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- Herausgeber: Bentham Science Publishers
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Microbes and Microbiomes for Clean and Green Environment
- Sprache: Englisch
Microbes as Agents of Change for Sustainable Development explores the pivotal role of microbes and microbiomes in restoring degraded ecosystems and advancing sustainable practices. This comprehensive resource bridges cutting-edge research and practical solutions, emphasizing microbial applications in ecosystem restoration, renewable energy, waste management, agriculture, and climate change mitigation.
The book, which spans 22 chapters, provides insights into topics like nutrient cycling, bioremediation, biofertilizers, and microbial genomics. It also highlights innovative approaches, such as microbial fuel cells, pollution monitoring with biosensors, and the role of microbes in GHG emission mitigation.
Key Features:
- Explores the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and the socio-economic benefits of microbes.
- Discusses microbial roles in polluted ecosystem restoration and renewable energy production.
- Highlights microbes' contribution to sustainable agriculture, waste management, and climate action.
Readership:
Ideal for researchers, students, environmentalists, and professionals in sustainability and ecosystem restoration.
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Seitenzahl: 625
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
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PREFACE
The book “Role of Microbes and Microbiomes in Ecosystem Restoration” focuses on basic to advanced techniques in various roles of microbes and microbiomes in the abatement and restoration of polluted ecosystems, climate change, production of renewable energy sources, and waste management. It covers ecosystem sustainability, the UN decade of ecosystem restoration, efficient utilization of microbes and microbiomes and their role in socio-economic development, and the current status of polluted and degraded ecosystems.
Stepping into an unusual era of concurrent buffer leads to a shifting global climate. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, one of the active concerns in the human ecological background is the destruction of ecology and ecosystems. Human actions have evolved a remarkable power to affect the ecosystem. To address this developing issue, the science of restoration ecology and its applied practices provide a potentially cost-effective, buoyant answer. The notion of restoration has emerged as the dominant subject in the global environmental context. One of the most important goals of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity from 2011 to 2020 is to restore at least 15% of the world's damaged ecosystems. World leaders adopted the “Bonn Challenge” in 2011, which is a global commitment to rehabilitate 150 million hectares of deforested and damaged land by 2020. Most significantly, in 2015, the UN formalized these worldwide pledges by endorsing the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, one of which focuses on ecological restoration. Microbes are ubiquitous, providing many critical services to the ecosystem, such as sustainable plant productivity and a stable environment for human life. They help to keep atmospheric CO2 and nitrogen levels stable, which are now reduced due to greenhouse gases and other hazardous pollutants. On a global scale, microbial organisms are extremely strong. Bacteria create approximately 50% of total oxygen, 75% of added nitrogen to the atmosphere, and 92% of nitrogen removal from the environment. As a result, this book covers the potential of bacteria and microbiomes in many ecosystems.
In Chapter 1, Prasad et al. provide an overview of the causes of ecosystem destruction, the need for ecosystem restoration, the significance of microbiome in biomining, restoration of farm and degraded land, control of heavy metals, production of renewable energy, crop growth, biofertilizer production, mitigation of greenhouse gases, and waste management. It also encompasses the role of molecular techniques in ecosystem restoration and the challenges involved in adopting microbiomes for ecosystem restoration.
Microbes are the crucial living elements of soils that contribute to the sustainability of ecosystems because of their capacity for stress tolerance, vast effective genetic pool, ability to survive in various conditions, and capacity for catabolism. However, various factors like soil conditions, geographical and climatic factors, and soil stressors (drought, submersion, pollutants, and salinity) may result in distinct microbial composition and characteristics, as well as its mechanism to support ecosystem restoration and defense against all of these stressors. Hence, Pooja et al., in Chapter 2, deliver the vital edaphic (pH, temperature, oxygen, nutrients, and moisture), geographical, climatic (UV radiation, elevated CO2, temperature, permafrost thaw), and abiotic factors (drought, submergence, salinity, pollutants) involved in the establishment of microbes and microbiome.
In Chapter 3, Sinduja et al. discuss the ecological role of microorganisms participating in biogeochemical cycles, hoping to delineate the role of microbes and microbiomes in biogeochemical cycles. Microorganisms play an essential role in moderating the Earth's biogeochemical cycles; nevertheless, despite our fast-increasing ability to investigate highly complex microbial communities and ecosystem processes, they remain unknown. Hence, this chapter covers the strategies for proper management of prevailing natural resources, considerations for management, its role in the biogeochemical cycle, and the influence of beneficial soil microbes, such as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and cyanobacteria, on natural resource management, with special emphasis on the role of soil enzymes in nutrient cycling.
Bioleaching (microbial leaching) is being studied intensively for metal extraction since it is a cost-effective and environmentally benign technique. Bioleaching with acidophiles involves the production of ferric (Fe III) and sulfuric acid. Cyanogenic microorganisms, in particular, can extract metal(s) by creating hydrogen cyanide. Besides, bioremediation is one of the most effective approaches for reducing environmental contaminants since it restores the damaged site to its original state. Hence, Chapter 4 by Poornima et al. provides a baseline on bioleaching, its types, microbes involved in bioleaching, bioleaching pathways, and the role of microbes in the bioremediation of polluted habitats.
In recent years, microbial-assisted bioremediation has emerged as a promising and eco-friendly alternative for HM remediation. This approach utilizes microorganisms to transform, immobilize, or detoxify HMs, making them less harmful and more accessible for removal. Hence, Naik et al., in Chapter 5, highlight the eco-friendly use of microorganisms, their mechanisms that contribute to the bioremediation of HMs, and their potential use in the future.
In Chapter 6, Sajish et al. present the basic principle of an MFC and the role of microbes in a microbial fuel cell, genetic engineering, biofilm engineering approaches, and electrode engineering approaches for increasing the overall efficiency of an MFC for its practical implementation. Microbial fuel cell, a type of BES, is a budding technology that exploits the potential of electroactive microorganisms for extracellular electron transfer to generate electricity. Hence, this chapter encompasses the history of MFC, bio-electrochemically active microorganisms, electroactive microbial genera in microbial fuel cells, factors affecting the development of anode biofilm, biofilm engineering, and the recent advances in strain improvement for improved MFC performance.
Energy crises resulting from the depletion of petroleum resources, hikes in the price of fossil fuel, and unpredictable climate change are some of the recent concerns that have provoked serious research on alternative energy sources that will be sustainable. In this regard, biofuels are a straightforward substitute for fossil fuels. Renewable feedstocks are suitable ingredients that sustainably produce biofuels using microbial-based bioconversion processes. Industrially important enzymes are capable of degrading long-chained biopolymers into short-chained monomeric sugars and fermenting them into energy-dense biomolecules. Hence, Chapter 7, authored by Oyelade et al., comprehensively reviews how sustainable bioenergy production through microbes using feedstocks can provide clean and green energy that can consequently facilitate ecosystem restoration. Feedstocks are pivotal to this biotechnological process.
In recent decades, biofertilizers have gained popularity as a viable alternative to unsafe chemical fertilizers in pursuing sustainable agriculture. They have an essential role in enhancing crop output and preserving long-term soil fertility, both of which are critical for fulfilling global food demand. Therefore, Chavada et al., in Chapter 8, deliver the various microbes involved in nitrogen fixing, phosphorus and potassium solubilizing and mobilizing, sulfur oxidizing, and zinc solubilizing. The role of arbuscular fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in biofertilizer production is also discussed.
Knowingly or unknowingly, agricultural systems face stress and resource quality degradation and their depletion by the activities of humans. Abiotic stresses, such as nutrient deficiency, water logging, extreme cold, frost, heat, and drought, affect agricultural productivity. Similarly, biotic factors like insects, weeds, herbivores, pathogens, bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, algae, and other microbes also limit good-quality products. Thus, Vijayalakshmi et al. discuss the application of microbes and microbiomes in biotic and abiotic stress management in Chapter 9. This chapter especially discusses the adaptive mechanisms of salt tolerance in plants, tolerance to abiotic stress, the emerging microbiome in soil biota, and nanomaterials' efficacy on stress.
Microbes play a significant role as either generators or consumers of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) through various processes. Sethupathi et al., in Chapter 10, discuss the role of microbes and microbiomes in the emission of major greenhouse gases like CO2, CH4, N2O, and NH3. The potential of the microbiome in mitigating these greenhouse gases is also delivered in this chapter.
Given that there is potential for warmth to boost the release of carbon dioxide from dirt to the atmosphere due to better microbial disintegration of dirt raw material, the impact of environmental change on the soil carbon sink remains uncertain. If forecasted climate modification situations are precise, this boost in soil carbon loss might significantly worsen the dirt carbon cycle responses. Therefore, Chapter 11 by Al-Jawhari introduces us to the soil CO2 balance, environmental effects, and the significance of the soil carbon cycle and microbial decomposers, carbon cycle in soil, ocean, and ecosystem restoration under climate change perspective.
The generation of wastewater increases multi-fold because of industries and the overexploitation of freshwater resources. Wastewater treatment is always linked with waste recovery and its optimum utilization, which broadens the amplitude of wastewater treatment, enhancing the quality of the byproducts and as an efficient alternative for non-potable purposes. Microbiomes are crucial in biological wastewater treatment methods such as activated sludge, anaerobic digestion, and bioelectrochemical systems. The microbial population's activity and resilience in the microbiome significantly impact the performance and stability of these activities. Suganthi et al. present the biological wastewater treatment, growth and kinetics, and different microbial community types, including bacteria and fungus, actinomycetes, algae, plants, and the range of microbial wastewater treatment in Chapter 12.
Solid waste disposal is a significant issue that worsens daily as more people move into cities. In Chapter 13, Velusamy et al. provide the status of solid waste management in India, sources and types of solid wastes, various conventional solid waste management techniques, and the role of microbes in solid waste management through composting and anaerobic digestion.
Microorganisms are pervasive and genuinely make up the “unseen majority” in the marine environment. Although marine isolates have been the subject of laboratory-based culture methods for more than ten years, we still do not completely understand the ecology of marine microorganisms. Thus, in Chapter 14, Poornachandhra et al. explore marine microbial diversity, its utilization in bioremediation, and understanding their role in ecosystem sustainability.
Mangroves and wetlands are critical intermediary ecosystems between terrestrial and marine environments. These ecosystems offer a wide range of invaluable ecological and economic services. However, under the influence of natural and anthropogenic threats, mangroves and wetlands face rapid degradation. Hence, Chapter 15 by Haghani et al. is dedicated to enlightening us regarding the most critical features of microbial groups, including archaea, bacteria, algae, and fungi in mangroves and wetlands. Moreover, the biochemical transformations brought about by wetlands' microbial groups and the degree of complexity in microbial interactions are explained.
Jerome et al., in Chapter 16, articulate the significance of forest microbiomes in ecosystem restoration and sustainability. Generally, forest microorganisms are essential to how plants interact with the soil environment and are necessary to access critically limiting soil resources. This chapter focuses on the ecosystems below and above ground level of a forest microbiome, including the soil microorganisms, their importance, and the diverse interrelationships among soil microorganisms (parasitism, mutualism, commensalism).
Employing field-based monitoring and restoration assessment techniques, surveying microbes or microbial populations is challenging or impossible. In contrast, it is now possible to precisely and quickly describe and quantify these diverse and functional taxonomic groups by sequencing large quantities of environmental DNA or RNA utilizing genomic and, in particular, meta-omic technologies. Hence, Nagendran et al., in Chapter 17, throw light on using meta-omics techniques to monitor and assess the outcomes of ecological restoration projects and to monitor and evaluate interactions between the various organisms that make up these networks, such as metabolic network mapping. An overview of functional gene editing with CRISPR/Cas technology to improve microbial bioremediation is also provided herewith.
Chapter 18 by Satpathy et al. provides details on metagenomic approaches like Multi-Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), MOTHUR, Quantitative Insight into Microbial Ecology (QIIME), and PHAge Communities From Contig Spectrum (PHACCS) in the restoration of the temperate and tropical ecosystem.
Soil microorganisms also play a fundamental role in ecosystem functioning and conserving plant diversity. Exploring voluminous beneficial microorganisms and promoting the reestablishing of those beneficial microbes in the soil will preserve Earth's diverse native plant populations. Hence, Prasad et al., in Chapter 19, delve into fundamental and conventional techniques and approaches that can be employed to maintain soil microbial populations. Furthermore, the chapter investigates the possibility of creating protocols for regulatory or commercial objectives, emphasizing the significance of ecological restoration by using bioinoculants or microbial colonies in degraded sites.
In Chapter 20, Shivakumar et al. examine the application of molecular methods to ecosystem regeneration. The various available molecular methods and how they have been applied to monitor ecosystem health, identify microbial communities in ecosystems, and comprehend interactions between microbes and plants are discussed. The chapter also discusses the application of molecular methods to the restoration of ecosystems that have been damaged, including the use of plant-microbe interactions to promote plant development in contaminated soils.
The sustainable industrial revolution is the way forward to help humankind to prolong its existence on Earth. John et al. enlighten us with the role of the microbiome in a sustainable industrial production system. In Chapter 21, they disclose the energy sector's current status, microbes' role in organic and amino acid production, and the role of microalgae in sustainable agriculture.
The human microbiome plays a vital role in human development, immunity, and nutrition, where beneficial bacteria establish themselves as colonizers rather than destructive invaders. In Chapter 22, Pradyutha et al. introduce microbes' role in human and animal health security. The various human and animal diseases and the potential of microbiota, such as probiotics, in disease treatment are also discussed in this chapter.
List of Contributors
Significance of Microbiome in Natural Resource Management
Role of Microbes and Microbiomes in Natural Resource Management and the Regulation of Biogeochemical Processes and Nutrient Cycling
Murugaiyan Sinduja1,*,P.M. Brindhavani2,Govindaraj Kamalam Dinesh3,4,5,Joseph Ezra John6,K. Mathiyarasi7,Sathya Velusamy8,R. Kalpana9,Ragul Subramaniyan10Abstract
Life on Earth is possible due to the vital elements and energy transformations referred as biogeochemical cycle. Microorganisms play an essential role in moderating the Earth's biogeochemical cycles; nevertheless, despite our fast-increasing ability to investigate highly complex microbial communities and ecosystem processes, they remain unknown. Microbes are crucial in nutrient cycling and energy transfers between ecosystems and the tropics, but research on their intricate functions is still restricted due to technological inabilities. A better understanding of microbial communities based on ecological principles may improve our ability to predict ecosystem process rates using environmental variables and microbial physiology. We
explored the ecological role of microorganisms participating in biogeochemical cycles, hoping to delineate the role of microbes and microbiomes in biogeochemical cycles. Insights into these aspects can help us mitigate the effects of climate change and other future uncertainties by regulating the microbial-dependent biogeochemical cycle.
INTRODUCTION
In natural resource management, microorganisms play a prominent role in the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. Microbiomes have demonstrable effects on the chemical makeup of the biosphere and its surrounding atmosphere, and they are deservedly recognized for their capacity to fix carbon and nitrogen into organic matter. Acclimatization typically begins with a higher commitment to obtaining and mobilizing stored resources when some factors become restricted [1]. The biogeochemical cycling of nutrients relies heavily on microbes. They are lauded for their ability to fix carbon and nitrogen into organic matter, and microbial-driven processes have visibly altered the chemical composition of the biosphere and its surrounding atmosphere [2]. Because soil quality is constantly deteriorating, a healthy soil system is now the outcome of physical, chemical, and biological soil quality indicators that are connected in a complicated network. The interests of the community and the needs of farmers are balanced by healthy soils. By preventing toxic compounds from being released into the environment, squelching infections, and preserving environmental sustainability, soil organic matter (SOM) improves soil health and quality [3]. In order to produce food sustainably, it refers to interactions between internal and exterior soil components. Effective soil microorganisms are essential for the establishment of the soil-plant-microbe interaction because they stimulate numerous biological processes and different pools of carbon (C) and macro- and micronutrients. The soil system has an enormous variety of microorganisms [4].
This chapter emphasizes the role of microbes and microbiomes in natural resource management by regulating biogeochemical processes and nutrient cycling. Although global understanding of microbes and microbiome dynamics is quickly rising, research on rhizospheric complexes is restricted despite their relevance in regulating soil-plant systems. Microorganisms in the soil consume organic matter, including dead organisms, and play an essential role in organic matter breakdown and nutrient cycle [5]. The nutrients are released by the breakdown of the organic molecule, allowing plants to absorb nutrients from the soil via their roots. Biogeochemical cycles transport nutrients throughout the ecosystem [6]. An ecosystem's biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components can exchange chemical elements like carbon or nitrogen in a process known as a biogeochemical cycle [7]. The elements that move through an ecosystem's processes are not wasted; rather, they are recycled or saved in reservoirs (sometimes referred to as “sinks”), where they can be kept for a long time. These biogeochemical cycles transfer substances from one organism to another and from one region of the biosphere to another, including elements, chemical compounds, and other kinds of matter. Ecosystems have a variety of biogeochemical cycles as part of the overall system [8]. A great example of a molecule cycled within an ecosystem is water, which is constantly recycled through the water cycle. Water vapor rises into the atmosphere, cools, and then eventually returns to Earth as rain (or other types of precipitation). Cycling is typical of all significant aspects of life.
Microorganisms are crucial in the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. Microorganisms are weak despite the elements' immutability and their vast capability for molecular alterations [9]. This paper discusses the effects of elemental limitation on microorganisms with an emphasis on certain genetic model systems and representative bacteria from the ocean ecosystem. Studies on the genome and proteome reveal evolutionary adaptations that enhance growth in response to ongoing or recurrent elemental constraints [10]. Changes in protein amino acid sequences that considerably lower cellular carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur requirements are among them. These modifications range from dramatic (such as eliminating a requirement for a hard-to-find component) to quite modest. Acclimatization typically begins with a stronger commitment to obtaining and mobilizing stored resources when some factors become restrictive. The cell turns to austerity tactics like elemental recycling and sparing if elemental limitation continues. Research in the fields of ecology, biological oceanography, biogeochemistry, molecular genetics, genomics, and microbial physiology has shed new light on these essential cellular features [11]. This chapter also highlights many research studies findings that are devoted to the conservation of natural resources, global food security, and sustainable agriculture [12].
NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT – NEED OF THE HOUR
Natural resources are the elixir for living organisms, as human life's existence is highly dependent on the ecosystem and the services it provides to humankind. These natural resources include air, water, land, minerals, flora, fauna, etc [13]. They provide the fundamental backing to life by providing goods for sustenance and consumption. Natural resource management (NRM) is the efficient and sustained usage of these valuable resources, which otherwise would lead to depletion or reduction in their existence [14]. Increased human population and scientific developments in the recent decade have led to increased interaction between humans and the environment, eventually leading to increased usage of resources. Thus, problems like food crises, scarcity of resources, mainly water, biodiversity loss, deforestation, and pollution have emerged [15]. These adverse effects are irreversible, and as such, they cause severe damage to future generations.
Global biodiversity is seriously threatened by the illegal exploitation of natural resources. Infringements on property rights, such as taking resources from private property or protected areas without permission, illegal land occupation, and violations of resource use laws, such as exceeding set limits, using resources out of season, and using forbidden extraction techniques without the necessary permits or in forbidden areas, are some examples of these illegal activities. Illegal resource use also includes illegal resource harvesting, such as protected species. Our social dependency on natural resource use continues unabated, to the point where natural resource sustainability has taken precedence in policy and executive considerations [16]. Management includes choosing alternate options to reduce the destruction of non-renewable resources, like opting for wind power instead of natural gas, creating watersheds, etc. The interdependence of microbiomes in environmental and food systems demonstrates that microbiome innovations have the potential to enhance circularity-based food [12], feed, and biofuel production. Even though there are numerous technological possibilities, preserving natural resources is still crucial if we want future generations to have access to all the resources they need to exist.
STRATEGIES FOR PROPER MANAGEMENT OF PREVAILING NATURAL RESOURCE – SOIL
The relationship between people and natural landscapes is critical to natural resource management. It integrates biodiversity conservation, land use planning, water management, and the long-term viability of various industries, including forestry, agriculture, mining, tourism, and fisheries [17]. The nation's current agrarian crisis is a result of the extraordinary loss of natural resources, the basis for human existence, progress, and prosperity [18]. Some of these resources include land, water, biodiversity and genetic resources, biomass resources, forests, livestock, and fisheries. Despite pressures from the population and the economy, unmindful agricultural intensification, excessive use of marginal lands, unbalanced fertilizer use, loss of organic matter, declining soil health, extensive conversion of prime agricultural lands to non-agricultural uses, inefficient and wasteful irrigation water use, depleting aquifers, salinization of fertile lands and waterlogging, deforestation, biodiversity loss, genetic erosion, and climate change are still prevalent [19].
The conversion of N between organic and inorganic forms by soil microorganisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, enhances plant mineral uptake [20]. The fundamental processes that ensure the productivity and stability of agroecosystems are aided by microbial communities [21]. One advantage of soil conservation techniques like cover crops and minimal tillage is increased soil life, which breaks down organic matter and releases nutrients for plant uptake. The organism that breaks down organic soil impurities, the soil microbe plant complex, may be impacted by various factors through interactions [22]. The kind of soil, level of calcium in the soil, amount of organic carbon, temperature, moisture, oxygen content, electrical conductivity, and pH are all variables that might affect the makeup and effectiveness of soil microbial communities [23]. For healthy soil, especially on organic farms where biological soil activities cannot be replaced by synthetic additives, the biological component of the soil is essential [24].
The term “soil biological community” refers to the collection of living things found in soil, including worms, insects, nematodes, plant roots, mammals, and bacteria. The breakdown of agricultural residues, the support of plant development, and the cycling of nitrogen and carbon are just a few of the crucial jobs that soil microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and archaea) perform in soils [25]. Pathogenic microorganisms have a negative impact on crop health and yield and, in the worst situations, can completely destroy a crop. Therefore, not all microbial contributions are beneficial. The microbial component of soil is perhaps the most challenging to monitor and regulate, despite the fact that bacteria clearly play a large impact on soil health and crop performance [26]. However, it can be difficult to properly manage the biological aspect of soils, particularly the microbial component [27]. Farmers routinely handle the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil directly (such as pH, nutrient content, and soil structure). Without specialized gear, microbes are too small to be seen or counted, and many of them are challenging to collect or even identify.
Additionally, microbial communities and their agronomic functions are dynamic, complicated, and challenging to interpret for use in the field [28]. For organic agricultural soils that depend on microbes for nutrient provision, organic material breakdown, and biocontrol, microbial management, on the other hand, has the potential to pay for itself. These management techniques include both the addition of known beneficial soil microbes and the suppression of undesirable soil microbes [29]. These methods also differ in price, labor and equipment requirements, scope of application, and quantifiable effectiveness [30]. We also provide widespread crop management techniques that influence soil microbial communities and address other agronomic requirements. Farmers may directly add microbes to their soils for a variety of reasons. Theoretically, these extra microbes can help with nutrient availability (via biofertilizers or bio-stimulants), pest control (via biopesticides), or plant growth stimulation (via hormone-signaling PGPs or bio-stimulants) [31].
Farmers can introduce specific microorganisms that directly benefit a certain crop, boost nutrient availability, or increase the ratio of beneficial microbes in their soils by using microbial additions [32]. The soil microbial communities can be impacted by soil management techniques to achieve other agronomic objectives. It is likely that farmers primarily affect soil microbes using these management techniques. Some examples are tillage, crop rotation, mixed cropping and under-seeding, cover cropping, and organic mulches [33]. It is essential to consider how these practices affect soil microbes, especially when designing a farm system incorporating microbial enhancements or suppression tactics. However, it can be challenging to predict how the soil microbial community reacts overall to these practices [34].
Soil disturbances, the addition of carbon and nutrients to the soil (for instance, through the addition of organic fertilizer, decomposing plant matter, or living roots), and their diversity can all have an impact on the total number of microorganisms in the soil (measured as microbial biomass), as well as their diversity and the functions of the microbial community [35]. Additionally, they might affect the number or operation of various microbial groups. Another factor is the farmland's agricultural history, which may be significant if there are residual effects from earlier soil management or pest control techniques [36]. For instance, if there is an excess of mineral phosphorus in the soil as a result of substantial phosphate inputs, increasing the number of phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms or adding more phosphorus may increase the quantity of phosphorus available to crops. There are complex and reliant interactions between soil's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Soil management practices may, therefore, concurrently improve all of these soil components or result in a mix of benefits and drawbacks. The physical, chemical, and biological features of the soil are influenced by a number of variables, including soil type, climate, crop type, past land use, and soil management.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
▪ Specific goals in natural resource management can occasionally be fulfilled using quantitatively successful microbial management practices. In contrast to other components of organic agriculture systems, microbial management offers farmers little tools for tracking the immediate impacts of their activities [37]. In fact, specific criteria for labeling a complex microbial community in a farm system as “good” or “bad” continue to perplex academics and agricultural specialists. The following are some essential considerations in light of the possible benefits and problems of microbial control tactics in natural resource management.
Microbes can dramatically alter yields, causing anything from an increase in crop productivity to a complete crop loss. They play essential roles in the health of plants and soil.Regardless of whether current research has optimized microbial contributions to soil systems, soil microbial interventions may have positive, neutral, or detrimental consequences on an agricultural system.The makeup and activity of existing soil microbes, as well as other soil features, are likely to influence how managing soil microorganisms affects soil or plant health.Growers are encouraged to be more selective when utilizing time- or money-intensive practices, such as commercial inoculants. Low-cost approaches, such as simply airing a greenhouse to reintroduce microorganisms following soil sterilization, may be employed as a common practice by growers.Farms are encouraged to use soil-building techniques such as composting, growing cover crops, and minimizing soil disturbance because they positively impact the biological communities that live in the soil.With growers' and researchers' growing interest in managing soil microbes, we expect to see more microbial products and professional recommendations in the coming years. Many popular grower practices target microbes, such as farmscape or biodynamic farming. There may also be new applications for microbes, such as microbes that promote plant drought tolerance or resistance to heat stress.
BENEFICIAL APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL RESOURCES IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Microbes have produced significant social and economic benefits. The key topics covered are green chemistry and engineering, environmental bioremediation, renewable energy, natural medicine, and organic food production and processing. It is crucial to develop agricultural microbial resources. New agricultural production technology research and development has advanced significantly in recent years. Its major components are microbiological feed, microbiological fertilizers, microbiological insecticides, and microbiological food. Extreme energy depletion, resource scarcity, and environmental pollution are problems that have arisen due to people's rampant exploitation of natural resources and overreliance on fossil fuels. Environmental pollution is mainly caused by traditional chemical methods of industrial production and discharge. A sustainable civilization should rely less on non-renewable resources and limit the pollution from fossil fuels. Utilizing all available natural resources is crucial, as is switching from the outdated, polluting chemical sector to the cutting-edge economy.
The aesthetic trend toward urbanization and industrialization has impacted natural ecosystems. The primary resources that this revolution will impact are water and land resources. These resources are being depleted and deteriorating due to numerous anthropogenic activities. Since land degradation affects 1 to 6 billion hectares of arable land worldwide, it poses a serious challenge to sustainable agriculture and food security. The main contributors to soil deterioration are soil salinization, organic and inorganic pollutants, soil erosion, waterlogging, and inadequate nutrient supply. The fundamental concern in the world, and particularly in developing nations, is the ecological rehabilitation and management of land resources. There are numerous options to repair marginal and severely degraded soils. These comprise various organic and inorganic substances and hazardous heavy metals that continue to affect the soil properties, plants, and food quality today [12]. The microbial association is a different idea to reduce the cost of environmentally acceptable soil treatment, like halophytic plant growth-promoting bacterium (PGPR), which increases plant hormone production and helps plants better survive salinity.
Similarly, utilizing bacterial consortium to reduce inorganic metal concentrations and decompose soil organic contaminants has enormous ecological and economic advantages. Mycorrhizae, a type of plant-fungal relationship, are thought to play a vital part in improving nutrient and water intake and protecting plants from root infections, which is vital for managing deteriorated soil. The science of natural resource management places a great deal of importance on the screening of objectively specific microorganisms for the management of damaged soil.
Measurable progress toward specified objectives can be made with the aid of microbial management techniques. Any intervention, though, can potentially have complicated and unexpected results. It might be challenging to determine if direct or indirect methods of influencing microbial populations have had the desired effect. Contrary to other components of organic agriculture systems, microbial management leaves farmers with limited instruments to track the immediate effects of their interventions. In fact, definitive standards for categorizing a complex microbial population as “good” or “poor” in a farm system continue to elude academics and agricultural experts. Here are some crucial factors to take into account, given the advantages and difficulties of microbial management strategies:
Microbes can dramatically alter yields, from a rise in agricultural output to a complete crop loss. They play vital roles in the health of plants and soil.Although microbial contributions to soil systems have not yet been optimized by study, soil microbial interventions may have positive, neutral, or adverse effects on a farming system.The makeup and activities of the soil's existing microorganisms and other soil properties will probably determine how much managing soil microbes will affect the health of the soil or plants.Pathogens and other microorganisms having negative or neutral effects can be introduced into a system alongside beneficial ones. Cover crops, for example, can support helpful microorganisms and others that are not specifically favorable to the target crop. Similarly, increasing microbial diversity may not always increase positive soil microbe services.Soil-building activities such as adding compost, growing cover crops, and avoiding soil disturbance generally positively affect soil biological communities and are recommended on farms to improve soil health.The Influence of Soil Microbes and Microbiomes on Natural Resource Management
Water, land, food, plants, animals, and soils are the natural resources that are most important to people. Managing natural resources may encompass crucial tasks, such as maintaining, protecting, and conserving the ecosystem [38]. The extensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the current trend makes sustainability in sustaining the ecosystem a challenging challenge. In addition, anthropogenic activities like urbanization and industrialization produce more garbage and endanger ecosystems. These human-made activities contribute directly to the process of land degradation. Degradation of the land can lead to soil exhaustion, salinization, and desertification [39]. Waste was eliminated, and ecosystems were restored using various methods, although the results were mixed.
Beneficial soil microorganisms (BSMs) have been discovered as viable candidates that could aid in environmentally sustainable management. These microorganisms have a variety of mechanisms that can be used commercially to create biotechnology to address the main environmental problems. Plant-associated microbes can be exploited to solve soil salinity, fertility, degradation, and habitat loss issues. Numerous species, including bacteria, fungi, algae, insects, annelids, and other invertebrates, are found in soil and exhibit close relationships with both plants and one another [40]. Microbial entities stand out because, through various methods, they are actively involved in boosting soil fertility, encouraging plant growth, and reducing biotic and abiotic stressors. By absorbing nutrients, BSMs
promote plant growth. They also create complex soil matrices and aid in plant defense responses by secreting a variety of metabolites.
BSMs can also be resilient to harmful environmental factors such as salt stress, drought stress, weed infestation, nutrient deficit, and heavy metal contamination. Researchers have recently discovered that soil bacteria have destructive and valuable functions in the soil ecosystem. However, BSMs have attracted significant attention for their abilities to promote plant development and their roles in the breakdown of organic wastes, detoxifying harmful compounds like pesticides, and reducing soil stress [41, 42]. Microbes play an essential role in natural resource management by cleaning up all the dead organic material. Without them, the preservation of soil fertility is not possible.
Beneficial Soil Microbes (BSMs)
The natural physical covering of the Earth's surface represents the interface of three material states: solids (geological and dead biological materials), liquids (water), and gases (air in soil pores). It is regarded as the bedrock of all terrestrial ecosystems. In soil captivity, microorganisms such as bacteria, archaea, and fungi interact with one another and contribute to ecosystem functioning. Their direct connection with the plant's root enables mineral uptake from the soil, organic matter decomposition, nutrient acquisition, plant growth stimulation, and phytopathogen suppression [43]. By limiting the growth of harmful bacteria, BSMs promote soil health.
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR)
PGPR are potential microorganisms that colonize plant roots and stimulate plant development either directly or indirectly [44]. These soil bacteria have the ability to colonize roots and stimulate plant growth. Azoarcus, Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Gluconoacetobacter, Pseudomonas sp., and Serratia sp. are all PGPR species [45]. Much recent study has been conducted to better understand plant-microbe interactions [46]. The production of phytohormones, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2), the synthesis of iron chelators known as siderophores, and the solubilization of inorganic minerals such as phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and zinc (Zn) to make them more available for plant growth are all examples of direct growth promotion [47]. PGPR are also recognized as potential microorganisms capable of protecting plants in normal and stressed environments from various environmental challenges [48, 49]. Initially studied solely to increase crop yield, multiple studies now show that PGPR plays a vital role in the normal functioning of agroecosystems [50]. According to research, they can also be used to restore
degraded land, improve soil quality, reduce environmental contaminants in soils, and prevent climate change [51].
Cyanobacteria
Photosynthetic prokaryotes, known as cyanobacteria, are common in nature. They are frequently found in wetlands, streams, lakes, ponds, springs, and rivers. Additionally, cyanobacteria are a crucial part of soils [52]. Due to their Role in N2 fixation and status as a natural biofertilizer, cyanobacteria have demonstrated their significance in preserving fertility [53]. Sustainable agriculture has made use of symbiotic or free-living cyanobacteria. Effective nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria were discovered in several agro-ecological locations and used for rice production, including Nostoc linkia, Anabaena variabilis, Aulosira fertilisima, Calothrix sp., Tolypothrix sp., and Scytonema sp [54].
ROLE OF BSMS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
The entire planet is coping with very difficult environmental issues. The primary sources of environmental pollution include the excessive use of fossil fuels, waste products from numerous human activities, land deterioration, and climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions. Most issues are human-made and brought on by population growth, industrialization, urbanization, and deforestation [55]. The use of BSMs in resolving environmental issues has now been demonstrated by research, and they have been highlighted as viable tools for achieving the objective of a sustainable environment [56]. For bioremediation, biological agents are used, such as microorganisms (micro-remediation), plants (phytoremediation), or both (rhizoremediation). In situ bioremediation, which has been used for a while, includes stimulating the local microbial community to break down pollutants. The production of various natural compounds by plant-associated bacteria, such as endophytes and PGPR, improves the bioremediation of environmental soils [57].
BSMs such as Pseudomonas putida, Azospirillumli poferum, Enterobacter cloacae, and P. fluorescens have been shown to be capable of cleaning up soil contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs), and trichloroethylene (TCE) (Table 1). The mining industry releases numerous heavy metals into the soil, including zinc, lead, copper, and cadmium, creating a severe threat to environmental degradation [58]. Traditional methods for handling metal-containing wastes, such as heat procedures, physical separation, electrochemical treatments, washing, stabilization/solidification, and burial to clean polluted soils, are prohibitively expensive and have adverse environmental effects [59]. According to studies, organic contaminants can be directly impacted by BSMs. Some plants and bacteria have evolved the unique ability to tolerate heavy metals and are used to clean up metals [59, 60].
Microorganisms use chemical and physical processes to create structural alterations or complete degradation of the target molecule. BSMs can break down, convert, or accumulate a wide range of chemicals due to their high catabolic diversity. Hydrocarbons (oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and radionuclides are all examples [40]. BSMs are known to produce peroxidases, dioxygenases, P450 monooxygenases, laccases, phosphatases, dehalogenases, nitrilases, and nitro reductases [61]. Several VAM fungi produce xylanases, mannoses, and other enzyme complexes that may partially degrade potentially toxic compounds [62]. Providencia stuartii, a strain of bacteria discovered from agricultural soil, can digest the herbicide chlorpyrifos [63]. DDT is known to be degraded by several PGPFs, including Trichoderma viride, Fusarium oxysporum, and Mucor alternans (DDT). As model organisms for lignin biodegradation, white-rot fungi, primarily Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Trametes versicolor, are utilized [64]. In addition to Pleurotus ostreatus, T. versicolor, Bjerkandera adusta, Lentinula edodes, Irpexlacteus, Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus pulmonarius, and Pleurotus tuber-regium, a variety of additional white-rot fungi can also break down persistent xenobiotic chemicals [64].
IMPORTANCE OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROCESS TO EMBRACE THE NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The biogeochemical process denotes the cycling of elements (C, H, O, N, P, and S) across various ecosystems that govern the Earth's dynamics. Cycles of elements and Biogeochemical cycles are essential to life's subsistence because they convert energy and matter into usable forms that help the ecosystem's function. These elements are found in various reservoirs at varying degrees and come in various chemical forms, both organic and inorganic. Those reservoirs are known as natural resources since they benefit humans in numerous ways through technology, and sustainable use favors life on Earth as we know it [65]. The element transitions are interdependent, and physical phenomena (dissolution, precipitation, volatilization, etc.) ensure the conversion of biological components and their movement between the various compartments, namely, biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere [66].
Among the elements, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen are vital for all living organisms. In simpler terms, all living things assimilate carbon from these reservoirs and release it into the atmosphere through metabolism, which is again transferred into the soil or other reservoirs. Major carbon reservoirs are the Earth's crust, ocean sediments, and certain autotrophs. The oxygen and hydrogen go alongside the carbon cycle, converting elements into matter and matter into energy [67]. The other essential elements of the biogeochemical cycle are nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Nitrogen is an integral part of living organisms as protein and genetic material. Phosphorus, being immobile, is present in large quantities in rocks and soil. Once nitrogen and phosphorus enter the water bodies, the change in nutrient flux leads to eutrophication, thus altering the other cycles in the ecosystem [68
