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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules Harness the planet's most numerous resources with this comprehensive guide Microorganisms constitute the invisible majority of all living creatures on Earth. They are found virtually everywhere on the planet, including in environments too extreme for any larger organisms to exist. They form a hugely significant resource whose potential value for human society cannot be overlooked. The creation of microorganism- based bioreactors for the industrial production of valuable biomolecules has the potential to revolutionize a range of industries and fields. Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules provides a comprehensive introduction to these bioresources. It covers all potential approaches to the use of microbial technology and the production of high-value biomolecules for the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries, among others. The book's rigorous detail and global, holistic approach to harnessing the power of the planetary microbiome make it an invaluable introduction to this growing area of research and production. Readers will also find: * Detailed coverage of basic, applied, biosynthetic, and translational approaches to the use of microbial technology * Discussion of industrially produced microbe-borne enzymes including invertase, lipase, keratinase, protease, and more * Approaches for using microbial bioreactors to generate biofuels Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules is essential for scientists and researchers in microbiology and biotechnology, as well as for professionals in the biotech industries and graduate students studying the applications of the life sciences.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction
1.1 Microbial Bioresources
1.2 Microbial Bioresources for the Production of Enzymes
1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Application
1.4 Microbial Bioresources for Biogenesis
1.5 Microbial Fermentation
1.6 Microbial Biodegradation
1.7 Microbioresources for High‐Value Metabolites
Acknowledgments
References
2 Microbial Bioresource for the Production of Marine Enzymes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Prokaryotes
2.3 Marine Archaea
2.4 Eukaryotes
References
3 Lactic Acid Production Using Microbial Bioreactors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Microbial Lactic Acid Producers
3.3 Alternative Substrates for Lactic Acid Production
3.4 Fermentation Process Parameters
3.5 Mode Improvement of Lactic Acid and Reactor Configuration
3.6 Challenges
3.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
4 Advancement in the Research and Development of Synbiotic Products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics
4.3 Prebiotics
4.4 Synbiotics
4.5 Health Benefits from Synbiotics
4.6 Bioreactor Design for Synbiotic Production
4.7 Microencapsulation and Nanotechnology to Ensure Their Viability
4.8 Nanoparticles
4.9 Applications in Various Fields such as Dermatological Diseases, Animal Feed, and Functional Foods
4.10 Conclusions
References
5 Microbial Asparaginase and Its Bioprocessing Significance
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Classification of l‐Asparaginase
5.3 Bioprocessing
5.4 Scaled Up to Bioreactor
5.5 Characterization of l‐Asparaginase
5.6 Applications of l‐Asparaginase
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 Bioreactor‐Scale Strategy for Pectinase Production
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Pectinase Classification and Origin Sources
6.3 Substrates Used for Pectinase Production
6.4 Fermentation Strategies
6.5 Bioreactor‐Scale Strategies
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Microbes as a Bio‐Factory for Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biopolymer Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Microbial Polyhydroxyalkanoates as a Novel Alternative to Substitute Petroleum‐Derived Plastics
7.3 Microbial PHAs Classification, Synthesis, and Producing Microorganisms
7.4 Trends and Challenges in the PHAs Synthesis Process
7.5 Process Economics and Perspectives Toward Industrial Implementation
7.6 Concluding Remarks
References
8 Microbial Production of Critical Enzymes of Lignolytic Functions
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources of Lignolytic Enzymes
8.3 Lignolytic Enzymes
8.4 Microbial Production of Lignolytic Enzymes
8.5 Mechanism of Action of Lignolytic Enzymes
8.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
9 Microbial Bioreactors for Biofuels
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General Classification of Bioreactor
9.3 Liquid‐Phase Bioreactor
9.4 Reactors for Solid‐State Cultures
9.5 Bioreactor Operation Mode
9.6 Biofuels
9.7 Considerations and Future Perspectives
References
10 Potential Microbial Bioresources for Functional Sugar Molecules
10.1 Introduction
10.2 d‐Allulose
10.3 D
‐Tagatose
10.4 Trehalose
10.5 Turanose
10.6 Trehalulose
10.7 d‐Allose
10.8 d‐Talose
10.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
11 Microbial Production of Bioactive Peptides
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antioxidant Activity
11.3 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antimicrobial Activity
11.4 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antihypertensive Activity
11.5 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antidiabetic Activity
11.6 Microbial Production of Peptides with Immunomodulatory Activities
11.7 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antitumoral Activity
11.8 Microbial Production of Peptides with Opioid Activity
11.9 Microbial Production of Peptides with Antithrombotic Activity
11.10 Production of Recombinant Peptides in Microbial Expression Systems
11.11 Purification and Identification of Microbial Bioactive Peptides
11.12 Conclusions and Perspectives
References
12 Trends in Microbial Sources of Oils, Fats, and Fatty Acids for Industrial Use
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Microbial Sources
12.3 Application in Food and Health
12.4 Opportunities and Prospective Future
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Microbial Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Design of Bioreactors
13.3 Types of Bioreactors for Secondary Metabolite Production
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
14 Microbial Cell Factories for Nitrilase Productionand Its Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Nitrilase Categorization, Sources, Metabolism, and Production Process
14.3 Nitrilase in the Biotransformation of Nitriles
14.4 Conclusion
References
15 Chemistry and Sources of Lactase Enzyme with an Emphasis on Microbial Biotransformation in Milk
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Lactase Enzyme
15.3 Sources of Lactase
15.4 Microbial Biotransformation of Lactase Enzyme
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Microbial Biogas Production
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Generalities of Biogas Production: the Process and Its Yields
16.3 Feedstocks Used in Biogas Production and Their Characteristics
16.4 Microbial Biodiversity in Biogas Production
16.5 The Role of the Enzymes in Biogas Production
16.6 Challenges and Opportunities in Biogas Production
References
17 Molecular Farming and Anticancer Vaccine
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Vaccines and the Possibility in Noncommunicable Diseases
17.3 Vaccine Production
17.4 Types of Cancer Vaccine
17.5 Microbial Production of Anticancer Vaccine: Challenges and Opportunities
17.6 Conclusion
References
18 Microbial Bioreactors at Different Scales for the Alginate Production by
Azotobacter vinelandii
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Bacterial Alginate
18.3 Alginate Biosynthesis and Genetic Regulation
18.4 Production of Bacterial Alginate on a Bioreactor Scale
18.5 Chemical Characterization of Alginate Quality
18.6 Prospects and Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
19 Environment‐Friendly Microbial Bioremediation
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Principle of Bioremediation
19.3 Types of Bioremediations
19.4 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediation
19.5 Bioremediation Techniques
19.6 Methods for
Ex Situ
Bioremediation
19.7 Bioremediation Using Microbial Enzymes
19.8 Bioremediation Prospects
19.9 Future Prospective
19.10 Conclusion
References
20 Microbial Bioresource for Plastic‐Degrading Enzymes
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Classification of Plastics: Biobased, Biodegradable, and Fossil‐Based Plastics
20.3 General Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation
20.4 Microbial Sources of Plastic‐Degrading Enzymes
20.5 Biotechnological Strategies for Identifying/Improving Microbial Enzymes and Their Sources for Plastic Biodegradation
20.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
21 Strategies, Trends, and Technological Advancements in Microbial Bioreactor System for Probiotic Products
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Bioreactors and Production of Probiotics
21.3 Strategies Employed for Harvesting and Drying Probiotic Cells
21.4 Final Remarks and Possible Directions for the Future
Abbreviations
References
22 Microbial Bioproduction of Antiaging Molecules
22.1 Introduction
22.2 The Aging Process: An Overview
22.3 Human Health and the Aging Gut Microbiome
22.4 The Antiaging Bioproducts from Microbes
22.5 The Impact of Microbial Bioproducts on Gut Diversity
22.6 Microbial Bioproduction of Extremolytes
22.7 The Role of Antiaging and Antioxidant Molecules
22.8 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Examples of marine enzymes.
Table 2.2 Enzymes, microbial origin, and applications.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Lactic acid production via fermentations of diverse producer micro...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Health benefit claims and synbiotics.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Optimized conditions for
L
‐asparaginase production by different m...
Table 5.2 Kinetic conditions of
L
‐asparaginase production by microorganisms...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Pectinolytic enzymes classification.
Table 6.2 Microorganisms and substrates used to produce pectinolytic enzyme...
Table 6.3 Effects of different configurations of SSF bioreactions on the yi...
Table 6.4 Effects of different configurations of SmF bioreactions on the yi...
Table 6.5 Bioreactor configurations at different scales of the production p...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 General structure of most commonly synthesized PHAs, their classi...
Table 7.2 Microbial strains evaluation for PHA production in recent researc...
Table 7.3 Techno‐economic analysis to assess the microbial PHA production p...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Fermentation processes for production of lignolytic enzymes.
Table 8.2 Characteristic features of lignocellulosic biomass.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Summary of the common properties and physiological application o...
Table 10.2 Microbial ketose 3‐epimerase for
D
‐allulose production with bioch...
Table 10.3 Microbial
L
‐arabinose isomerase for
D
‐tagatose biosynthesis with...
Table 10.4 Biochemical property of trehalose synthase characterize from dif...
Table 10.5 Comparison of biochemical property of amylosucrase characterize ...
Table 10.6 Microbial
L
‐rhamnose isomerase for
D
‐allose production with bioc...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Bioprocess conditions to produce microbial peptides with antioxi...
Table 11.2 Production of bioactive peptides with antimicrobial activity usi...
Table 11.3 Peptides obtained via microbial fermentation with antitumoral, o...
Table 11.4 Bioactive recombinant peptides obtained in microbial expression ...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Oil content of some oleaginous microorganisms.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Summary of representative secondary metabolites produced in STB....
Table 13.2 Recent applications of biofilm bioreactors for the production of...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Culture conditions for nitrilase production by various microorga...
Table 14.2 Bioprocess development using the whole cell and immobilized nitr...
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Synthesis of β‐galactosidase by bacteria during submerged fermen...
Table 15.2 The characteristics of the lactase (β‐galactosidases) that is pr...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Biogas production yields obtained using different types of waste...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Yeast‐based pre‐clinical and clinical studies for cancer vaccine...
Table 17.2 Recent and ongoing clinical studies using bacteria for cancer va...
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Novel applications of alginate.
Table 18.2 Alginate production under different cultivation strategies in
A.
...
Table 18.3 Chemical composition of alginates in
A. vinelandii
sp. under dif...
Table 18.4 Scale‐up of bacterial alginate production using
A. vinelandii
sp...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Merits, demerits, and possible limitations of bioremediation....
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Commercialized probiotic strains effective against specific gast...
Table 21.2 Different fermentation systems employed for producing probiotic ...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Microbial compounds with antioxidant potential.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of main characteristics of operation modes...
Figure 3.2 Membrane bioreactor system with online biomass monitoring using t...
Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of continuous fermentation by immobilized
L. bu
...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Characteristics of probiotics.
Figure 4.2 Requirements for potential prebiotics.
Figure 4.3 Mechanisms of action of synbiotics and their effects.
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Approaches for microalgal bioplastic production.
Figure 7.2 Stages and their main challenges in the production of PHAs polyes...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Classification of lignolytic enzymes.
Figure 8.2 Industrial applications of lignocellulosic biomass degradation by...
Figure 8.3 Catalytic reaction by laccase enzyme.
Figure 8.4 Catalytic reaction of lignin peroxidase enzyme in the presence of...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic diagram from the horizontal (a) and vertical (b) mixed ...
Figure 9.2 Schematic drawing of a bubble column (a) bioreactor and an airlif...
Figure 9.3 Basic methods of cell immobilization.
Figure 9.4 (a–c) Schematic drawing of the modes of operation of bioreactors....
Figure 9.5 Production of biohythane from pineapple peels in continuous two‐s...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 An array of high‐value natural functional sugar molecules.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Overview of methods for isolation by affinity chromatography and...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The metabolism ways of oleaginous microorganisms to fatty acid p...
Figure 12.2 Catalyzed biochemical process for transesterification of a trigl...
Figure 12.3 Yeasts are sources of oils, fats, and fatty acids, and they come...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Main components of stirred tank bioreactor (STB).
Figure 13.2 Bubble column bioreactor.
Figure 13.3 Air‐lift bioreactor.
Figure 13.4 Stainless steel biofilm support with the mycelium of
Beauveria b
...
Figure 13.5 Tray bioreactor used for solid‐state fermentation.
Figure 13.6 Packed bed bioreactor used for solid‐state fermentation.
Figure 13.7 Stirred (a) and rotating (b) drum bioreactors used for solid‐sta...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 The overview of various steps of nitrilase production and biotra...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 A mechanism for the breakdown of the sugar lactose by the enzyme...
Figure 15.2 Graphical representation of a number of potential advantages tha...
Figure 15.3 A schematic representation of the reaction that takes place when...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Biogas production with organic wastes for electricity generation...
Figure 16.2 Enzymes used in the depolymerization of complex substrates for b...
Figure 16.3 Challenges involved in the microbial biogas production.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Illustration of bioengineering of tumor antigen molecules for an...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic representation of the alginate biosynthesis in
A. vine
...
Figure 18.2 Production of bacterial alginate by
A. vinelandii
sp. obtained u...
Figure 18.3 Mean molecular weight of alginate obtained under different culti...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Uses of soil microbes in bioremediation.
Figure 19.2 Cycles of bioremediation.
Figure 19.3 Types of bioremediations.
Figure 19.4 Factors affecting microbial bioremediation.
Figure 19.5 Techniques of bioremediation.
Figure 19.6 Enzymes used in bioremediation.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Steps involved in plastic biodegradation.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Diagrammatic presentation of the numerous bioreactors that are u...
Figure 21.2 A schematic depiction of the production process for probiotics, ...
Figure 21.3 Schematic representation of various components of bioreactor sys...
Figure 21.4 A graphical presentation of the various kinds of interactions th...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Aging and antiaging molecules.
Figure 22.2 Vitamin E quenches free radicals by donating its H‐atom from the...
Figure 22.3 Microbes and their antiaging compounds.
Figure 22.4 Examples of microbial products used in cosmetic industry.
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Microbial Bioreactors for Industrial Molecules
Edited by
Sudhir P. Singh
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB)
Mohali
India
Santosh Kumar Upadhyay
Department of Botany
Panjab University
Chandigarh
India
This edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication DataNames: Singh, Sudhir P., editor. | Upadhyay, Santosh Kumar, editor.Title: Microbial bioreactors for industrial molecules / edited by Sudhir P Singh, Santosh Kumar Upadhyay.Description: Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2023000234 (print) | LCCN 2023000235 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119874065 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119874072 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119874089 (epub)Subjects: MESH: Bioreactors | Microbiological Phenomena | Molecular Biology–methods | Industrial Microbiology–methodsClassification: LCC QP517.M65 (print) | LCC QP517.M65 (ebook) | NLM QW 40 | DDC 572/.33–dc23/eng/20230331LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000234LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023000235
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List of Contributors
K. Abraham PeeleDepartment of Biotechnology, Vignan’s Foundation for ScienceTechnology & Research, VadlamudiAndhra Pradesh, India
Carlos Alberto Acosta‐SaldívarFacultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, TorreónCoahuila, Mexico
Cristobal Noe AguilarBioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research DepartmentSchool of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Pedro Aguilar‐ZárateEngineering Department, Tecnológico Nacional de México/I. T. de Ciudad VallesCiudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Shayma Thyab Gddoa Al‐SahlanyDepartment of Food Science College of Agriculture University of BasrahBasra City, Iraq
Ayodeji AmobonyeDepartment of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Applied SciencesDurban University of TechnologyDurban, South Africa
Christiana Eleojo AruwaDepartment of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Applied SciencesDurban University of Technology, DurbanSouth Africa and Department of Microbiology, School of SciencesFederal University of TechnologyAkure, Nigeria
Mubeen AshrafDepartment of MicrobiologyUniversity of Central PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Nagamani BalagurusamyFacultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, TorreónCoahuila, Mexico
Victor Emmanuel Balderas‐HernándezDivisión de Biología MolecularInstituto Potosino deInvestigación Científica y Tecnológica, A. C. San Luis PotosíSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Deepika BaranwalDepartment of Home ScienceArya Mahila PG CollegeBanaras Hindu University, VaranasiUttar Pradesh, India
Shashi Kant BhatiaDepartment of Biological EngineeringCollege of EngineeringKonkuk UniversitySeoul, South Korea
Susana Calderón‐ToledoLaboratorio de Biología MolecularFacultad de Farmacia y BioquímicaUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosLima, Peruz
Christian Iván Cano‐GómezTecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Iara Nobre CarmonaDepartment of Forest SciencesUniversity of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, PiracicabaSao Paulo, Brazil
Tania CastilloDepartamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Instituto de BiotecnologíaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CuernavacaMorelos, Mexico
Mónica L. Chávez‐GonzálezBioprocesses and Bioproducts Research Group, Food Research DepartmentSchool of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Jorge Alberto Vieira CostaLaboratory of Biochemical EngineeringCollege of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio GrandeRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Whyara Karoline Almeida da CostaLaboratory of Microbial Processes in FoodsDepartment of Food EngineeringCenter of Technology, Federal University of Paraíba, João PessoaParaíba, Brazil
Michele Greque de MoraisLaboratory of Microbiology and Biochemistry, College of Chemistry and Food Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio GrandeRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Paulo Renato Souza de OliveiraDepartment of Forest SciencesUniversity of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, PiracicabaSao Paulo, Brazil
Claucia Fernanda Volken de SouzaFood Biotechnology LaboratoryUniversity of Vale do Taquari – UnivatesLajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and Biotechnology Graduate ProgramUniversity of Vale do Taquari – Univates, LajeadoRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Gauri Garg DhingraDepartment of ZoologyKirori Mal CollegeUniversity of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Ananias Francisco Dias JúniorDepartment of Forestry and Wood SciencesFederal University of Espírito Santo, UFES, Jerônimo MonteiroEspírito Santo, Brazil
Alvaro Díaz‐BarreraEscuela de Ingeniería BioquímicaPontificia Universidad Católica del ValparaísoValparaíso, Chile
Ankita DuaDepartment of Zoology, Shivaji CollegeUniversity of Delhi, Raja GardenNew Delhi, India
Genesis Escobedo‐MoralesFacultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, TorreónCoahuila, Mexico
Karina Maldonado‐Ruiz EsparzaDepartment of Chemical, Industrial and Food Engineering, Universidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de Santa FeMexico City, Mexico
Alexis GarcíaSchool of Food EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringUniversidad del Valle, TuluáValle del Cauca, Colombia
Adriano GennariFood Biotechnology LaboratoryUniversity of Vale do Taquari – UnivatesLajeado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil and Biotechnology Graduate ProgramUniversity of Vale do Taquari – Univates, LajeadoRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Javier Ulises Hernández‐BeltránFacultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, TorreónCoahuila, Mexico
Nazim HussainCenter for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB)University of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
M. IndiraDepartment of BiotechnologyVignan’s Foundation for ScienceTechnology & Research, VadlamudiAndhra Pradesh, India
Nida KhaliqDepartment of MicrobiologyUniversity of Central PunjabLahore, Pakistan
S. KrupanidhiDepartment of BiotechnologyVignan’s Foundation for ScienceTechnology & Research, VadlamudiAndhra Pradesh, India
Vinay KumarDepartment of Physiology and Cell BiologyThe Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, ColumbusOH, USA
Roshan KumarPost‐Graduate Department of ZoologyMagadh University, Bodh GayaBihar, India
Daniel Neutzling LehnFood Biotechnology LaboratoryUniversity of Vale do Taquari – UnivatesLajeadoRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Fernanda LeonhardtFood Biotechnology LaboratoryUniversity of Vale do Taquari – Univates, LajeadoRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Liliana LondoñoBIOTICS Group, School of Basic SciencesTechnology and EngineeringUniversidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia – UNADBogota, Colombia
Miriam Paulina Luévanos‐EscareñoFacultad de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, TorreónCoahuila, Mexico
Marciane MagnaniLaboratory of Microbial Processes in FoodsDepartment of Food EngineeringCenter of Technology, Federal University of Paraíba, João PessoaParaíba, Brazil
Tehreem MahmoodDepartment of BiotechnologyQuaid‐i‐Azam UniversityIslamabad, Pakistan
Arundhati MehtaDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Alejandro Mendez‐ZavalaFacultad de Ciencias QuimicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Mariela R. MichelEngineering DepartmentTecnológico Nacional de México/I. T. de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Julio MontañezFacultad de Ciencias QuimicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Lourdes Morales‐OyervidesFacultad de Ciencias QuimicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Juliana Botelho MoreiraLaboratory of Microbiology and BiochemistryCollege of Chemistry and Food EngineeringFederal University of Rio Grande Rio GrandeRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Diana B. Muñiz‐MárquezFacultad de Estudios Profesionales Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Ciudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Alaa Kareem NiamahDepartment of Food ScienceCollege of Agriculture, University of BasrahBasra City, Iraq
Aeshna NigamDepartment of Zoology, Shivaji CollegeUniversity of Delhi, Raja GardenNew Delhi, India
Graziela Barbosa PaludoFood Biotechnology LaboratoryUniversity of Vale do Taquari – UnivatesLajeado, Rio Grande do SulBrazil and Biotechnology Graduate ProgramUniversity of Vale do Taquari – Univates, LajeadoRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Satya Narayan PatelCenter of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB), MohaliPunjab, India
Ami R. PatelDivision of Dairy MicrobiologyMansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology‐MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus, MehsanaGujarat, India
Lorena Pedraza‐SeguraDepartment of ChemicalIndustrial and Food EngineeringUniversidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de Santa FeMexico City, Mexico
Ruth Pedroza‐IslasDepartment of ChemicalIndustrial and Food EngineeringUniversidad Iberoamericana, Lomas de Santa FeMexico City, Mexico
Carlos PeñaDepartamento de Ingeniería Celular y Biocatálisis, Instituto de BiotecnologíaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CuernavacaMorelos, Mexico
Allana Katiussya Silva PereiraDepartment of Forest SciencesUniversity of São Paulo – Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, USP – ESALQ, PiracicabaSao Paulo, Brazil
Adalberto Pessoa‐JuniorDepartment of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical TechnologySchool of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
Alejandra PichardoDepartment of BiotechnologyUniversidad Autonoma Metropolitana‐Unidad Iztapalapa, Colonia VicentinaMexico City, Mexico
Santhosh PillaiDepartment of Biotechnology and Food ScienceFaculty of Applied SciencesDurban University of TechnologyDurban, South Africa
Anna María PolaníaSchool of Food Engineering Faculty of EngineeringUniversidad del Valle, TuluáValle del Cauca, Colombia
Belén PonceEscuela de Ingeniería BioquímicaPontificia Universidad Católica del ValparaísoValparaíso, Chile
Yashwant Kumar RatreDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Gaby RenardQuatro G Pesquisa & Desenvolvimento LtdaTECNOPUC, Porto AlegreRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Luis V. Rodríguez‐DuránBiochemical Engineering DepartmentUAM‐ManteUniversidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas. Ciudad ManteTamaulipas, Mexico
Iván SalmerónSchool of Chemical ScienceAutonomous University of ChihuahuaChihuahua, Mexico
Anjali SaxenaDepartment of Zoology, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied SciencesUniversity of Delhi, DwarkaNew Delhi, India
Daniel SeguraDepartamento de Microbiología MolecularInstituto de BiotecnologíaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CuernavacaMorelos, Mexico
Nihir ShahDivision of Dairy MicrobiologyMansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and Food Technology‐MIDFT, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus, MehsanaGujarat, India
Areej ShahbazCenter for Applied Molecular Biology (CAMB)University of the PunjabLahore, Pakistan
Sweety SharmaCenter of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB), MohaliPunjab, India
Sapnita ShindeDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Dhananjay ShuklaDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Ashish Kumar SinghCenter of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB), MohaliPunjab, India
Smita SinghDepartment of Allied Health SciencesChitkara School of Health SciencesChitkara University, RajpuraPunjab, India
Sudhir P. SinghCenter of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB), MohaliPunjab, India
Vibha SinhaDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Vivek Kumar SoniDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Subash Chandra SonkarMultidisciplinary Research UnitMaulana Azad Medical College and Associated HospitalsUniversity of DelhiNew Delhi, India
Prem Prakash SrivastavAgricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, KharagpurWest Bengal, India
Ana Luiza Machado TerraLaboratory of Microbiology and BiochemistryCollege of Chemistry and Food EngineeringFederal University of Rio GrandeRio GrandeRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Mamta ThakurDepartment of Food TechnologySchool of SciencesITM University, GwaliorMadhya Pradesh, India
Neerja ThakurDepartment of Biotechnology and Microbiology, RKMV, ShimlaHimachal Pradesh, India
Daniel Tobías‐SoriaFacultad de Ciencias QuimicasUniversidad Autonoma de Coahuila, SaltilloCoahuila, Mexico
Soubhagya TripathyAgricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, KharagpurWest Bengal, India
Santosh Kumar UpadhyayDepartment of BotanyPanjab University, ChandigarhIndia
Viviana UrtuviaEscuela de Ingeniería BioquímicaPontificia Universidad Católica del ValparaísoValparaíso, Chile
Gemilang Lara UtamaFaculty of Agro‐Industrial TechnologyUniversitas Padjadjaran, SumedangIndonesia and Center for Environment and Sustainability ScienceUniversitas Padjadjaran, Bandung Indonesia
Fabiola VeanaTecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Ciudad Valles, Ciudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
T. C. VenkateswaruluDepartment of BiotechnologyVignan’s Foundation for ScienceTechnology & Research, VadlamudiAndhra Pradesh, India
Deepak Kumar VermaAgricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, KharagpurWest Bengal, India
K. Vidya PrabhakarDepartment of BiotechnologyVikrama Simhapuri University, NelloreAndhra Pradesh, India
Naveen Kumar VishvakarmaDepartment of BiotechnologyGuru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, BilaspurChhattisgarh, India
Giandra VolpatoFederal Institute of EducationScience and Technology of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto AlegreRio Grande do Sul, Brazil
James WinterburnDepartment of Chemical EngineeringThe University of ManchesterManchester, UK
Jorge Enrique Wong‐PazFacultad de Estudios Profesionales Zona Huasteca, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Ciudad VallesSan Luis Potosí, Mexico
Amparo Iris ZavaletaLaboratorio de Biología MolecularFacultad de Farmacia y BioquímicaUniversidad Nacional Mayor de San MarcosLima, Peru
Preface
The presence of microorganisms is found virtually everywhere in the environment, as the unseen majority on earth. On the planet, any branch of science cannot be imagined to be unaffected by the dynamics of the natural microbial communities. Recent advances in interdisciplinary studies have helped in enhancing our understanding of the association between microbiomes and human beings. The potential of microbial bioresources has been realized in the advancement of various sectors, such as biotechnology, food technology, agricultural development, and health. The plentiful diversity in the microbiome of the earth’s biosphere fosters many known and unknown solutions to the socio‐economic issues. Many such microbial strains identified in research collections are required to be evaluated for the scope of technological value. The holistic approach to the maintenance and use of the earth’s bioresource can facilitate the development of innovative bioreactors based on microbial wealth. Microorganisms are the source of a variety of biomolecules, such as enzymes, fatty acids, antibiotics, exopolysaccharides, biosurfactants, organic acids, rare sugars, functional metabolites, bioactive peptides, specialized metabolites, and nutraceuticals. The microbial enzymes are of enormous usage in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries. The genomic resource of the microflora can be edited and/or engineered for continuous and upscale production of desirable biomolecules. Microbial cell systems can be developed into bio‐factory for the production of high‐value molecules. The scientific vision should be to exploit the basic and applied aspects of the strain metadata with environment safety and management. This book covers the diverse knowledge about industrial and innovative aspects of microbial cells and the derived biomolecules in numerous fields, including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, food, biomass processing, etc. This book will act as a repository to get information on the application of microbial resources as bioreactors. This comprehensive wealth of information is useful for graduate students, academicians, researchers, and the general public.
Sudhir P. Singh,Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB),Mohali, Punjab, India
Santosh Kumar Upadhyay,Department of Botany, Panjab University,Chandigarh, India
1Microbial Bioreactors: An Introduction
Ashish Kumar Singh1, Santosh Kumar Upadhyay2, and Sudhir P. Singh1
1 Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (DBT‐CIAB), Mohali, Punjab, India
2 Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
1.1 Microbial Bioresources
Organisms that are too small for the human eye and whose structure cannot be deciphered by the naked eye without a microscope are known as “microorganisms” or “microbes.” All unicellular organisms are included in the group of microorganisms. Along with archaea and eubacteria, the term “microbes” is used for different members of algae, fungi, viruses, and protozoans [1]. Microbes are ubiquitous; some are beneficial, and some are harmful to human beings [2]. The diverse role of microorganisms on the planet makes the earth a greatly sustainable and inhabitable ecosystem. Microbial resources have good potential to produce a broad range of high‐value compounds [3]. The microbial communities in different ecological niches are gaining more attention due to the increasing demands of various bioactive molecules for food, neutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries [1, 4, 5]. The microbes present in traditional fermented products such as cheese, bread, and wine have also been broadly used in industries for the bulk production of different polymers, high‐value chemicals, monomers, and biopharmaceuticals such as hormones, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, and vaccines [6, 7]. Together with the availability of complete genome sequencing data, progress in molecular biology techniques, recombinant DNA technology (RDT), CRISPR‐Cas9 as a genome editing tool has allowed easy genetic manipulation of microbes to enhance or improve the production of different high‐value biomolecules that could be carbohydrates, proteins, hormones, enzymes, lipids, etc. [6, 8–12]. These engineered or native microbial cells that act as biological devices for producing natural molecules as pharmaceuticals and industrial significance could be called as “microbial bioreactors.” These microbial resources have the potential to make a variety of high‐value chemicals, enzymes, bioactive peptides, secondary metabolites, etc. In addition, microbial systems are used to produce biofuel and biogas and for environmentally friendly bioremediation applications. A few specific examples have been discussed in this section; the upcoming chapters will go into greater detail on these topics.
1.2 Microbial Bioresources for the Production of Enzymes
The ocean or marine environment is one of the most extensive untapped frontiers to human beings [13]. The largest aquatic ecosystem on the planet is the marine environment, which has the most critical biodiversity, including animals, plants, and microbes such as fungi, bacteria, and viruses [5, 14–20]. The ocean has moderate atmospheric pressure on the surface and massive pressure in the deepest ocean area. They also have zero sea ice temperature to extremely high temperatures above 300°C in hydrothermal vents and low saline conditions to salt‐saturated areas. This diverse range of environmental conditions is adapted by different life forms present in marine settings. They are metabolically diverse to produce various enzymes that can perform uniquely in industrial environments [13, 21]. As the ocean or marine contributes approximately half of the global primary production, they act as a vital nutritional source and a favorable alternative for food security. The marine environment has huge biological and ecological diversity, and this variability permits the production of several natural compounds used for humankind in agriculture, remediation, nutrition, health, etc. [21, 22]. Based on their ecological function and habitat, marine bacteria and fungi secret different novel enzymes and enzyme variants unique to nature [14]. The marine environment acts as a library for the various inimitable and potential enzymes such as lipase, chitinase, protease, pectinase, nucleases, and xylanase [22].
Many microbe‐borne enzymes, viz., invertase, cellulase, xylanase, lipase, keratinase, amylase, lactase, and protease, have been industrially produced and commercialized in the past few decades due to their diverse vital role, eco‐friendliness, cost‐effectiveness, and economical feasibility [23, 24]. Pectinases have received significant attention worldwide as biological catalysts since they have wide applications in different industries like juice, paper, and food [25–27]. Pectinases have been most widely studied in plant origin, mainly from fruits, but their extraction and purification often need special conditions due to their thermolabile nature [25]. Therefore, the production of pectinases from the microbial origin is getting more attention nowadays as an alternative strategy due to its stability and easy extraction process.
The nitrile compounds or organic cyanides are carboxylic acids substituted by cyanide with the chemical formula R‐CN, which are widely spread in the environment. Plant nitrile compounds in their natural state are cyanolipids, β‐cyanoalanine, ricinine, cyanoglycosides, etc. [28–31]. Nitriles can also be found as metabolic intermediates in microorganisms. These compounds are essential for synthetic purposes and widely used at the industrial level to produce compounds such as carboxylic acids, amides, pharmaceutical products, polymers, heterocyclic compounds, and pesticides [28]. However, due to the presence of the cyano group, these are highly toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic [28, 30]. Therefore, the widespread usage of these substances could cause environmental issues [28]. Microorganisms can degrade many nitrile compounds by using the enzyme nitrilase and nitrile hydratase. These microbes use nitriles in the form of carbon or nitrogen source for their growth. In recent years, microbial‐originated nitrilase enzymes have been used to convert nitriles into beneficial chemical compounds and clean up nitrile‐contaminated soil and water [28]. Due to their ease of handling, manipulation, and culture under controlled conditions, microbes are attractive candidates for synthesizing economically significant enzymes.
1.3 Microbial Bioresources for Therapeutic Application
The age‐old quote, “Let food be the medicine and medicine be the food,” is given by Hippocrates, and it has become an ideology of the health‐conscious population in today's lifestyle [32–34]. Afterwards, a Russian Nobel Prize winner, Eli Metchnikoff, recognized the beneficial role of some selected bacteria on the human gastrointestinal tract and proposed the “Theory of Longevity” [35, 36]. Several microorganisms used for the treatment of disease led to the development of the concept of “probiotics.” In the year 1954, Ferdinand Vergin first gave the term “probiotika,” i.e. probiotics [32, 36]. The probiotic history commenced with the early civilization when humans started consuming fermented foods in their diet. Elie Metchnikoff suggested that human health could be boosted after manipulating the gut microbiome with the help of good bacteria in the yoghurt [32, 35, 36]. The beneficial effect of undigestible food constituents such as fibers on the host’s health is known as “prebiotics.” Prebiotics generally modulate or enhance the growth of some selective bacteria, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria, in the colon [33, 34].
The term “synbiotics” was first introduced in 1995, which is less popular than prebiotics and probiotics. The combination of prebiotics and probiotics is known as synbiotics. Gibson and Roberfroid first proposed the term “synbiotics” in 1955. After several revisions, the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) proposed the definition of synbiotics as “The mixture of live microorganisms and substrate, selectively utilized by host microorganisms that offer the health benefits on host health” [37]. The host microorganisms include the normal microflora of the host gastrointestinal tract and the externally cultured microorganisms taken in the form of probiotics [34–36, 38, 39]. Synbiotics have several health benefits, including immunomodulatory, antiallergenic, antimicrobial, antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic, anticarcinogenic, and hypolipidemic. They also increase minerals’ absorption and act as an anti‐osteoporotic activity [35].
Several enzymes have also been used as therapeutic drugs [40]. Among the enzymes, L‐asparaginase has received substantial attention due to its prospective use as an oncological and acrylamide‐decreasing agent in the food industry. In addition, L‐asparaginase is also used in the pharmaceutical industry to treat various illnesses, including chronic lymphosarcoma, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, reticulosarcoma, and lymphocytic leukemia [41, 42]. Several microorganisms and some plants have been reported to have L‐ASNase activity. However, due to the complex process of extraction and purification of enzymes from plants and animals, microorganisms act as a precious alternative for producing L‐asparaginase [40–44]. Currently, industrial production of L‐asparaginase has been carried out using the microbial strains of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Rouxiella, Pseudonocardia, Lactobacillus, Acinetobacter, and Erwinia chrysanthemi, isolated from different environmental, clinical, and food samples [43].
Cancer has become a leading cause of mortality worldwide and is an essential barrier to improving life expectancy in both developed and developing countries [45]. According to World Health Organization (WHO) 2019, in 112 of 183 nations, cancer is the first or second major cause of death before the age of 70, and it ranks third or fourth in another 23 countries [45–47]. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) estimates that in 2020, cancer will account for more than 19.3 million new cases and 10 million mortality worldwide [45]. The key hurdles to managing cancer are aggressiveness, drug resistance, and cancer burden. Until recently, different types of traditional therapies, such as radiotherapy, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and surgery, were used to treat all types of cancer [48, 49]. Vaccination is one of the most significant and successful disease prevention and control methods. Vaccines successfully eradicate harmful microorganisms and are employed as preventative and therapeutic strategies against diseases. Conventional vaccinations have high production costs, laborious purifying procedures, and biosafety concerns, necessitating time‐consuming biosafety evaluations for commercial production. Molecular farming of vaccines, utilizing biomolecules’ production in microorganisms or plant cells, offers several benefits compared to conventional systems, including simplicity in manufacture, storage, better yields, stability, and safety [50–52].
The microbial systems can be exploited for the biosynthesis of specialized metabolites, secondary products, pigments, toxins, and other substances that are helpful to the organism but are not involved in primary metabolism. Some of these items have the potential to be therapeutic medicinal agents. Microbial bioproduction has primarily met the ever‐increasing need for medications made from natural resources, which has shown to be beneficial for the growing population. The many wear‐and‐tear processes continuously affect us, causing aging [53]. Skin beauty has been considered a crucial indicator of personal health throughout history and culture. Additionally, it influences social traits like behavior, attractiveness, and self‐esteem [54]. New products called nutricosmetics and cosmeceuticals are currently being developed for the food and cosmetic industries [54]. Antiaging products have become more popular due to economic expansion, changing lifestyles, and improved health awareness. The most effective strategies for delaying aging and extending life include calorie/dietary restriction, genetic modification, and antiaging chemical therapy [55]. A chapter in this book focuses on the origin, bioproduction, and connections between antiaging chemicals from the microbial world and human health.
1.4 Microbial Bioresources for Biogenesis
Today, fossil fuel‐derived conventional plastics are one of the most crucial materials in different fields: industrial, domestic, packaging, machinery frames, and furniture. Due to their versatile nature, such as strength, durability, degradation resistance, and lightness, they have almost replaced wood, glass, and metals in several cases [56, 57]. However, the excessive production and use of plastic have become an environmental concern because it is persistent and nonbiodegradable. As a result, it accumulates in the environment, posing a threat to life on earth [58]. Therefore, researchers are exploring biologically produced plastics, i.e. bioplastics, with ecofriendly and biodegradable properties [56]. These bioplastics include polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid, polyesters, etc. [57, 58]. PHAs accumulate in microbial cells during unbalanced growth conditions as intracellular carbon and act as energy reserves in several microorganisms [57]. Therefore, it is essential to discuss a general overview of the upstream and downstream microbial biosynthesis of PHAs and their challenges.
Excessive use of petroleum or fossil energy sources for fuel production poses adverse environmental and socioeconomic effects [59]. It creates an energy crisis and boosts the search for new alternatives to mitigate fossil fuel energy consumption with negative environmental impact [59, 60]. Bioreactors provide a suitable environment for microbial biomass to carry out biochemical reactions and energy conversion [61]. Bioreactor technology is one of the most promising methods for microbial biomass production and energy conversion due to its simplicity, sustainability, moderate reaction condition, minimum carbon output, and low raw material utilization [59, 62].
The biogas plant is an appealing technology for sustainable renewable energy production. An intricate microbiological community converts organic wastes into biogas during anaerobic digestion [63]. As a result, this energy production and waste management method is an example of sustainability [63, 64]. The biomass used for digestion and the amount of microbial inoculum in plants controlled the quantity and quality of biogas, such as the composition of methane, carbon dioxide, and other gases produced [63, 65, 66]. The principal constituent of biogas is CH4 (50–70%), CO2 (30–50%), nitrogen (0–3%), and water vapor (95–10%), along with ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, and siloxanes [67].
Alginates are linear polysaccharides comprising different fractions of β‐D‐mannuronate (M) linked to α‐L‐guluronate (G) residues by β‐1,4 bond [68–73]. Alginates are significant biopolymers employed as stabilizing, thickening, and gelling agents in the medical, industrial, and commercial sectors [68, 70]. In addition, alginate microspheres have been utilized therapeutically to release medicines, proteins, vaccines, and cells under controlled conditions. Brown algae are currently used to produce alginate. However, depending on the surrounding environment, the polymer's composition changes. Therefore, alginates should be biosynthesized with the specific physicochemical characteristics needed in specialized applications. As an exopolysaccharide, this polymer may be produced by Pseudomonas and Azotobacter [68, 70–72, 74]. Extensive research is going on for the production of alginate using microbial bioresources. A chapter in this book comprehensively describes the microbial biosynthesis of alginate and its genetic regulation, bacterial production of alginate at the bioreactor level, and different cultivation methods for enhancing alginate production at quality and quantity levels.
Around the world, plants and animals account for most oils and fats [75]. Lipids are a group of naturally occurring organic molecules, e.g. triacylglycerol, phospholipids, and glycolipids. They are classified according to their solubility in organic or nonpolar solvents like benzene, acetone, and chloroform [76]. Lipids, such as fats (solids) and oils (liquids), are classified as nutritional sources with a high level of metabolic energy [76, 77]. Lipids are significant in many biological processes, including cell signaling cascade, energy storage, and structural components of plasma membranes [76]. Microorganisms make up a significantly smaller fraction of the fat. Therefore, it is far more expensive to produce oils and fats from microorganisms than from plants [77, 78]. Animal fats were previously relatively inexpensive since they are frequently produced as byproducts or main products of the meat and dairy industries [75]. Biotechnological processes need to be explored to produce high‐value oils and lipids at an economical cost [79, 80]. This book dedicates a chapter describing the wide range of microorganisms, such as algae, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, for oil, fat, and fatty acid sources.
1.5 Microbial Fermentation
From an historical point of view, lactic acid has a very long history. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele first discovered it in the year 1780 from sour milk in brown syrup. Based on its origin, it was given the name “Mjolksyra.” Until 1857, it was considered a milk component, but later on, Louis Pasture suggested that lactic acid is a fermentation product of milk produced by certain microorganisms. After that, French scientist Fremy used fermentation to produce lactic acid. In 1881, this event contributed to the first industrial production of lactic acid in the United States using microbes [81, 82]. Lactic acid is a type of organic acid and is authorized as generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration. Lactic acid has diverse roles in the food industry. It acts as a fermentation agent, food preservative, decontaminant, acidulant, flavor enhancer, viscosifier, cryoprotectant, etc. The chemical industry uses it as a pH regulator, mosquito repellent, green solvent, metal complexing agent, and neutralizer. It is also used in the cosmetic industry in the form of moisturizers, anti‐acne agents, humectants, skin rejuvenating agents, etc. It is also helpful in the medicine or pharmaceuticals industry as dialysis solutions, surgical sutures, immune stimulants, controlled drug delivery systems, etc. [83–86]. Industrial synthesis of lactic acid is done through either chemical synthesis or microbial fermentation. However, microbial fermentation has some advantages; they are produced in the pure form, whereas synthesis of lactic acid via a chemical process always gives a racemic mixture [81]. Globally, the fermentation of carbohydrates through homolactic bacteria is used to produce lactic acid commercially. For example, different modified or optimized bacterial strains of lactobacilli are used to produce lactic acid. The industrial production of pure lactic acid can be done through microbial fermentation using different carbohydrates such as sucrose, maltose, starch, and glucose, derived from various feedstocks such as whey, barley malt, molasses, and beet sugar [81, 83–85].
For human consumption, milk can be derived from various animals, including cows, goats, sheep, buffalo, and humans [87]. However, the rich nutrient content of this milk – which contains proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and vital amino acids – provides a perfect habitat for the growth of numerous bacteria [87]. The enzyme, β‐glycosidase, breaks down lactose in milk, producing lactose‐free milk, which is sweeter than regular milk and suitable for lactose‐intolerant people [88–92]. The food industry uses the lactose‐breaking enzyme β‐galactosidase to improve the flavor, sweetness, solubility, and ease of digestion of dairy products [91]. So successive book chapters describe a brief history of β‐galactosidase, its structure, recombinant manufacture, and significant alterations made to the enzyme to enhance its functionality.
1.6 Microbial Biodegradation
One of the essential components of renewable bioresources on the earth is lignocellulosic biomass [93]. The lignocellulosic biomass comprises three major components, namely lignin (15–20%), hemicellulose (25–30%), and cellulose (40–50%) [94–97]. Lignin is a complex biopolymer consisting of polyphenols with a molecular weight of approximately 20,000 daltons and low biodegradability [94]. Due to the complex structure of lignin, its degradation becomes challenging compared to cellulose and hemicellulose [95]. Different chemical methods, such as treatment of aqueous ammonia, steam explosion, and acid hydrolysis, are used to degrade lignin, but this method generates toxic byproducts and requires high costs [98]. Therefore, biological processes of lignin degradation using different ligninolytic enzymes from microbial cell factories are gaining more attention nowadays. The biological methods of lignin degradation are more cost‐effective and ecofriendly [94, 95]. The microbial enzymes of lignolytic functions have been discussed in the subsequent chapter.
A large spectrum of anthropogenic chemicals has been introduced into the soil, water, and air due to rising human activity in areas like agriculture, industry, and urbanization during the past few decades [99]. These harmful chemicals include a variety of organic substances such as petroleum hydrocarbons, xenobiotic substances, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated substances, phenolic substances, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pesticides, nitroaromatic substances, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and inorganic substances such as salts, nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals such as arsenic (As) and copper (Cu). The growth and metabolic processes of plants, soil microbes, soil structure and fertility, aquatic species, and the biogeochemical cycling of elements are all negatively impacted by a contaminated ecosystem, which ultimately affects the ecosystem and human health [99–101]. Therefore, removing organic and inorganic pollutants from the contaminated region to support our society's sustainable growth is necessary [99]. The term “bioremediation” describes a collection of processes that uses biological systems to restore or purge damaged environments [102–104]. Bioremediation is an established method of decontaminating a polluted environment that is sustainable and kind to the environment. Of the microorganisms recovered from various environmental samples, only a tiny percentage are easily culturable [100]. We now better understand the bacteria that live in a given environment because of molecular techniques like metagenomics, transcriptomics, and fluxomics [100, 105].
Plastics are synthetic polymers that have a wide range of uses. Plastics are suitable for various applications due to their flexibility, strength, and erosion resistance [106]. Plastics made from petroleum offer a lot of good qualities. They are highly durable due to their small weight and extremely stable chemical and physical characteristics. They are produced in bulk and are well‐established, resulting in meager costs. As a result, they are now commonplace in the global economy. However, because petro‐plastic wastes are resistant to natural biodegradation processes, they significantly accumulate in the environment. Micro‐ and nano‐sized plastic particles are already pervasive in terrestrial and aquatic environments due to their massive accumulation in municipal waste systems [105, 107, 108]. A large amount of waste is produced in which about 40% of plastics are used as single‐use applications [105]. Numerous industrial and home uses have made considerable use of synthetic polymers, such as polyurethane (PUR), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [100, 105–107, 109, 110]. Therefore, the biodegradation of plastics by different microorganisms and enzymes is a promising method for depolymerization reactions used for petrochemicals to turn them into monomers for recycling or mineralizing them into carbon dioxide, water, and fresh biomass with the concurrent creation of higher‐value bioproducts [107]. Microbial bioresource for plastic‐degrading enzymes has been discussed in this book.
1.7 Microbioresources for High‐Value Metabolites
Sugars that have distinct physiological and structural characteristics are known as functional sugars. Due to their availability in traces in nature, they are also called “rare sugars” [111]. Functional sugars have various applications in pharmaceuticals, chemical, nutritional, and food industries [112, 113]. The low‐calorie value and several health benefits make functional sugars preferable food ingredients [113]. However, as functional sugars are in trace amounts in honey and plant materials, their extraction from plants becomes very challenging. Also, the chemical synthesis of functional sugars creates difficult reaction conditions, limited product yield, several byproduct formations, the use of expensive chemicals, and environmental and safety issues [113, 114]. Exploring microbial bioresources for the synthesis and bioproduction of functional sugars is a necessity for developing feasible industrial processes.
The central ideology of science is to upgrade the quality of human life, and for several years, many people have concentrated on improving this quality [115]. The exploration of bioactive peptides is one of the promising approaches among the prior attempts. Bioactive peptides comprise short‐chain amino acids usually 2–20 amino acids, derived from different plants, animals, and microbial sources [115–117]. These bioactive peptides have several known and unknown beneficial effects on animal and human health. These peptides act as antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antitumor, and antihypertensive agents [117]. Due to their distinctive qualities, bioactive peptides are used extensively in the pharmaceutical and food industries. However, its industrial production is still challenging, particularly regarding purity, cost, yields, and environmental sustainability [116, 117]. Chemical synthesis is the primary method used to produce bioactive peptides, which consume many solvents and increase residue production [115]. To overcome these obstacles and enable the large‐scale bioproduction of these microbial peptides, it is crucial to research the metabolic engineering of the bacterial host to obtain bioactive peptides in bulk.
Antibiotics, pigments, growth hormones, anticancer drugs, and other microbial metabolites have been demonstrated as promising agents for improving human and animal health [118, 119]. Bacterial and fungal communities synthesize a wide range of aforementioned bioactive molecules with emerging benefactions to human health [118–120]. The secondary metabolites are typically produced during the microorganisms’ late growth phase, and they are inhibited during the logarithmic phase [118]. Therefore, a well‐designed bioreactor is necessary for producing secondary microbial metabolites in addition to nutrition. To enhance the production of the desired secondary metabolites, the bioreactor must provide microorganisms with the culture conditions required for the growth of microorganisms. The subsequent chapter describes different types of bioreactors, their design, and their impact on the production of secondary metabolites.
In conclusion this book compiles the global perspectives of microbes as bioreactors, crucial for the production of high‐value biomolecules of emerging benefaction to human health and the environment.
Acknowledgments
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Govt. of India, is acknowledged for all kinds of support. AKS acknowledges ICMR fellowships.
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