Microbial Biotechnology E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
A holistic approach covering a wide range of environmental microbial applications along with current and future trends In Microbial Biotechnology: Role in Ecological Sustainability and Research, a team of distinguished researchers delivers an authoritative overview of the role of microbial biotechnology in the pursuit of environmental and ecological sustainability. The book provides readers with compelling presentations of microbial technology, including its applications in the removal of environmental pollutants, and sustainable agriculture using microbial biocontrol agents or bio-fertilizers. Readers will also be able to explore the microbial reduction of greenhouse gases and a wide range of other cutting-edge applications, including the removal of various toxic environmental contaminants, such as antibiotics, pesticides, dyes, and heavy metals. Microbial Biotechnology provides: * A thorough introduction to microorganisms, their metabolic engineering, the human microbiome, and other foundational topics * An in-depth exploration of environmental management, including bioremediation through a nexus approach * A fulsome treatment of current trends in microbial biotechnology and its role in sustainable production Perfect for professionals in applied microbiology, biotechnology, environmental engineering, green chemistry, and soil science, Microbial Biotechnology: Role in Ecological Sustainability and Research will also earn a place in the libraries of research scholars, scientists, and academicians with an interest in environmental microbiology and ecology.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contributors
Preface
About the Editors
Part I: Microorganism
1 Microbes and Environment
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. MICROBES AND ENVIRONMENT
1.3. MICROBIAL INVOLVEMENT IN ECOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
1.4. MODERNIZATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL/MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
1.5. PROS AND CONS OF MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
1.6. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE PROSPECTIVE
CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
2 Environmental and Industrial Applications of Biosurfactants
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. BIOSURFACTANTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
2.3. TYPES OF BIOSURFACTANTS
2.4. APPLICATIONS OF BIOSURFACTANTS
2.5. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
3 Synbiotic Effects of Human Milk on Neonatal Health
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. SOURCES OF NUTRITION FOR INFANTS
3.3. ROLE OF INTESTINAL MICROFLORA IN NEONATAL HEALTH
3.4. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE NEONATAL MICROBIOME
3.5. NUTRITIVE ASPECTS OF BREASTMILK
3.6. MICROBIOME EXCHANGE BETWEEN MOTHERS AND INFANTS IN THE INTRAUTERINE AND EXTRAUTERINE ENVIRONMENT
3.7. HUMAN MILK PROBIOTIC‐BASED MILK FORMULA FOR INFANTS
3.8. FORTIFICATION OF INFANT FORMULA WITH SYNBIOTICS
3.9. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
4 Metabolic Engineering of Microbes for the Production of Plant‐Based Compounds
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2. METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF MICROBES
4.3. METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF MICROBES FOR PRIMARY METABOLITE PRODUCTION
4.4. METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF MICROBES FOR SECONDARY METABOLITES
4.5. FUTURE PROSPECTS AND CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
5 Quorum Sensing and Environmental Sustainability
5.1. QUORUM SENSING – A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
5.2. CONCEPT AND MECHANISM IN QUORUM SENSING
5.3. QUORUM SENSING AND THE ENVIRONMENT
5.4. APPLICATIONS OF QUORUM SENSING
5.5. QUORUM SENSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
5.6. OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF QUORUM SENSING
5.7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TOWARD ACHIEVING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
5.8. FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR QUORUM SENSING
5.9. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
6 Endophytic Microbes
6.1. INTRODUCTION
6.2. ENDOPHYTIC MICROBES AND SECONDARY METABOLITES
6.3. RATIONALE FOR PLANT SELECTION TO ISOLATE NOVEL ENDOPHYTIC MICROORGANISMS
6.4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
REFERENCES
7 The Role and Importance of Microorganisms in Environmental Sustainability
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.2. DEFINITIONS
7.3. BIOFERTILIZERS
7.4. BIOPESTICIDES
7.5. BIOHERBICIDES
7.6. BIOINSECTICIDES
7.7. EFFECTIVE MICROORGANISMS
7.8. MICROBIOLOGICAL ORGANISMS IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
7.9. PERSPECTIVES
7.10. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Part II: Environmental Management
8 Application of Green Remediation Technology in Field of Dye Effluent Management
8.1. INTRODUCTION
8.2. DYES AND THEIR HISTORY
8.3. EFFECT OF TEXTILE DYES ON LIFEFORMS
8.4. TYPES OF TEXTILE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
8.5. PLANT‐BASED STRATEGIES FOR DYE REMEDIATION
8.6. PHYTOTRANSFORMATION OF INDUSTRIAL TEXTILE DYES
8.7. ENZYME CASCADE RESPONSIBLE FOR DYE REMEDIATION
8.8. TOXICITY STUDIES OF TEXTILE DYES AND THEIR METABOLITES
8.9. PLANTS USED FOR THE TREATMENT OF TEXTILE WASTE
8.10. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS (CWS) AND THEIR TYPES
8.11. USE OF COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES IN THE FIELD OF DYE REMEDIATION
8.12. COUPLING OF THE PLANT‐MICROBIAL FUEL CELL (P‐MFC) TO INCREASE THE DYE DEGRADATION RATE WITH SIMULTANEOUS ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
8.13. FIELD APPLICATION OF PHYTOREMEDIATION TO DEAL WITH REAL TEXTILE EFFLUENT
8.14. CONCLUDING NOTE
REFERENCES
9 Exploitation of Soil Amendments to Remediate Heavy Metal Toxicity for Safe Cultivation of Crops
9.1. INTRODUCTION
9.2. SOURCES OF HEAVY METAL LOAD IN THE SOIL SYSTEM
9.3. EFFECT OF METAL CONTAMINATION ON SOIL HEALTH
9.4. REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES FOR HEAVY METAL‐CONTAMINATED SOIL
9.5. WAY FORWARD AND CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
10 Microbial Proteomics
10.1. INTRODUCTION
10.2. THE STUDY OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBON METABOLISM PATHWAYS – TRADITIONAL APPROACHES
10.3. A SHIFT TOWARD PROTEOMIC APPROACHES TO INVESTIGATE MICROBIAL AROMATIC HYDROCARBON METABOLISM
10.4. METABOLISM OF LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT (LMW) AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
10.5. METABOLISM OF HIGH MOLECULAR WEIGHT (HMW) POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAH)
10.6. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
11 Bioremediation of Problematic Soil for Sustainability
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.2. PROBLEMATIC SOIL: A GLOBAL COVERAGE
11.3. BIOREMEDIATION: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
11.4. BIOREMEDIATION OF PROBLEMATIC SOILS: FACTS AND FAITH
11.5. MICROBIAL VS PLANT‐ASSISTED BIOREMEDIATION
11.6. PLANTS FOR SOIL REMEDIATION
11.7. LEGUMINOUS TREES FOR REMEDIATION OF SALT‐AFFECTED SOIL
11.8. MICROBES FOR SOIL REMEDIATION
11.9. BIOREMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL IN SOIL
11.10. BIOREMEDIATION OF OIL‐CONTAMINATED SOIL
11.11. SOIL REMEDIATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
11.12. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN SOIL REMEDIATION
11.13. CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES
11.14. POLICY AND FUTURE ROADMAP
11.15. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
12 Recent Advances in Biosensors for Rapid Identification of Antibiotics in Dairy Products
12.1. INTRODUCTION
12.2. BIOSENSORS FOR DETECTION OF ANTIBIOTICS IN FOOD
12.3. FUTURE PROSPECTS
12.4. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
13 Application of Microbes in Dye Decolorization
13.1. INTRODUCTION
13.2. POLLUTION OF AZO DYES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
13.3. IMPORTANCE OF MICROBES IN THE ENVIRONMENT
13.4. REMOVAL AND DEGRADATION OF AZO DYES
13.5. CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
REFERENCES
14 Removal Potential of Microplastics in Organic Solid Wastes via Biological Treatment Approaches
14.1. INTRODUCTION
14.2. MICROPLASTICS IN TYPICAL ORGANIC WASTES
14.3. ANALYTICAL METHODS OF MICROPLASTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
14.4. FATE OF MICROPLASTICS IN ORGANIC WASTES THROUGH BIOTREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
14.5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
REFERENCES
15 Role of Microbes in Wastewater Treatment and Energy Generation Potentials
15.1. INTRODUCTION
15.2. WASTEWATER AND THEIR GENERATION SOURCE
15.3. ADVANCEMENTS IN WWT TECHNOLOGIES
15.4. MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGY/MICROBES INVOLVED IN WWT
15.5. DIFFERENT REMEDIATION TECHNIQUES
15.6. ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF USING BIOLOGICAL WWT METHODS
15.7. POTENTIAL OF WASTEWATER AS AN ENERGY GENERATION OPTION
15.8. ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF USING MICROBES AS AN ENERGY GENERATION METHOD FROM WASTEWATER
15.9. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
16 Actinobacteria from Soils and their Applications in Environmental Bioremediation
16.1. INTRODUCTION
16.2. ORIGIN OF ACTINOBACTERIA
16.3 DISTRIBUTION AND ROLE OF ACTINOBACTERIA IN SOIL
16.4 ACTINOBACTERIAL ENZYMES FOR BIOREMEDIATION
16.5 ACTINOBACTERIA AS BIOREMEDIATION AGENTS
16.6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Part III: Current Trends and Future Possibilities
17 Current Opinion and Trends for Use of Biochar in Agriculture Sustainability
17.1. INTRODUCTION
17.2. USE OF FEEDSTOCK
17.3. USE OF BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE SUSTAINABILITY
17.4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
18 Environmentally Sustainable Elimination of Microbes Using Boron‐Doped Diamond Electrodes
18.1. INTRODUCTION
18.2. INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS BY REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES
18.3. BORON‐DOPED DIAMOND ELECTRODES
18.4. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
19 Enzymatic Intervention as an Ecofriendly Approach in Industries
19.1. INTRODUCTION
19.2. INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT MICROBIAL ENZYMES
19.3. INNOVATIONS IN MICROBIAL ENZYMES
19.4. ENZYMATIC INTERVENTION IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
19.5. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
20 The Potential of Sulfate‐Reducing Microorganisms for the Bioconversion of Dissolved Sulfates to Sulfides Precipitating Metals of a Mine Liquid Effluent
20.1. INTRODUCTION
20.2. METHODOLOGY
20.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
20.4 CONCLUSIONS
20.5. FURTHER TRENDS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
21 The Human Microbiome
21.1. INTRODUCTION
21.2. FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION
21.3 PROBIOTICS
21.4. PREBIOTICS
21.5. POSTBIOTICS
21.6. SYNBIOTICS
21.7. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
22 Insight into Soil Organic Pollutants
22.1. INTRODUCTION
22.2. BIOAVAILABILITY OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS IN SOIL
22.3. IMPACT OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS ON SOIL MICROBES AND QUALITY
22.4. BIODEGRADATION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
22.5. STRATEGIES OF ORGANIC POLLUTANT DEGRADING MICROORGANISMS
22.6. MICROBIAL BIOREMEDIATION OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
22.7. FUTURE CHALLENGES
22.8. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
23 Agro‐Wastes for Cost Effective Production of Industrially Important Microbial Enzymes
23.1 INTRODUCTION
23.2 AGRO WASTES: TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
23.3 AGRO‐WASTES USED IN MICROBIAL ENZYME PRODUCTION
23.4 MICROBIAL SOURCES FOR PRODUCTION OF ENZYMES FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTES
23.5 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS IN ENZYME PRODUCTION FROM AGRICULTURAL WASTES
23.6 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Plant–bacteria partnership in biodegradation of organic pollutant...
Table 1.2 Plant–bacteria partnership in biodegradation of inorganic polluta...
Table 1.3 List of genetically engineered microorganisms and their different...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Effects of probiotics in children.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Genetically modified (GM) microbes engineered for the biosynthesi...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Quorum sensing in various environments.
Table 5.2 Modes of operation of Quorum sensing: Molecular approaches.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Reported endophytic bacteria and their hosts.
Table 6.2 List of reported antimicrobial compounds isolated from endophytic...
Table 6.3 List of bioactive metabolites with potent activity from endophyti...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Classes of dyes depending on method of application.
Table 8.2 Classes of dye depending on chromophore group.
Table 8.3 Physicochemical treatments for textile dye remediation.
Table 8.4 Examples of microbial remediations.
Table 8.5 Phytoremediation potential of different plants for textile dyes a...
Table 8.6 CWs for textile wastewater treatment.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Common types of remediation techniques in relation to heavy metal...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 A summary of proteomic investigations on the metabolism of aroma...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Soil heavy metal remediation through microbes.
Table 11.2 Phytoremediation processes and mechanisms for soil contaminants ...
Table 11.3 Phytoremediation mechanisms of plant species for heavy metals.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Biosensors for identification of antibiotics.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Effects of azo dyes on human health and treatment methods.
Table 13.2 Decolorization of azo dyes by fungal cultures.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Global studies of microplastics in sludge and landfill leachate....
Table 14.2 Visual and analytical methods of microplastics identification.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Pollutants removed from different wastewater by various bacteria...
Table 15.2 Pollutants removed from different wastewater by algal species.
Table 15.3 Pollutants removed from different wastewater by various fungal s...
Table 15.4 Pollutant removal by protozoa species in different wastewater.
Table 15.5 Heavy metals accumulated by different microorganisms [170].
Table 15.6 Widely applied bioremediation methods.
Table 15.7 Summarizes the use of different microorganisms for energy genera...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Examples of actinobacteria isolated from various soil types and ...
Table 16.2 List of actinobacteria used for the removal of heavy metals, dye...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Feedstock type and pyrolysis temperature induce changes in bioch...
Table 17.2 The use of biochar to mitigate persistent POCs in soil.
Table 17.3 The remediation of soil pollution by various types of modified b...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 A list of some important microbial enzymes and their industrial ...
Table 19.2 Some important tools and advancements in directed evolution.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Parameter P for the kinetic models evaluated.
Chapter 23
Table 23.1 Agro‐wastes used as substrates for production of different micro...
Table 23.2 Recent implications of fermentation techniques in microbial enzy...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Contaminants and microbial treatments for environmental sustainab...
Figure 1.2 An overview of processing, pollutants, and valorization.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Types of microbial biosurfactants.
Figure 2.2 Chemical structures of glycolipid biosurfactants produced by micr...
Figure 2.3 Chemical structures of lipopeptide biosurfactants produced by mic...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Mechanism of probiotics to overcome allergies.
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of microbiota exchange between mother an...
Figure 3.3 Possible pathways of action of probiotics.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Inter‐relationship of biosynthetic pathways leading to secondary ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Quorum sensing‐regulated molecular process.
Figure 5.2 Diverse applications of quorum sensing.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of the different plant–bacterial endophyteinter...
Figure 6.2 Screening of solvent extract of antimicrobial compound produced b...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Schematic representation of different strategies of phytoremediat...
Figure 8.2 General protocol for phytoremediation.
Figure 8.3 Mechanisms of catalysis of different oxidoreductase enzymes for d...
Figure 8.4 Histology of bivalve gill tissues exposed to (a) tab water; (b) M...
Figure 8.5 RAPD banding pattern of bivalve DNA shown as Lane (i) molecular m...
Figure 8.6 Photograph of (a)
Asparagus densiflorus,
(b)
Ammania baccifera,
(...
Figure 8.7 Schematic representation of constructed wetland types: (a) Free w...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 The entry of heavy metals into the food chain through the soil sy...
Figure 9.2 Classification of heavy metal remediation techniques.
Figure 9.3 Overall mechanisms of heavy metal remediation in immobilization (...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Integration of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabol...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Global distribution of saline and sodic soil (Mha).
Figure 11.2 Heavy metals reported in contaminated soils in the world.
Figure 11.3 Ecosystem restoration through bioremediation.
Figure 11.4 Model of soil contaminant consequences and phytoremediation.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 How antibiotic resistance spreads.
Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of the configuration of a biosensor.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Representation of the importance of the carbon cycle.
Figure 13.2 Representation of the nitrogen cycle in the atmosphere.
Figure 13.3 Schematic representation of microbes' role in the sulfur cycle....
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Graphic representation of outcomes of microplastics in organic w...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 An overview of diagrammatical presentation of sources and routes...
Figure 15.2 Enhanced biological removal process representing a mixture of wa...
Figure 15.3 Different mechanisms of nutrient uptake by algal species.
Figure 15.4 Flow chart representing different routes for biomass production....
Figure 15.5 Diagrammatical representation of different applications of mycor...
Figure 15.6 Schematic representation of floating gas holder type biogas plan...
Figure 15.7 Schematic representation of fixed dome type biogas plant.
Figure 15.8 Representation of simple microbial fuel cell.
Figure 15.9 Flow representing the process of transesterification.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Overview of biochar preparation.
Figure 17.2 Diagrammatic representation of biochar in the plant nutrition.
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic representation of BDD electrode function and effect. (...
Figure 18.2 Small‐scale BDD electrode. The electrode is powered by a mobile ...
Figure 18.3 BDD electrode prototype for implant disinfection. The handheld i...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Some of the technological innovations of microbial enzymes.
Figure 19.2 Microbial enzymes used in different industrial sectors.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 (a) Laboratory scale UASB reactor built for sampling at several ...
Figure 20.2 (a) Sulfate concentration behavior in the liquid phase of the la...
Figure 20.3 (a) Performance of the dissolved metal ions in the liquid phase ...
Figure 20.4 (a) Behavior of the concentration of dissolved sulfates as a fun...
Figure 20.5 Flow diagram of the operation of the lab scale UASB reactor simu...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Various methods of microbiome‐based therapy.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Types of organic pollutants.
Figure 22.2 Steps in the degradation of PCBs.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 The thrust of bioconversion of agricultural wastes to produce in...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contributors
Preface
About the Editors
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Microbial Biotechnology
Role in Ecological Sustainability and Research
Edited by
Pankaj ChowdharySujata ManiPreeti Chaturvedi
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Names: Chowdhary, Pankaj, editor. | Mani, Sujata, editor. | Chaturvedi, Preeti, 1977– editor.Title: Microbial biotechnology : role in ecological sustainability and research / edited by Pankaj Chowdhary, Sujata Mani, Preeti Chaturvedi.Other titles: Microbial biotechnology (John Wiley & Sons)Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ, USA : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022032480 (print) | LCCN 2022032481 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119834458 (Hardback) | ISBN 9781119834465 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119834472 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Microbial biotechnology.Classification: LCC TP248.27.M53 M5158 2023 (print) | LCC TP248.27.M53 (ebook) | DDC 660.6/2–dc23/eng/20220821LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022032480LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022032481
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: © Aliaksei Marozau/Shutterstock
CONTRIBUTORS
Nurul H. AdenanSchool of Science,Monash University Malaysia,Selangor, Malaysia;School of Biology,Universiti Teknologi,MARA (UiTM),Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
Gautam AnandDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India;Department of Plant Pathology and Weed Research,Agricultural Research Organization,The Volcani Center,Rishon LeZion, Israel
Fuad AmeenDepartment of Botany and Microbiology,College of Science,King Saud University,Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Juliana H‐P Américo‐PinheiroPost‐graduate Program in Environmental Sciences,Brazil University,São Paulo, Brazil
Arnab BanerjeeDepartment of Environmental Science,Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya,Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Paul O. BankoleDepartment of Pure and Applied Botany,College of Biosciences,Federal University of Agriculture,Abeokuta, Ogun, Nigeria
Piotr BarbaśPotato Agronomy Department,Plant Breeding, and Acclimatization Institute,National Research Institute,Serock, Poland
María‐del‐Carmen Durán‐Domínguez‐de‐BazúaLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Enrique R. Bazúa‐RuedaLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Akanksha BehlResearch Scholar, Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences,Amity University,Noida,Uttar Pradesh, India
Marisela Bernal‐GonzálezLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Sartaj A. BhatRiver Basin Research Center,Gifu University,Gifu, Japan
Muhammad BilalSchool of Life Science and Food Engineering,Huaiyin Institute of Technology,Huai'an, China
Andreas BurkovskiDepartment of Biology,Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐ Nürnberg,Erlangen, Germany
Tania ChalotraSchool of Biotechnology,Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University,Jammu and Kashmir, India
Preeti Chaturvedi BharagavaAquatic Toxicology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ángel E. Chávez‐CastellanosLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Ram N. BharagavaDepartment of Environmental Microbiology,School for Environmental Sciences,Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University),Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Bernadetta BieniaFood Production and Safety Plant,Carpathian State University in Krosno,Krosno, Poland
Subir K. BoseDepartment of Biotechnology & Microbiology,Meerut Institute of Engineering and Technology,Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shraddha ChauhanAquatic Toxicology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shaohua ChenState Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro‐Bioresources,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Microbial Signals and Disease Control,Integrative Microbiology Research Centre,South China Agricultural University,Guangzhou, China;Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture,Guangzhou, China
Jyoti ChoudharyDepartment of Biotechnology,Chinmaya Degree College,Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India;Department of Botany and Microbiology,Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalya,Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Pankaj ChowdharyEnvironmental Microbiology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐IndianInstitute of Toxicology Research (CSIR‐IITR),Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Guangyu CuiState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse,Tongji University,Shanghai, China
Digvijay DahiyaDepartment of Biotechnology,National Institute of Technology,Tadepalligudem, Andhra Pradesh, India
Ramesh C. DubeyDepartment of Botany and Microbiology,Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalya,Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Shruti DwivediDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Luiz F. R. FerreiraWaste and Effluent Treatment Laboratory,Institute of Technology and Research (ITP),Tiradentes University,Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil
Kuruvalli GouthamiDepartment of Biochemistry,School of Allied Health Sciences,REVA University,Bangalore, India
Sanjay GovindwarDepartment of Biochemistry,Shivaji University,Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India;Department of Earth Resources and Environmental Engineering,Hanyang University,Seoul, South Korea
Supriya GuptaDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Manoj Kumar JhariyaDepartment of Farm Forestry,Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya,Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Suhas KadamResearch Institute for Dok‐do and Ulleung‐do Island,Department of Biology,School of Life Sciences,Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea;Department of Biochemistry,Shivaji University,Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India
Bhargab KalitaMicrobial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory,Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology,Tezpur University,Tezpur, Assam, India;Proteomics Lab,National Centre for Cell Science,Pune, Maharashtra, India
Maximilian KochDepartment of Biology,Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐ Nürnberg,Erlangen, Germany
Nahid KhanDepartment of Farm Forestry,Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya,Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh, India
Rahul KhandareAmity Institute of Biotechnology,Amity University,Maharashtra, India
Ashish KumarSchool of Biotechnology,Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University,Jammu and Kashmir, India
Abinaya LakshmiPG Department of Microbiology,The American College,Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Iswareya LakshimiPG Department of Microbiology,The American College,Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Lavanya LakshminarayanaDepartment of Biochemistry,School of Allied Health Sciences,REVA University,Bangalore, India
Manuel J. Leal‐GutiérrezLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Xuyang LeiDepartment of Resource and Environmental Engineering,Hebei Vocational University of Technology and Engineering,Xingtai, China
Fusheng LiRiver Basin Research Center,Gifu University,Gifu, Japan
Sujata ManiDepartment of Biochemistry,Gramin Science Vocational College,Nanded, Maharashtra, India
Amarnath MishraAmity Institute of Forensic Sciences,Amity University Uttar Pradesh,Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sandhya MishraEnvironmental Technologies Division,CSIR – National Botanical Research Institute,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sarad Kumar MishraDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sikandar I. MullaDepartment of Biochemistry,School of Allied Health Sciences,REVA University,Bangalore, India
Anandkumar NaoremICAR– Central Arid Zone Research Institute,Regional Research StationBhuj,Gujarat, India
Abhishek PatelICAR– Central Arid Zone Research Institute,Regional Research StationBhuj,Gujarat, India
Atin K. PathakSchool of Energy Management,Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University,Jammu and Kashmir, India
Piotr PszczółkowskiExperimental Station for Cultivar Assessment of Central Crop Research Centre,Dębowa Kłoda, Poland
Abbas RahdarDepartment of Physics,University of Zabol,Zabol, Iran
Neelu RainaSchool of Biotechnology,Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University,Jammu and Kashmir, India
Abhay RajEnvironmental Microbiology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐IndianInstitute of Toxicology Research (CSIR‐IITR),Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Abhishek RajPt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture and Forestry,Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University,Samastipur, Bihar, India
Zainab RaoDepartment of Biotechnology,Chinmaya Degree College,Haridwar, Uttarakhand,India
Stefan RosiwalDepartment of Material Sciences,Friedrich‐Alexander‐Universität Erlangen‐Nürnberg,Erlangen, Germany
Barbara SawickaDepartment of Plant Production and Commodities Science,University of Life Sciences in Lublin,Lublin, Poland
Vikas SharmaAquatic Toxicology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Parul ShuklaCentre for Sustainable Polymers,Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,Guwahati, Assam, India
Swati ShuklaDepartment of Biotechnology,Chinmaya Degree College,Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
Anuradha SinghAquatic Toxicology Laboratory,Environmental Toxicology Group,CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sourabh Kumar SinghResearch Scholar, Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences,Amity University,Noida,Uttar Pradesh, India
Shrutika SinglaResearch Scholar, Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences,Amity University,Noida,Uttar Pradesh, India
Dominika SkibaDepartment of Plant Production and Commodities Science,University of Life Sciences in Lublin,Lublin, Poland
Julio A. Solís‐FuentesLaboratorios de Ingeniería Química Ambiental y de Química Ambiental,Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Química,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM,Mexico City, Mexico
Yashdeep SrivastavaDepartment of Biotechnology,RR Institute of Modern Technology,Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Immanuel SureshPG Department of Microbiology,The American College,Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India
Aiman TanveerDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Adeline S‐Y TingSchool of Science,Monash University Malaysia,Selangor, Malaysia
Shiva Kumar UdayanaDepartment of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,MS Swaminathan School of Agriculture,Centurion University of Technology and Management,Gajapati, Odhisha, India
Swati UpadhyayDepartment of Biotechnology,Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University (APJAKTU),Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Vadamalai VeeraraghavanDepartment of Biochemistry,School of Allied Health Sciences,REVA University,Bangalore, India
Dinesh YadavDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Kanchan YadavDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sangeeta YadavDepartment of Biotechnology,Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University,Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Naik YaseeraDepartment of Environmental Sciences,Government Degree College Anantnag,Jammu and Kashmir, India
PREFACE
The book Microbial Biotechnology: Role in Ecological Sustainability and Research discusses the potential role of microbial biotechnology in the betterment of our daily lifestyle. Today, microbial biotechnology is a rapidly growing segment of life sciences/biological sciences. It is well known that rapid industrialization and urbanization have resulted in contamination of all components of the environment, increasing public concern over the environmental brunt of wastewater polluted by anthropogenic sources. To mitigate this, numerous traditional wastewater treatment techniques, both physical and chemical, such as sedimentation or filtration techniques, oil–water separators, adsorption, membranes, coagulation, adsorption, activated sludge, trickling filtration, precipitation, and oxidation processes have been applied effectively. Besides, biological strategies through bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes, etc., have also been used to remove environmental pollutants. But these conventional wastewater treatment methods have some limitations, require a noteworthy amount of energy, and most importantly involve pricey paraphernalia and their upkeep in maintaining microorganisms. From an environmental point of view, these recent and classic treatment technologies should be amplified to formulate them in a more viable and feasible manner. Contaminant mitigation or removal by using microbial technology is an attractive and potential alternative. Recent development in the field of biotechnology, molecular biology, ecology, and microbiology has been applied to develop different novel treatment methods involving novel strains of microorganisms and their desirable properties that could be applicable in the process of bioremediation. Various types of beneficial microbes are present in the ecosystem and they can play key roles in mitigating climate concerns, increasing green production technology, improving agriculture productivity, and providing a means of earning a livelihood.
On the other hand, pathogenic microorganisms are a warranted introduction to emergent therapies and disease prevention, and to gradually increasing agricultural profitability using microbial biocontrol agents and bio‐fertilizers. Similarly, various potential microbes play critical roles in regulating the environment via their involvement in the production and intake/consumption of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and other air pollutants from the environment. Environmental pollutants such as industrial and pharmaceutical waste have emerged as a global threat, creating widespread antibiotic resistance and giving rise to drug‐resistant strains of pathogens. The book details the environmental problems posed by antibiotics, including the various types of toxic environmental pollutants discharged from both natural and anthropogenic activities and their toxicological effects in environments, humans, animals, and plants. This book also highlights the recent advanced and innovative methods for the useful degradation and bioremediation of organic pollutants, heavy metals, dyes, etc., in wastewater. This book covers a wide range of topics: environmental microbiology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, green chemistry, environmental science, and environmental engineering, among others.
It is our hope that this book will also enhance the knowledge base of students, environmental scientists, environmental biotechnologists, microbiologists, biomedical scientists, and policymakers working in environmental microbiology, biotechnology, environmental sciences, and medical microbiology with both basic and more advanced facts about environmental issues and their challenges. Moreover, readers can also get up‐to‐date information and some background learning about existing environmental problems, their effects on human health, and ways to control or contain these effects by employing various effective approaches.
The editors would like to express their sincere thanks to the contributors for submitting their work in a timely and proper manner. The editors are also thankful to national and international reviewers for evaluation and valuable suggestions and comments to improve the book for readers. Dr. Chowdhary acknowledges the support received from their family, especially their father (Mr. Ram Chandra), and mother (Mrs. Malti Devi). Further, the editors also acknowledge the cooperation received from the Wiley team, and for their guidance to finalize this book.
Editors
Pankaj Chowdhary, PhDEnvironmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology GroupCSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR‐IITR), Lucknow, India;Society for Green Environment, New Delhi, India
Sujata Mani, PhDDepartment of Biochemistry, Gramin Science Vocational College, Maharashtra, India.
Preeti Chatuervedi, PhDAquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology GroupCSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR‐IITR), Lucknow, India
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Dr. Pankaj Chowdhary is Founder and President, Society for Green Environment (SGE) (www.sgeindia.org) at New Delhi India. Currently he is working as a Postdoctoral Fellow in CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research. He received his post‐graduate degree (2011) in Biotechnology from Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gorakhpur University Uttar Pradesh (UP), India. Afterward, he obtained his PhD (2018) in the area of Microbiology from the Department of Microbiology at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. His PhD work has mainly focused on the role of ligninolytic enzyme‐producing bacterial strains in the decolorizing and degradation of coloring compounds from distillery wastewater. His main research areas are microbial biotechnology, biodegradation and bioremediation of environmental contaminants in industrial wastewaters, metagenomics, biofuel, and bioenergy production. He has edited three books: Emerging and Eco‐friendly Approaches for Waste Management; Contaminants and Clean Technologies; and Microorganisms for Sustainable Environment and Health. He has also authored two international books: New Technologies for Reclamation of Industrial Wastewater and Recent Advances in Distillery Waste Management for Environmental Safety. He has published more than seventy (70) research publications including research/review papers and two book reviews in national and international peer reviewed journals of high impact published by Springer, Elsevier, Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC), Taylor & Francis Group, and Frontiers. He has also published many national and international book chapters and magazine articles on the biodegradation and bioremediation of industrial pollutants. He has presented many posters/papers relevant to his research areas at national and international conferences. He has also served as a potential reviewer for various national and international journals in his respective areas of research. He is a lifetime member of the Association of Microbiologists of India (AMI); Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) Kolkata, India; and The Biotech Research Society, India (BRSI).
Dr. Sujata Mani is currently working as an Assistant Professor and is actively engaged in teaching and research activities in the Department of Biochemistry, Gramin Science Vocational College, Vishnupuri, Nanded, Maharashtra, India. She has completed her PhD (2018) degree in Microbiology from Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. During her PhD, she was awarded the Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship (Both JRF and SRF). Her doctorate work was focused on the degradation and detoxification mechanisms of crystal violet from textile wastewater for environmental safety. Her major areas of research are biodegradation and bioremediation of synthetic dyes in textile wastewater through bacterial species producing ligninolytic enzymes. She has published review/research papers in reputed national and international journals with high impact factors. She has also published many book chapters in national and international edited books from Springer, Elsevier, and CRC Press. She has also qualified ICAR‐NET in microbiology. In addition, she has guided graduation and post‐graduation students through their dissertation processes. She is a lifetime member of the Association of Microbiologists of India (AMI) and the Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA), Kolkata, India.
Dr. Preeti Chaturvedi is currently working as a Senior Scientist in Environmental Microbiology Division at the CSIR‐Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow. Currently, her team is involved in working on the synthesis of native and engineered (surface modifications) biochar using different types of catalysts for enhancing the adsorption capacity for remediation and adsorption of pollutants from wastewater samples. In addition, she is involved in the development of green technology by effluent treatment for sustainable environment and health. The major areas of her research include bioremediation, toxicity assessment, metagenomics, microbial biotechnology, and proteomics. She has published more than 50 research/review papers in peer‐reviewed SCI journals published by Springer, Elsevier, and Frontiers. She has also published national and international book chapters and magazine articles. She has been serving as an active reviewer for various reputable national and international journals related to her field. She has successfully completed a major research project funded by State Mission for Clean Ganga & Ground Water. She is a lifetime member of the Biotech Research Society of India (BRSI) and Association of Microbiologists of India (AMI).
Part IMicroorganism: An Introduction
1Microbes and Environment: Recent Advancement in Environmental Biotechnology
Pankaj Chowdhary1, Sujata Mani2, Parul Shukla3, and Abhay Raj1
1Environmental Microbiology Laboratory, Environmental Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
2Department of Biochemistry, Gramin Science Vocational College, Nanded, Maharashtra, India
3Centre for Sustainable Polymers, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Rapid urbanization and industrialization have led to various anthropogenic activities that cause severe environmental impacts including soil pollution (use of fertilizers, pesticides), water pollution (leaching of chemicals, oil spills, etc.), and air pollution (emission of greenhouse gases, CO2, NOx, SO2, etc.). To tackle this situation, “environmental biotechnology” has come into consideration, which can offer various opportunities to provide environmental protection [1, 2]:
Biological treatment of agricultural, industrial, hospital, and domestic effluents;
Bioremediation or biodegradation of contaminants present in soil and water;
Preservation and conservation of distinct species;
Monitoring fate of environmental pollutants;
Sustainable production of bioproducts with less waste generation and toxic byproducts;
Utilization of organic biomass for bio‐energy generation;
Employment of genetic engineering to produce better crop productivity and high yield;
Synthesis of biofertilizers to be utilized in agriculture/horticulture;
Forensic and diagnostic practices;
Disease prevention and treatment; and
Food prevention and nutrition.
The development of affordable and potent biological techniques accompanying genome alteration, bioinformatics tools, high‐resolution imaging and analytical instruments, and single‐cell techniques has opened new avenues in various applications. Such applications use microbial communities such as viruses, bacteria (archaea and eubacteria), fungus, algae, protozoa, and other biomass, which have revolutionized the current scenarios. Various organic and inorganic contaminants, including radionuclides, heavy metals, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), metalloids, and pesticides have been removed from wastewater, contaminated soil, and sediments using microorganisms [3, 4]. Microbes facilitate biodegradation via a series of biochemical reactions that involve enzymes. However, physicochemical characteristics (moisture content, pH, temperature) of the environment, concentration and chemical nature of the contaminant, presence of oxygen, and nutrition availability to microorganisms are the most influential factors affecting bioremediation [5]. For instance, Bacillus, Methanogens, Nocardia, Azotobacter Pseudomonas, Rhizopus arrhizus, Ganoderma applantus, Rhodococcus, Aspergillus niger, Arthrobacter, Methosinus, Mycobacterium, Stereum hirsutum, Corynebacterium, Pleurotus ostreatus, Flavobacterium alcaligenes, Phormidium valderium, Chlorella sp., Chlamydomonas sp., Parachlorella sp., [6, 7] have been utilized for mitigation of toxic pollutants. Moreover, to accelerate and provide efficient removal of pollutants, recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology has been employed. With the advent of rDNA technology, the area of biodegradation/bioremediation has been rejuvenated in terms of creating and developing novel microbial strains known as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) with high removal and degradation efficiency. For this purpose, various strategies have been used: (i) screening and cloning of potent genes; (ii) enhancing the enzyme expression; (iii) expressing degradation genes to construct engineered novel strains; and (iv) fusion of protoplast for enhancing gene functions [8]. In a study, recombinant Caulobacter crescentus for removal of soluble heavy metals [9], recombinant Deinococcus radiodurans for uranium removal from acidic/neutral aqueous wastes, vector pET21a(+)‐merA for mineral mercury [10], and recombinant Pseudomonas guguanensis for crude oil‐contaminated soil have been used. Besides bioremediation, use of numerous bacterial strains has been demonstrated in vaccine production, enzyme production, alcohol production, biofuel production, healthcare product synthesis, nanotechnology, and in production of transgenic crops. For example, 3‐hydroxypropionic acid was produced using recombinant Klebsiella pneumoniae L17 in the bioelectrochemical system [11]. Similarly, recombinant Escherichia coli, namely phenylalanine ammonia‐lyase (PAL), has been used for the synthesis of flavonoids [12].
Nevertheless, it is complicated to use and rely on engineered microbes as it is difficult to assess their effect on indigenous microbes and the ecosystem. In addition, genetic manipulation can cause certain undesirable outcomes such as the creation of herbicide‐resistant weeds or adverse impacts on soil microbiota, reduced soil fertility, etc. This requires strict containment protocols and guidelines for the application of microbial communities in diverse fields [13].
This chapter provides comprehensive details of various microbial strains including bacteria, fungus, viruses, protozoa, and algae utilized in various sectors (science and technology, cosmetics, industries, diagnostics, etc.). Furthermore, all possible bioremediation applications such as remediation of environmental pollutants (organic and inorganic) have been covered along with an introduction to commercially utilized microbial strains. The current chapter emphasizes the beneficial impact and use of microorganisms in biofertilizers, fermentation, biopesticides, bioherbicides, and bioinsecticides, as well as a few other applications. Furthermore, the current state and extent of microbial biotechnology, as well as the benefits and disadvantages of employing microbial communities in many regions for numerous purposes, are explained.
1.2. MICROBES AND ENVIRONMENT
Microorganisms are omnipresent; they can be found everywhere, such as in air, water, food, soil, animal intestines, and also in extreme environments such as hot springs, glaciers, deep‐sea vents, and rocks. Microbes cannot be seen with the naked eye since our eye's resolution is limited to 100–200 μm and microbial size ranges from about 0.2–200 μm; therefore, a microscope is needed to see them. There are a few exceptions, like fruiting bodies of some fungi, which are found to be larger. The extensive array of microorganism habitats reflects their vast diversity in metabolic as well as in biochemical traits that might have occurred through natural selection or genetic variations in their populations. Microorganisms provide plentiful substantiation of their presence, both favorably such as through bread production, fermenting sugar to wine and beer, flavoring cheese, and producing valuable products like antibiotics and insulin, and unfavorably through decaying matter or in spreading disease. The value of microbes in the earth's ecosystem is immeasurable. Microorganisms play a very important role in balancing our ecosystem as disintegrating animals and plants remain by converting them into simpler substances that can be easily used by other organisms [4, 14, 15]. This group of microorganisms includes algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses, which play a principal role in numerous natural processes that have been well summarized in the following subsections.
1.2.1. Bacteria (Archaea and Eubacteria)
Microbiology subjects came into the limelight through studies on bacteria and their importance to humans with experiments performed by scientists like Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and others during the late 1800s. The technique of culturing and isolating pure culture from the mixed culture in laboratories was usually performed for bacteria, but later was modified and applied for all microorganisms. The microbial world has been characterized into either prokaryotic or eukaryotic, among which bacteria have been put under the prokaryotic category. Until the late 1970s, all bacterial groups were thought to be closely related, but the later discovery of ribosomal RNA distinguished it into distinct groups, mainly eubacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Presently, eubacteria are known as true bacteria and form the main bacterial domain [16, 17].
Bacteria are the smallest free‐living prokaryotic organisms whose cell size varies from 0.2 to 1.0 μm in length and exists in various cell shapes such as cocci, rods, and spirals. Although there are unicellular cells, the majority appears either in pairs, tetrads, chains, or clusters. They lack true nuclear envelopes and the genome is composed of single double‐stranded DNA, which is found free in the cytoplasm. The bacterial genome codes around 3000–4000 genes and their lengths are approximately 4–6 million nucleotides. The cell envelope of bacteria is composed of two layers, of which the inner layer is composed of phospholipids and the outer cell wall layer is made up of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The bacterial cell moves through flagella and file filaments, i.e. pili, which enables them to attach with other cells or soil particles. These pili also help in the process of conjugation, where one cell transfers its genetic material to other cells with their help [16, 17]. The bacterial cells reproduce asexually, a process known as binary fission, where one bacterial cell divides into two genetically identical bacterial cells. One of the most important characteristics of bacteria is their reaction during gram staining. On this basis, bacteria get divided into two types; Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative, and both have different physiology and cell structures.
Bacteria and archaea look alike when viewed through a microscope but have different biochemical activity, chemical composition, and even environments. Carbon is the building block for carrying out energy‐driven activities like cell biosynthesis and metabolism. Oxygen is utilized by most of the bacterial cells but only a few, as well as archaea, grow anaerobically, i.e. in absence of oxygen by utilizing alternate electron acceptors such as sulfates and nitrates. All true bacterial cell wall consists of peptidoglycan, which is lacking in archaeans. Earlier, archaeans were noted to survive only under harsh conditions such as high acid or salt levels and in high temperatures, which is why they were known as extremophiles. But now we have learned that they can survive in normal environments and can be found in ecosystems such as soil. Based on morphology, it becomes very difficult to distinguish between bacteria and archaea. Later 16S rRNA phylogenetic sequencing classifications differentiated three domains of life, eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea, which revealed archaea to be closer to eukaryotes than bacteria [18].
1.2.2. Fungus
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms and thus are more closely related to plants and animals than bacteria and archaea. Their cell wall is rigid, composed of chitin and glucans, and may be either unicellular or multicellular. Some fungi are so small that they can be viewed only through a microscope, while some are very large in structure, such as bracket fungi and mushrooms, which can be easily grown in soil or on damp logs. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, e.g. saprophytic fungi, which feed on dead and decaying organic materials for energy [17]. Unicellular fungi such as yeast grow in a cylindrical thread‐like structure, commonly known as hyphae, which might be either septate or non‐septate. Hypha is a major group of fungi that comprises mycelium occupying the largest surface area in the soil, producing an array of enzymes. These enzymes start acting on the organic materials present in the soil to produce sufficient energy and nutrients that are required for fungal growth. In fungi, the reproduction process occurs through both asexual budding or binary fission and sexually through spore formation. Fungus is diverse and plays an important role in decomposition, as well as acting as predators, pathogens, mutualists, and endophytes of plants [16].
1.2.3. Algae
In contrast to bacteria, algae are eukaryotic organisms consisting of chlorophyll, which carry out the process of photosynthesis like plants, and also have a rigid cell wall. Algae are usually found in aquatic environments and soggy soil conditions. Algae may exist as unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes and can be found in various sizes from microscopic to approximately 120 m in length. They are also motile and exist in various shapes such as spindle, spherical, rod, or club‐shaped. Multicellular algae are found in various forms as well as degrees of convolution. Some are found in colonies, some as filaments in which cells are attached from end to end, and some even aggregate to form single cells [4, 16].
1.2.4. Protozoa
These are single‐celled eukaryotic microorganisms found in different shapes such as spherical, oval, or elongated but some have been reported with different shapes at different life cycle stages. Like algae, these also exist in a range of sizes from 1 μm in diameter to 2000 μm. Some protozoa are like animal cells in lacking the cell wall and ingesting food particles, but some are like plants, known as phytoflagellate protozoa, which perform the process of photosynthesis to obtain their energy needs [4, 16]. Some animal‐like protozoan cells swim in water with cilia or flagella, or through beating actions which can be easily seen through a microscope in a drop of pond water. Some protozoa, such as amoebas, do not swim but creep by extending their cell portion as a pseudopod; this form of locomotion is known as an amoeboid movement.
1.2.5. Viruses
Viruses are extensively present in nature, causing infection to plants, animals, and microbes after coming in contact with them. Viruses lack their metabolic machinery to synthesize protein and energy generation, thus depending on host cells for carrying out their all‐important functions, and are therefore known as obligate parasites. Once they enter any host cell, they take over the energy generating and protein‐synthesizing system of cells for their purposes. Viruses have an extracellular form for carrying viral nucleic acid form only surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid (protects genes in the environment or outside the host cell) from one host cell to another cell [16]. The infectious virus particle with mature structure is called a virion, which ranges from 20–300 nm in size. Since most of the viruses are less than 150 nm in size, they are visible only through an electron microscope.
1.3. MICROBIAL INVOLVEMENT IN ECOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Microorganisms are present in large numbers everywhere, and they play very important roles in biogeochemical cycles. Generally, most of the microbes present in our surroundings are beneficial to plants, animals, and humans, except for a few. More than half of the breathable oxygen in the air is generated by microbes. Microbes have the capability to keep their ecosystem clean if it's not overloaded with pollutants (Figure 1.1). The involvement of the microbes in cleaning up pollutants from the ecosystem and their benefits for humans and the environment has been summarized in detail in the following subsections.
1.3.1. Remediation of Environmental Pollutants
Water and soil resources worldwide have been heavily polluted by different types of organic as well as inorganic pollutants. These pollutants persist for a long time in the environment, causing severe threats to life. These pollutants reach to freshwater bodies through leaching as well as runoff methods from contaminated soil. The organic and inorganic pollutants reported in the soil as well as in water, such as PAHs, PCBs, pesticides, explosives, heavy metals, metalloids, and radionuclides, are discussed in detail in the following subsections.
1.3.1.1. Organic Pollutants
The widespread application of organic compounds over the last few decades has consequently led to insidious and persisting environmental threats. The long‐term application of organic compounds in public health sectors and agricultural fields resulted in irrigational soils, surface and water, and foodstuff contaminations. The residues of the compounds in the environment have been reported even several years after their application [19]. Some examples of these organic compounds are pesticides, BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene), PAHs, PCBs, and explosives [19]. However, the major hurdle associated with the cleanup solutions of these organic compounds is the high cost of their remediation processes. But in recent years, various microbes have been reported in degrading these toxic compounds in laboratory conditions [20–22]. Microbial bioremediation of some of the toxic organic compounds has been summarized here, and also their degradation through plant–bacterial association is summarized in Table 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Contaminants and microbial treatments for environmental sustainability.
1.3.1.1.1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Groups of hydrophobic compounds whose molecules consist of two or more aromatic benzene rings are known as PAHs. PAHs are measured as the most recalcitrant compound among all included here. For the biodegradation of organic compounds of the PAHs group, several bacterial organisms were isolated but were able to metabolize compounds having low or intermediate molecular weight. For biodegradation of high molecular weight molecules, bacterial strains require voluntarily high carbon sources [19]. This is the what hastens the microbial biodegradation of PAHs in collaboration with some other sources like plants, to reduce its toxic effects more effectively. Daane [41] isolated a bacterial strain from rhizospheric soil of salt marsh plants that was capable of biodegrading PAHs from the contaminated sites. Similarly, Kuiper [42] found bacterial strain Pseudomonas putida PCL1444, which showed potential biodegradation of PAHs by utilizing the root exudates. In recent years, Xun [43] discovered that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus improved the quality of soil with the application of PGPR (plant growth‐promoting rhizobacteria) by increasing their dehydrogenase, sucrase, and urease activities along with the degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. Scientists have also found the potential remediation of some PAHs such as pyrene, phenanthrene, and naphthalene by endophytes [44].
Table 1.1 Plant–bacteria partnership in biodegradation of organic pollutants.
Class
Target pollutants
Plants utilized
Bacterial strains
References
Pesticides
Paraquat
Cowpea
B. aryabhattai
[23]
Aldrin
—
Pseudomonas fluorescens
and
Bacillus polymyxa
[24]
Lindane
Zea mays
Streptomyces
sp.
[25]
Phenanthrene
Salix
sp.
Pseudomonas putida
[26]
Crude Oil
Tectona grandis, Azadirachta indica
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
[27]
Hexachlorocyclohexane
Cytisus striatus
Rhodococcus erythropolis
[28]
Chlorpyrifos
Lolium perenne
Bacillus pumilus
[29]
PCBs
PCB
Phalaris arundinacea, Arabidopsis thaliana
Rhodococcus
[30]
3,3′,4,4′‐TCB
Astragalus sinicus
Mesorhizobium
sp.
[31]
PCB
Zea mays
Plant growth promoting bacterium
[32]
Weathered PCBs
Medicago sativa
Rhizobium meliloti
[33]
PAHs
Dibenzothiophene, naphthalene, Fluorene
Populus deltoides × Populus nigra
Burkholderia fungorum
[34]
Different PAH compounds
Medicago sativa
Rhizobium meliloti
[35]
Phenanthrene and Pyrene
Lolium multiforum
Acinetobacter
sp.
[36]
Fluoranthene, Pyrene, and Benzo[a] pyrene
Medicago sativa
Flavobacterium
sp.,
Bacillus
sp.
[37]
Explosives
TNT, RDX, HMX
Populus deltoidesnigra
Methylobacterium populi
[38]
Toluene
Lupinus luteus
Burkholderia cepacia
[39]
TNT
Brous erectus
Pseudomonas
sp.
[40]
1.3.1.1.2. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
These are synthetic organic compounds with a high boiling point, chemical stability, non‐flammability, and electric insulating properties. These compounds are involved in various industrial and commercial products but proved to be very toxic in the environment, thus requiring solid biodegradation mechanisms. Some bacterial strains such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens have been reported to enable the plants in phytoremediation for absorbing a greater amount of PCBs and other toxic pollutants from the soil as well as from groundwater [19]. Some plants such as Morusrubra (red mulberry) have been reported to increase the activity as well as the growth of bacterial communities that have the potential of biodegrading PAHs and PCBs [45]. A similar report has also been reported with the bacterium Burkholderia sp. LB400. In another study conducted on artificially contaminated soils, Ouillayasaponins showed increased biodegradation of PCBs in soils [19].
1.3.1.1.3. Pesticides
Most of the pesticides residing in the environment can be easily degraded through the metabolic pathways of both plants and microbes [19, 46]. But long‐term persisting compounds have demonstrated the limitations regarding the use of microbes for their biodegradation. Therefore, microbial transformation has helped in more uptake and biodegradation of these compounds. A noteworthy reduction was reported in the concentration of a p′‐DDE pesticide, which is found in the rhizospheres of pumpkin, lucerne, spinach, zucchini, and ryegrass. More degradation was reported in the rhizospheres or near root zones than that present in the bulk of soil [19, 47]. In a study, increased biodegradation of chloroacetamide herbicides was reported by the combined use of chemical benoxacor with herbicide‐detoxifying bacterial strain Pseudomonas fluorescens[48]. In another study, wheatgrass inoculated with microbial consortium at the contaminated site was able to tolerate PCP (pentachlorophenol) [49]. A prompt of dibenzofuran by recombinant microbial strain Rhizobium tropici (PBK3‐IS) and PCP from Sphingobium chlorophenolicum has also been reported [50, 51]. Some scientists have also reported the remediation of various pesticides with the involvement of endophytes. Biodegradation of 2,4‐D was later reported by three endophytic Pseudomonas strains found in endophytes of hybrid cottonwood [52]. In another study, the enhanced removal of 2,4‐D by pea plant was found by the colonization of its roots with endophyte P. putida[53]. These studies suggest the enhanced bioremediation of toxic pesticides with endophytes in combination with microbial strains.
1.3.1.1.4. Explosives
Several scientists have also studied the potentiality of endophytes in biodegrading several types of explosives like RDX and TNT; for example, an endophyte Methylobacterium populum sp. Nov., strain BJ001 showed great potential in degrading these explosives (Khan and Doty, 2011). Several species of grasses such as Anthoxanthum odoratum, Bromus erectus, and Loliumperenne have been inoculated with bacterial strain Pseudomonas sp. strain I4, which was TNT transforming, and this combination shows very reduced levels when applied to soil
