.
José Carlos Magalhães Pires
Faculty of Engineering
University of Porto
Porto
Portugal
List of Contributors
Adeniyi LawalDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Stevens Institute of Technology, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic 9500 Euclid Ave, Hoboken, NJ 07030, United StatesAdriano S.A. HenrardLaboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilAitor Lekuona-AmundarainTecnalia Research and Innovation, Leonardo Da Vinci 11, E-01510, Miñano, (Araba), SpainAlessandro Marco LizzulDepartment of Environmental Engineering, University College London, Gower Street, WC1E 6BT, London, United KingdomAmarjeet BassiDepartment of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Western University, London ON N6A 5B9, CanadaArunima MalikISA, School of Physics A28, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Sydney, AustraliaCarlos A. CardonaGroup of Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes, Institute of Biotechnology and Agroindustry. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Sede Manizales. Cra. 27 No. 64-60, Manizales, ColombiaChoon Gek KhooSchool of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, MalaysiaChristophe BengoaDepartament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, SpainDaissy Lorena Restrepo SernaInstituto de Biotecnología y Agroindustria, Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Manizales campus, Manizales, ColombiaDaniela ParraGroup of Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes. Institute of Biotechnology and Agroindustry. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Sede Manizales. Cra. 27 No. 64-60, Manizales, ColombiaDarren L. Oatley-RadcliffeCentre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Fabian Way, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK;
Membranology Ltd., Charter Court, Phoenix Way, Enterprise Park, Swansea, SA79FS, UKDries VandammeKU Leuven Campus Kulak, Laboratory for Aquatic Biology, E. Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, BelgiumEduardo Jacob-LopesFood Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Roraima Avenue 1000, 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, BrazilEsther TorrensDepartament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, SpainEtiele G. MoraisLaboratory of Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilFabiana Regina Xavier BatistaSchool of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia/MG, BrazilIgor S. GonçalvesLaboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilJames L. ManganaroDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, United StatesJorge Alberto V. CostaLaboratory of Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilJuan Carlos Higuita VásquezInstituto de Biotecnología y Agroindustria, Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Manizales campus, Manizales, ColombiaJuliana de Souza FerreiraSchool of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia/MG, BrazilKeat Teong LeeSchool of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, MalaysiaLeila Queiroz ZepkaFood Science and Technology Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, UFSM, Roraima Avenue 1000, 97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, BrazilLieve M.L. LaurensNational Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USALin ZhouDepartment of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, NJ 07030, United StatesLucas ReijndersIBED, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, PO box 94248, 10 GE Amsterdam, the NetherlandsLuis G. Ramírez-MéridaApplied Biotechnology Center, Department of Biology, University of Carabobo, Universidad Avenue, 2002, Valencia, Edo. Carabobo, VenezuelaLuiza MoraesLaboratory of Biochemical Engineering, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilMan Kee LamChemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, MalaysiaMartin Pablo CaporgnoDepartament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans, 26, 43007 Tarragona, SpainMelodie Chen-GlasserNational Bioenergy Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401, USAMeng WangCivil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, USAMengyue GongDepartment of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Western University, London ON N6A 5B9, CanadaMichele G. MoraisLaboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, P.O. Box 474, Av. Itália km 8, 96203-900 Rio Grande, RS, BrazilRobert W. LovittCentre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Fabian Way, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK
Membranology Ltd., Charter Court, Phoenix Way, Enterprise Park, Swansea, SA79FS, UKSebastián SernaGroup of Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes, Institute of Biotechnology and Agroindustry. Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Sede Manizales. Cra. 27 No. 64-60, Manizales, ColombiaShreyas YedahalliDepartment of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Western University, London ON N6A 5B9, CanadaSuphi S. OncelDepartment of Bioengineering, Engineering Faculty, Ege University, Izmir, TurkeyThea Ekins-CowardCentre for Water Advanced Technologies and Environmental Research (CWATER), College of Engineering, Swansea University, Fabian Way, Swansea SA1 8EN, UKVicelma Luiz CardosoSchool of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia/MG, BrazilYulin HuDepartment of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Western University, London ON N6A 5B9, Canada
Part IEnergy from Microalgae: Products and Processes
Perspectives of Energy Production from Microalgae: The Biodiesel and Cogeneration Cases
Carlos A. Cardona*,Daniela Parra,Sebastián Serna
Group of Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes, Institute of Biotechnology and Agroindustry, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales, Cra. 27 No. 64-60, Manizales, Colombia
Abstract
During the last two decades, the use of biofuels has shown rapid growth, driven mostly by policies focused on increasing energy efficiency, and replacing fossil energy by renewable energy. There are different biomass raw materials that have been evaluated for the production of several added-value products. These raw materials have been classified into the first generation (agricultural and edible crops), second generation (inedible agroindustrial residues) and third generation (algae). The interest in the cultivation of microalgae has been increasing due to the high value products that can be obtained. Additionally, the oils present in microalgae are used for the production of biodiesel and the cake resulting after processing can be used for the production of bioethanol, biobutanol or energy. Based on this, this chapter first introduces the current uses and applications of multiple species of microalgae in terms of energy production and describes the technologies being used for the production of bioenergy using micro-algae. Then, two specific cases are analyzed: cogeneration and biodiesel production. The performed analysis serves to conclude that in order to establish microalgae as an energy-producing feedstock, it is necessary to integrate their use to obtain multiple products simultaneously: metabolites due to their high value, oils to produce biodiesel and the dry cake for thermochemical production of energy. The extraction of multiple products can only be made possible if a biorefinery concept is applied.
Keywords: Microalgae, Biorefineries, Bioenergy, Biofuels, Biodiesel, Cogeneration.
*Corresponding author Carlos A. Cardona: Group of Chemical, Catalytic and Biotechnological Processes, Institute of Biotechnology and Agroindustry, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia - Sede Manizales, Km. 7 vía al Magdalena, Manizales, Colombia; Tel/Fax: (+57) (6) 8879300 ext 55354; E-mail:
[email protected]
