Microbial Colorants E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The book is a must-buy for anyone interested in the burgeoning field of microbial colorants, as it provides an extensive exploration of their sources, chemistry, and diverse applications, while addressing crucial aspects of environmental sustainability and regulatory considerations.
Microbial Colorants: Chemistry, Biosynthesis and Applications offers a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of microbial colorants, covering their sources, chemical properties, biosynthesis, and a wide range of applications. The volume compiles information on microbial and non-conventional pigment sources as well as environmental sustainability and regulatory aspects surrounding their use. The first half of the book delves into the sources and chemistry of microbial pigments, covering a variety of topics including bacterial pigments, fungal pigments, algal and cyanobacterial colorants, and more. Readers will gain insight into the diverse world of microbial pigments and the science behind their vibrant colors. The second half of the book focuses on the practical aspects of microbial colorants, including extraction and purification techniques, biotechnological approaches to enhance production, environmental sustainability, and regulatory considerations. It also explores the numerous applications of microbial colorants in industries such as food, cosmetics, textiles, and technology. Microbial colorants are gaining increasing attention due to their natural and sustainable properties. As the world seeks eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic dyes and colorants, microbial pigments offer a promising solution. This book aims to bridge the knowledge gap by providing a comprehensive resource for researchers, students, and professionals interested in this emerging field.
Readers will find the book:
- Explores various microbial pigments and their sources;
- Reviews pigment isolation, biosynthesis, and processing techniques;
- Discusses potential applications of pigments across a range of products in the food and beverage industry, pharmaceutical industry, and textile dyeing industry;
- Covers food safety and toxicity aspects of using microbial pigments as food colorants and includes the latest innovations in the use of microbial pigments in the textile industrial sector for dyeing and finishing purposes;
- Provides regulatory considerations and compliance requirements for using microbial colorants in various industries.
Audience
The book is meant for researchers, academics, and industry experts working in fields related to pigment production, chemistry, isolation, and applications in the food and beverage, medicine, and textile industries. The book will be beneficial to synthetic organic chemists who work in the field of drug development.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgement
Part I: Microbial Pigment Sources and Diversity
1 Introduction to Microbial Colorants
1.1 Background and Significance
1.2 Classification of Microbial Pigments
1.3 Industrial Applications of Microbial Pigments
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Bacterial Pigments: Diversity and Biosynthesis Pathways
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Diversity of Bacterial Pigments
2.3 Applications of Bacterial Pigments
2.4 Future Research
2.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
3 Fungal Pigments: A Sustainable Alternative to Synthetic Colors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What are Fungal Pigments?
3.3 Why Fungal Pigments?
3.4 Source of Fungal Pigments
3.5 Extraction Methods of Fungal Pigments
3.6 Applications of Fungal Pigments
3.7 Limitations and Challenges
3.8 Mycotoxicity Testing
3.9 Conclusion
References
4 Algal and Cyanobacterial Colorants: From Chlorophyll to Phycocyanin
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microalgae Pigments
4.3 Production and Extraction Methodologies for Enhancement the Pigment Productivity
4.4 Industrial Applications and Market Trends of Microalgae Pigments
4.5 Sustainability of Microalgae Pigments and Future Perspectives
4.6 Conclusion
References
5 Nonconventional Microbial Sources—
Yeast, Actinomycetes, Archaea
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nonconventional Microbes
5.3 Nonconventional Hosts with Important Industrial Applications
5.4 Genetic Engineering Tools for Nonconventional Microbes
5.5 Software Packaging Tools for CRISPR Screen Evaluation
5.6 Comprehensive Understanding of Genetic Modification Tools on Microbial Nonconventional Platforms
5.7 Conclusion
References
Part II: Chemistry of Microbial Pigments
6 Introduction to Chemistry of Microbial Colorants: Structures, Properties, and Biosynthesis
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Isoprenoid Pigments
6.3 Flavins
6.4 Tetrapyrrole-Containing Pigments
6.5 Alkaloid Pigments
6.6 Polyketide Pigments
6.7 Phenol-Containing Pigments
6.8 Melanins
6.9 Siderophores
6.10 Conclusion and Future Prospectives
References
7 Microbial Pigment Extraction and Purification Techniques
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Solid–Liquid Extraction Techniques
7.3 Purification of Microbial Pigments
7.4 Polishing Operations
7.5 Conclusions
Declaration of Generative AI in Scientific Writing
Acknowledgements
References
8 Extraction and Purification of Microbial Pigments: Eco-Friendly Techniques and Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Classification of Microbial Pigments
8.3 Extraction Techniques
8.4 Purification Techniques
8.5 Applications
8.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
8.7 Conclusions
References
9 Chlorophylls: The Verdant World of Photosynthetic Pigments
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Photosynthesis Types
9.3 Photosynthetic Micro-Organisms
9.4 Structural Diversity of Chlorophyll
9.5 Bacteriochlorophylls (BChl)
9.6 Chlorophyll Biosynthetic Pathway
9.7 Enzymes Implicated in Chlorophyll Pathways
9.8 The Function of Chlorophylls in Microbes
9.9 Biotechnological Applications of Microbial Chlorophylls
9.10 Prospects for Research and Applications
9.11 Conclusion
References
10 Phycobiliproteins: Algal and Cyanobacterial Pigments Radiating Vivid Colors
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Phycobiliproteins- Types and the Structural Architecture
10.3 Biosynthesis of Phycobiliprotein
10.4 Phycobiliproteins: Production Modus Operandi
10.5 Applications of Phycobiliproteins (PBPs)
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 From Cells to Pigments: A Comprehensive Overview of Microbial Flavin Production and Applications of the Yellow Pigments
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sources of Natural Yellow Pigment
11.3 Biosynthesis of Microbial Yellow Pigment
11.4 Synthesis Optimization of Microbial Yellow Pigment
11.5 Applications of Yellow Pigment
11.6 Conclusion and Future Aspect
References
12 Polyketides: Complex Pigments From Microbes with Medicinal Potential
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Polyketide Biosynthesis
12.3 Polyketide Pigment from Insects
12.4 Polyketide Pigment from Microbes
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Amino Acid–Derived Pigments: Microbial Mastery in Coloration
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Different Types of Amino Acid–Derived Pigments
13.3 Technical Challenges and Possible Solutions
13.4 Circular Economy and Waste Valorization
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Cyclic Peptides and Betalains: Microbial Pigments Unveiling Nature’s Structural Elegance and Colorful Palette
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Cyclic Peptides
14.3 Betalains
14.4 Elucidation Techniques for Determining Molecular Structure
14.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
15 Indigoid Pigments: Unveiling the Blues and Violets of Microbial Artistry
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Chronicles of Discovery of Indigoid Pigments
15.3 Diversity of Indigoid Pigments
15.4 Characteristics of Indigoid Pigments
15.5 Sources of Natural Indigoid Pigments
15.6 Extraction Technique of Indigoid Pigment from Plant Sources
15.7 Biosynthesis of Indigoid Pigments
15.8 Applications and Uses
15.9 Challenges and Future Perspectives
15.10 Conclusion
References
Part III: Applications and Sustainable Impacts
16 Microbial Pigments in Cosmetics and Personal Care
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Analysis of Current Market Trends in the Cosmetics Industry
16.3 The Impact of Synthetic Pigments on the Health of Cosmetics
16.4 Plant-Derived Pigments
16.5 Microbial-Derived Natural Pigments
16.6 Utilization of Microbial Pigments for Cosmetic Purposes
16.7 Conclusion
References
17 Microbial Pigments in Fashion, Art, and Packaging
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microbial Pigments
17.3 Use of Microbial Pigments in Fashion and Textile
17.4 Use of Microbial Pigments in Art
17.5 Use of Microbial Pigments in Packaging
17.6 Conclusions
References
18 Microbial Colorants for Eco-Friendly Textile Coloration
18.1 Textile Industry Overview
18.2 Synthetic Dyes in Textile Dyeing and Printing
18.3 Potential of Microbial Colorants in Textile Dyeing
18.4 Potential of Microbial Colorants in Textile Printing
18.5 Emerging Dyeing and Printing Techniques
18.6 Final Remarks and Future Perspectives
Declaration of Generative AI in Scientific Writing
Acknowledgments
References
19 Microbial Colorants for Sustainable Dyeing and Printing of Textiles
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Colorants Used in Textile Industry
19.3 Dyeing Procedure
19.4 Microbial Pigments in Textile Printing
19.5 Challenges and Opportunities for the Industrial Application of Microbial Pigments
19.6 Conclusion
References
20 Microbial Colorants in Technological Advancements: From Sensors to Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Microbial Colorants in Colorimetric Sensors
20.3 Microbial Colorants in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells
20.4 Conclusion
References
21 Microbiological Colorants in Fabrication of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Sensors
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Importance of Microbial Colorants
21.3 Literature Review
21.4 Conclusion
References
22 Environmental and Sustainability Aspects of Microbial Pigment Production
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Why it is Important to Consider Sustainability Aspects?
22.3 What Domains of Sustainability are to Consider?
22.4 Different Stages of Microbial Pigment Production and their Sustainable Aspects
22.5 Pigment from Plant vs Microorganisms
22.6 Life Cycle Assessment of Microbial Pigment Production
22.7 Different Sustainable Aspects of Microbial Pigment in Different Industries
22.8 Conclusion and Future Prosperity
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Microbial food colorants and their applications in food industry.
Table 1.2 Biological applications of the microbial pigments.
Table 1.3 Microbial pigments used in cosmetic industry.
Table 1.4 Microbial pigments in textile industry [22].
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Types of bacterial carotenoid pigments.
Table 2.2 Bacterial pigments: functions and biosynthesis.
Table 2.3 Applications of bacterial pigments.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Compilation of fungi that produce pigments and their corresponding p...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Advantages and drawbacks of common extraction methods of pigments fr...
Table 4.2 List of current companies producing microalgae biomass and pigments.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Comparative list of nonconventional host and their industrially sign...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Classification of microbial pigments [7].
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Naturally derived pigments from algae sources and their usage.
Table 8.2 Naturally derived pigments from cyanobacteria and their usages.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Types of bacteriochlorophyll, their light absorption properties, and...
Table 9.2 Different chlorophylls are present in the various groups of photosyn...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Optimum conditions/nutrient source for PBP production.
Table 10.2 Absorption spectra of various phycobiliproteins.
Table 10.3 Microorganism producing phycobiliproteins.
Table 10.4 Applications of phycobiliproteins (PBPs).
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Polyketide pigments with their medicinal potential.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Marine sources of cyclic peptides.
Table 14.2 Some diseases suppressed by cyclic peptides.
Table 14.3 Suppression of microbial growth by betalains obtained from differen...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Synthetic dyes used in cosmetics and its effects.
Table 16.2 Types of pigment molecular structure and their application.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Tabulated overview of microbial pigments based on color and constit...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Overview of different pigment producing microbes, resultant color a...
Table 19.2 Fastness rating of wool fabrics printed with pigment extracted from...
Table 19.3 Printing paste recipe reprinted with permission from [65] under Cre...
Table 19.4 The printed cotton’s color values reprinted with permission from [6...
Table 19.5 Fastness properties of cotton printed fabrics with synthetic and na...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 The color characteristics of Bacterial Cellulose applied with viola...
Table 20.2 The reaction of color indicators to acetic acid and ammonia vapors ...
Table 20.3 Bacterial strains used in biosensor reprinted with permission from ...
Table 20.4 Photoelectrochemical characteristics of the prodigiosin-sensitized ...
Table 20.5 Comparison of the performance of bio-sensitized DSSCs reprinted wit...
Table 20.6 Performance comparison of carotenoid-sensitized DSSCs reprinted wit...
Table 20.7 Various types of Cortinarius fungi used for DSSCs preparation repri...
Table 20.8 Photoelectrical features of prepared DSSC devices reprinted with pe...
Table 20.9 Properties of the solar cell of the solutions of two dyes extracted...
Table 20.10 Photo-electrochemical parameters of DSSC and non-sensitized cell r...
Table 20.11 Species of microalgae with great possibility in the utilization of...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 The positive and negative aspects of different extraction methods.
Table 22.2 Advantages of microbial pigment over other natural sources [105].
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Classification of microbial pigments based on the type of microorga...
Figure 1.2 Conventional sources of microbial pigments.
Figure 1.3 Nonconventional sources of microbial pigments.
Figure 1.4 Structure of different food grade microbial pigments.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Biosynthesis of bacterial carotenoids.
Figure 2.2 Structure of bacterial pigments. (a) carotenoids (b) pyocyanin (c) ...
Figure 2.3 Biosynthesis of prodiginines.
Figure 2.4 Biosynthesis of pyocyanin.
Figure 2.5 Biosynthesis of quinones.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Applications of fungal pigments.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Color characteristics and application areas of microalgal pigments....
Figure 4.2 Main production and downstream steps of microalgae pigments.
Figure 4.3 (a) The annual number of publications according to Web of Science d...
Figure 4.4 Bibliometric analysis of author keywords in reports on (a) “microal...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Depicting various nonconventional hosts.
Figure 5.2 Software package methods for CRISPR screen analysis.
Figure 5.3 Schematic representation of regulation and flux in a cellular envir...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Biosynthesis pathway of carotenoids in bacteria [12].
Figure 6.2 Pathway for biosynthesis of riboflavin (B2) [38].
Figure 6.3 Biosynthesis pathway of chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls [47]....
Figure 6.4 Biosynthesis pathway of phycobilins [59].
Figure 6.5 Biosynthesis of indigo from indole in
Pseudomonas putida
[66].
Figure 6.6 Biosynthesis pathway of prodigiosin (pig) [73].
Figure 6.7 Biosynthetic pathway of betalains [87].
Figure 6.8 Biosynthesis of violacein pigment from
C. violaceum
[82].
Figure 6.9 Pyocyanin biosynthesis steps in
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
[93].
Figure 6.10 Pathway for biosynthesis of Bikaverin pigment in
Fusarium fujikuro
...
Figure 6.11 Biosynthesis pathway of Arpink red anthraquinones [7].
Figure 6.12 Biosynthesis of azaphilone pigments [107].
Figure 6.13 Biosynthesis of hispidin [7].
Figure 6.14 General melanogenesis pathway in bacteria and fungi [115].
Figure 6.15 Biosynthesis pathway of eumelanins from tyrosinase [115].
Figure 6.16 Biosynthesis of Pheomelanin through L-DOPA pathway [115].
Figure 6.17 Biosynthesis of pyoverdine in Pseudomonas fluorescens A506 [125]....
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Process workflow of the general steps and details of the cell disru...
Figure 7.2 Diagrammatic illustration of different solid–liquid extraction meth...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 A schematic illustration for the natural colorants obtained using u...
Figure 8.2 A schematic illustration for the natural colorants obtained using m...
Figure 8.3 Food-grade pigments chemical structures.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Photosynthetic microorganisms.
Figure 9.2 Chemical structures of chlorophylls and bacteriochlorophylls [21]....
Figure 9.3 Chlorophyll b’s chemical structure differs from that of chlorophyll...
Figure 9.4 Chemical structure of BChl a, a pigment used by phototrophs that do...
Figure 9.5 Principals’ roles of chlorophylls in microbes.
Figure 9.6 The most important biotechnological applications of microbial chlor...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 (a) 5NB3, ribbon structure of C-phycoerythrin from marine cyanobac...
Figure 10.2 The biosynthetic pathway of phycobilins (Singh
et al.
, 2015).[HO H...
Figure 10.3 Factors affecting the production of PBPs [17, 18].
Figure 10.4 Types of photobioreactors used for the cultivation of algae [18]....
Figure 10.5 Types of conventional PBRs (a) stirred tank PBR, (b) flat-bed PBR,...
Figure 10.6 Types of unconventional PBRs (a) pyramid PBR, (b) nature based PBR...
Figure 10.7 Flowchart showing various cell disruption methods for PBP extracti...
Figure 10.8 Flowchart showing industrial production of phycobiliprotein [50]....
Figure 10.9 Applications of phycobiliproteins.
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 An overview on biosynthesis pathway of riboflavin.
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Types of polyketide pigments.
Figure 12.2 Molecular structure of polyketide pigments.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Biosynthesis pathways of violacein synthesis.
Figure 13.2 Biosynthesis pathways of prodigiosin synthesis.
Figure 13.3 Biosynthesis pathways of melanin synthesis.
Figure 13.4 Biosynthesis pathways of betalain synthesis.
Figure 13.5 Biosynthesis pathway of indigoidine synthesis.
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Structure of Gramicidin S.
Figure 14.2 Cyclic peptides: (a) Cyclo (D-Tyr-L-Phe-D-Val-L-Val) with four res...
Figure 14.3 Natural (a, b, and c) and synthetic (d and e) multicyclic peptides...
Figure 14.4 Approaches to the preparation of cyclic plant-derived peptides by ...
Figure 14.5 The biosynthesis pathways of prototypical ribosomally synthesized ...
Figure 14.6 Nano-drug delivery systems with self-assembled cyclic peptides.
Figure 14.7 Representative structures of betalains.
Figure 14.8 Chemical structures of (a) betanin and (b)
vulgaxanthin I.
Figure 14.9 Betalain formation: Purple betacyanin from cyclo-DOPA and betalami...
Figure 14.10 Process flow of typical mass spectrometry.
Figure 14.11 Separation and purification techniques of betalains.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Indican collected from
indigofera tinctoria
[24].
Figure 15.2 Graphical presentation of the number of researches conducted on “m...
Figure 15.3 Chemical structures of different types of indigoid pigments [19, 2...
Figure 15.4 Sources of natural indigoid pigments.
Figure 15.5 Indigo extraction by enzymatic hydrolysis. (a) Indican, a glycidic...
Figure 15.6 Different enzymatic routes towards indigo; (a) via dioxygenation, ...
Figure 15.7 Industrial applications of indigo.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Microbial pigment production and their applications in cosmetics....
Figure 16.2 Microbial pigments in cosmetic application.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Natural pigments sources.
Figure 17.2 Microbial pigments (Agarwal
et al.
, 2023) [20].
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Flowchart of textile wet processing and composition of effluents g...
Figure 18.2 Chemical structures of prodigiosin (a), phycocyanin (b), violacein...
Figure 18.3 Example of the crosslinking phenomenon between cotton and chitosan...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Classification of textile colorants on the basis of origin or sour...
Figure 19.2 Steps of dyeing fabric with microbial pigments reprinted with perm...
Figure 19.3 (a)
Serratia marcescens
; (b) Chemical structures of prodigiosin re...
Figure 19.4 Preparation of Prodigiosins Nanomicelles reprinted with permission...
Figure 19.5 Dyeing of cotton with prodigiosins reprinted with permission from ...
Figure 19.6 Process and mechanism of dyeing acrylic fabric with prodigiosin na...
Figure 19.7 Chemical structure of violacein reprinted with permission from [22...
Figure 19.8 Effect of incubation time on depth of color in the case of SFD met...
Figure 19.9 Chemical structure of melanin reprinted with permission from [22] ...
Figure 19.10 Basic structure of benzoquinone reprinted with permission from [5...
Figure 19.11 (a) Chelation with hydroxyl and carboxyl; (b) chelation with moie...
Figure 19.12 Mechanism of dyeing protein fibers with quinones using mordants r...
Figure 19.13 Structure of common fungal anthraquinone Emodin reprinted with pe...
Figure 19.14 Chemical structure of some commercially used carotenoids reprinte...
Figure 19.15 Structure of azaphilones.
Figure 19.16 Methods of mordanting [70].
Figure 19.17 Influence of mordants in the depth of final shades reprinted with...
Figure 19.18 (a) Fungal pigments on agar media (b) SEM image of fungal mycelia...
Figure 19.19
Gracilaria sp.
(This image is licensed under the Creative Commons...
Figure 19.20 Printed cotton fabrics, (a) synthetic paste-printed cotton fabric...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 A visual pH sensor Copyright © [2009] [Elicia Wong].
Figure 20.2 Color of pigment solutions containing violacein, prodigiosin, and ...
Figure 20.3 (a) Evaluation of the fastness of light of the pigment-implemented...
Figure 20.4 Diagrammatic representation of the L1Cu2+ ensemble probe-based tur...
Figure 20.5 (a) Absorption and (b) fluorescence intensity of L1 in the absence...
Figure 20.6 The reaction of fluorescence of L1-Cu2+ reprinted with permission ...
Figure 20.7 Biosensor based on whole-cell bacterial recombinant DNA technology...
Figure 20.8 Verification of PCR of the deletion of the
D. radiodurans
crtI gen...
Figure 20.9 Development of sensor strain’s color. (a) Color change in response...
Figure 20.10 Expression of red fluorescence protein of
C. metallidurans
cells ...
Figure 20.11 Mechanism of DSSC reprinted with permission from [38] under CC-BY...
Figure 20.12 (a)
Serratia marcescens
11E; (b) chemical structure of prodigiosi...
Figure 20.13 (a) UV–VIS spectrum of absorption; (b) spectrum of Fourier-transf...
Figure 20.14 (c) NMR spectrum of the prodigiosin reprinted with permission fro...
Figure 20.15 Calibration curve and photostability evaluation of prodigiosin re...
Figure 20.16 (a) Photocurrent-voltage (b) power curves of the untreated TiO
2
(...
Figure 20.17 The pigment-protein complex’s crystal structure from
Rhodopseudom
...
Figure 20.18 Photoelectric parameters and I-V curves of DSSCs in different con...
Figure 20.19 Carotenoids from
Chryseobacterium sp.-
yellow and
Hymenobacter sp
...
Figure 20.20 The UV-Vis wavelengths of absorption of crude extracts from Corti...
Figure 20.21 UV-VIS diffuse-reflectance spectrum of sensitized titania electro...
Figure 20.22 Principal colorants of the Cortinarius group reprinted with permi...
Figure 20.23 The
J
-
V
curves reprinted with permission from [48] under CC-BY 4....
Figure 20.24 UV-VIS spectra of absorption of Aspergillus sp. dye.
Figure 20.25 UV-VIS spectra of absorption of
Penicillium
sp. dye reprinted wit...
Figure 20.26
Aspergillus
sp. dye dipping times of 24 and 48 hours are shown in...
Figure 20.27 Dye-sensitized solar cells’ I-V characteristic curves with dye di...
Figure 20.28 Absorption spectrum UV-VIS of Chlorophyll (Chl) solution reprinte...
Figure 20.29 Absorption spectrum UV-VIS of cell sensitized with Chl compared w...
Figure 20.30 Curve I-V of a cell sensitized with Chlorophyll (Chl) compared wi...
Figure 20.31 Normalized excitation wavelengths of a water-based solution of ph...
Figure 20.32 Voltammetric profiles reprinted with permission from [54] under C...
Figure 20.33 NaI-induced quenching of phycocyanin fluorescence (left side). Th...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Dye sensitized solar cell.
Figure 21.2 Sources of microbial pigments and their types [11].
Figure 21.3 Applications of microbial colorants in sensing [18].
Figure 21.4 Photoelectrochemical parameters of algae species [20].
Figure 21.5 Photoelectrochemical parameters of marine macroalgae species [20]....
Figure 21.6 Photoelectrochemical parameters of bacterial species [20].
Figure 21.7 Photoelectrochemical parameters of cyanobacteria species [20].
Figure 21.8 Photoelectrochemical parameters of archaea species [20].
Figure 21.9 Photoelectrochemical parameters of fungi [20].
Figure 21.10 DSSC sensitizers derived from microorganisms & their efficiency [...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 The three pillars of sustainability [41].
Figure 22.2 Weak vs strong sustainability [43].
Figure 22.3 Diagram showing the aftermath of ultrasound assisted extraction (U...
Figure 22.4 Diagram showing the effects of microwave (MAE) effects in microalg...
Figure 22.5 Diagram showing the effect of electroextraction in microalgae and ...
Figure 22.6 Diagram showing the effect on microalgae and cyanobacteria cells u...
Figure 22.7 Diagram shows the effect on microalgae and cyanobacteria cells dur...
Figure 22.8 Diagram shows the enzymatic extraction mechanism followed by a sol...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Acknowledgement
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Microbial Colorants
Chemistry, Biosynthesis and Applications
Edited by
Luqman Jameel Rather
College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
Mohammad Shahid
Department of Chemistry, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Guntur, A.P., India
and
Salman Jameel
Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Sanat Nagar, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
This edition first published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2025 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-28785-7
Front cover image courtesy of Adobe FireflyCover design by Russell Richardson
Preface
This book investigates microbial pigments, integrating the fields of natural product chemistry, biotechnology, and sustainability science. Given the rising environmental concerns over synthetic dyes, microbial colorants have gained significant attention as viable and ecofriendly alternatives. Naturally occurring pigments produced by various microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, algae, and yeast, exhibit exceptional chemical variation and biological capabilities extending beyond basic coloring. The objective of Microbial Colorants: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Applications is to thoroughly explore microbial pigments from a multidisciplinary perspective. The primary aim of this book is to address the growing need for environmentally friendly coloration methods while also offering valuable insights into the broader scientific and industrial implications of microbial pigments.
The content of the book is organized into three primary sections:
Part I Microbial Pigment Sources and Diversity presents an overview of the several microbial origins of colors, encompassing bacteria, fungi, algae, and other non-traditional microorganisms. This section explores the wide range of pigment biosynthesis routes, offering a basic comprehension of the metabolic mechanism accountable for the synthesis of microbial colorants.
Part II Chemistry of Microbial Pigments focuses on the chemical composition and active characteristics of microbial pigments. It investigates their molecular structures, physicochemical properties, and processes of biosynthesis. This section examines extraction and purification processes, focusing on environmentally benign and economically viable approaches. A comprehensive examination of pigment classes including chlorophylls, flavins, phycobiliproteins, and polyketides is also presented.
Part III Applications and Sustainable Impacts examines the most recent progress in microbial pigments employed in technological advances. This section delves into the integration of microbial pigments into advanced industry sectors including dye-sensitized solar cells, bioelectronics, and eco-friendly fabrics. Furthermore, this part focuses on the sustainability implications of microbial pigment manufacturing, taking into account the life cycle evaluation and environmental consequences.
The scientific rigor embedded in this work reflects the contributions of experts across multiple fields, including biochemistry, microbiology, material science, and chemical engineering. This book will serve as a valuable reference for researchers, educators, and industry professionals seeking to harness the potential of microbial pigments in sustainable technologies. The editors are grateful to everyone who has supported their work and wish to thank Martin Scrivener and Scrivener Publishing for their support and publication.
The Editors
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to several individuals and organizations for their help in the collaborative effort to develop Microbial Colorants: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Applications.
First and foremost, we want to gratefully acknowledge the contributing authors whose profound knowledge and expertise have greatly influenced the content of this book. Their dedication to progressing the study of microbial pigments has been tremendous, and their efforts have guaranteed the utmost level of scientific integrity in this endeavor.
We express our gratitude to the institutions, laboratories, and research institutes that have generously supplied the essential infrastructure and resources for doing the study reported in this book.
Particular gratitude is owed to the editors and peer-reviewers who offered valuable comments, thereby guaranteeing the precision and lucidity of the material. Their astute observations have played a crucial role in enhancing the scholarly account of our study.
Lastly, we express our gratitude for the steadfast support of our families, friends, and colleagues, who have consistently encouraged us during the writing process. Their patience and understanding have enabled us to allocate the requisite time and concentration to complete this book.
This book testifies to the combined endeavor of a worldwide society dedicated to developing sustainable and ecologically sound alternatives in colorant technologies. The intention is that this will stimulate additional investigation and advancement in microbial pigments, therefore expanding the limits of what may be achieved in this captivating and vital domain.
Luqman Jameel Rather
Mohammad Shahid
Salman Jameel
January 2025
Part 1MICROBIAL PIGMENT SOURCES AND DIVERSITY
1Introduction to Microbial Colorants
Luqman Jameel Rather1*, Shazia Shaheen Mir2 and Zeenat Islam3
1College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, PR China
2Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
3Advanced Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
Abstract
Microbial pigments have emerged as fascinating compounds with diverse applications, capturing the attention of researchers and industries alike. Developing microbial pigments poses a significant challenge, given the availability of cheap synthetic dyes in the market. Nevertheless, the adverse effects of the majority of azo and benzidine synthetic dyes have prompted numerous scientists and experts to redirect their focus toward more environmentally friendly methods of dye production. This chapter delves into the world of microbial pigments, offering an introduction that explores their significance, classification, structure, and applications. The discussion begins by highlighting the pivotal roles these pigments play in various biological processes, underscoring their ecological and industrial importance. A comprehensive examination of the classification of microbial pigments sheds light on the diversity present within microbial communities, showcasing the wide array of colors produced by bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. Furthermore, the chapter delves into the intricate structures of microbial pigments, unraveling the molecular architectures that contribute to their unique and vibrant hues. Understanding the structural nuances opens avenues for manipulation and optimization, crucial for both scientific exploration and practical applications. The latter part of the chapter navigates through the myriad applications of microbial pigments, ranging from the traditional realms of dyeing to modern applications in food, cosmetics, medicine, and textiles. By exploring the multifaceted roles of microbial pigments, this chapter aims to provide a holistic view of their potential, paving the way for further research and innovative utilization in diverse fields.
Keywords: Natural dyes, microbial colorants, biocompatible, biodegradable, textile coloration, food applications
1.1 Background and Significance
Humans have always been attracted by colors and employed natural resources from plants, animals, and minerals and their waste byproducts to color synthetic and natural textiles [1]. The advent of the synthetic colorant “Mauveine” in 1856 by W.H. Perkin, together with its subsequent proliferation and use, made natural colorants/dyes obsolete and only a small number of craftsmen and crafters continued to use them [2]. Researchers have been encouraged to investigate alternative dye sources to address the ecological and healthrelated issues associated with azo and benzidine dyes [3, 4]. The aim is to reduce the textile industry’s reliance on dangerous synthetic colors and minimize their impact. As a reaction to this, several governments implemented stringent limitations on the utilization of synthetic dyes, leading to a spike in the utilization of natural dyes [5, 6]. These natural dyes have emerged as promising alternatives or partners in the field of green chemistry, offering a broad range of applications beyond just coloring textiles. Natural colorants not only provide aesthetically pleasing shades but also offer unique functional properties that are beneficial for the food and textile industries. These include antioxidant, insect repellent, deodorizing, antifeedant, antimicrobial, antifungal, fluorescence, and UV-protective effects [7–12]. The utilization of substantial quantities of water and auxiliary substances for dye extraction and subsequent dyeing procedures has raised significant apprehensions over the production of wastewater containing elevated concentrations of pollutants. The chemical composition of textile effluents from various textile laboratories and enterprises is very varied, resulting in detrimental effects on the aquatic ecosystems of various water bodies [13]. This factor forced scientists to consider alternate dyes and pigments that could be readily removed with little waste production.
This entails the use of cost-efficient cleaner manufacturing technologies and the incorporation of novel dye-producing flora and fauna derived from sustainable harvesting methods, which include various microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, yeasts, and actinomycetes. Research investigations on the synthesis of pigments from microorganisms are in their nascent phase and need state-of-the-art research facilities to enhance the commercial feasibility of pigment manufacturing procedures and techniques. Bacterial farming has several benefits, including rapid and uncomplicated growing regardless of the season, high productivity, straightforward extraction, genetic alteration capabilities, and the ability to pick certain strains [14]. Yeasts, a kind of eukaryote, have some advantages over filamentous fungi. They exhibit faster growth rates but need cell disruption because of intracellular synthesis [15, 16]. Bacterial and fungal species from various groups create distinct secondary metabolites, including quinones, carotenoids, and anthocyanins, which are diverse types of colors [17]. The successful commercialization of carotenoid pigments from some distinct fungus species has garnered significant scientific interest in the textile industry [18]. Current research in textile coloring has made notable progress in developing pigments derived from Trichoderma sp. and Aspergillus sp. These pigments are utilized for dyeing cotton and silk, resulting in long-lasting color [19]. Several bacterial species that create various bio-pigments include Flavobacterium sp., A. aurantiacum, Micrococcus sp., P. aeruginosa, S. marcescens, Chromobacterium sp., and Rheinheimera sp. [15]. The first bio-pigment that was effectively grown and used for food purposes was β-carotene, derived from the fungus Blakeslea. This pigment received approval from the European Union in 1995 to be used as a food additive. The production of this microbial pigment can readily meet the year-round demand in several areas of the food and textile industries [20]. Lichens have been used as a source of natural colors since prehistoric times. Paranoid lichens produce natural colors using the acetate–polymelonate pathway, which involves the biosynthesis of depsides and depsidones from phenolic rings [21]. The primary obstacle to producing anthocyanins on a large scale is the restricted availability of these compounds in plant tissues. A biosynthesis technique has arisen to address this disparity, using bacteria or yeast to produce natural chemicals on a huge scale in controlled environments. The use of second-generation lignocellulosic sugars may effectively meet the market demand for various pigments, hence enhancing the production of microbial pigments.
In this chapter, we provide current information on the extraction and chemical production of microbial pigments derived from various types of microorganisms including bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, algae, lichens, and others. This comprehensive study has also examined the techniques for enhancing the output of microbial pigment production by contemporary technologies, such as strain creation, co-substrate supplementation, and genetic engineering of bacteria. This also incorporates brief information about the uses of microbial pigments in different industries, such as pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, and textiles.
1.2 Classification of Microbial Pigments
1.2.1 Classification Based on the Source
Microbial pigments can be classified based on their source by categorizing them according to the microorganisms responsible for their production. This classification is based on the primary source of pigment production while certain pigments can be generated by more than one microbial source, such as bacteria, fungus, algae, etc. (Figure 1.1). In addition, the progress made in molecular techniques has resulted in the identification of new pigments derived from different microorganisms that were previously unexplored. This has broadened the range and intricacy of microbial pigments.
Figure 1.1 Classification of microbial pigments based on the type of microorganisms.
1.2.1.1 Bacterial Pigments
Researchers have shown significant interest in bacterial pigments due to their diverse industrial applications. These pigments have been extensively utilized in East and Southeast Asia across multiple sectors, including food, cosmetics, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. Bacteria demonstrate a remarkable ability to produce a wide array of natural compounds. Examples include carotenoids, bacteriochlorophylls, phenazines, quinones, melanins, flavins, monascins, violacein, prodigiosin, and indigo [22]. However, commercializing these pigments, especially for use in food or cosmetics, has encountered challenges due to the substantial investment required and the need for extensive toxicity evaluations. Technological advancements have significantly improved the extraction and large-scale commercialization of bacterial pigments, such as riboflavin, β-carotene, and phycocyanin. There is also considerable potential for the food and textile industries to utilize bacterial anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, and indigoids.
1.2.1.2 Fungal Pigments
Filamentous fungi, including ascomycetous, basidiomycetous, and lichens, produce a diverse array of natural pigments that belong to various chemical classes. These pigments, such as melanins, anthraquinones, hydroxyanthraquinones, azaphilones, carotenoids, oxopolyenes, quinones, flavins, phenazines, and naphthoquinones, display a wide range of colors and possess specific biological properties. Fungi from maritime settings possess distinct secondary metabolites that enable their survival in challenging environments characterized by intense light, high salt, extreme pressure, and varying temperatures. The harsh circumstances facilitate the conversion of regular bacteria into extremophile microorganisms via the production of many unique chemicals. Ancient civilizations used Basidiomycetes to dye silk and wool fibers and garments. Mass production of these fungi for commercial use is not feasible. The research should primarily concentrate on the large-scale production of filamentous fungi, as well as endophytic and endolichenic fungi from both terrestrial and marine flora, since they may be readily grown in the laboratory.
1.2.1.3 Algal Pigments
Carotenoids are prominent natural colored compounds found in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of algae, encompassing yellow, orange, and red pigments with versatile industrial applications [23]. The production of β-carotene by D. salina is influenced by factors, such as salinity, temperature, and light intensity. Algae rich in β-carotene demonstrate resilience to high light and osmotic stress [24]. Commercial production of β-carotene and other carotenoids from microalgae serves applications in antioxidants and food supplements [25]. Similarly, lutein (red-orange hue) from Chlorella, Chlorococcum, Chlamydomonas, and Spongiococcum sp., finds its use as in the coloration of chicken feed and egg yolks [26]. Canthaxanthin (dark red) and astaxanthin (red terpene), produced by D. cinnabarinus and H. pluvialis, respectively, have been approved as food colorants by the US FDA [27]. Water-soluble chlorophylls, phycocyanins, and phycoerythrins are among other algalderived pigments with wide range of applications in food industry [28]. Phycoerythrins from different algal species were quantified using HPLC-SEC with fluorescence and photodiode array detectors [29].
1.2.1.4 Pigments from Cyanobacteria
Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, generate chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins. Photosynthesis pigments are usually coupled with proteins in protein-pigment complexes, which have varied characteristics and are isolated using chromatographic methods. In addition to food and textile coloring, phycocyanin pigments are antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and neuroprotective [30]. Phycocyanins reduce nitrogen shortage under extreme drought [31]. Oscillatoria redekei produces phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, and phycoerythrin. Scytonemin, generated by S. myochrous, Calothrix sp., and L. aestuarii, blocks UV rays [32]. Besides UV protection, scytonemin is anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, anticancer, and antioxidant. In addition to its UV protective capabilities, scytonemin exhibits anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, anticancer, and antioxidant activities [33].
1.2.1.5 Pigments from Lichens
Lichens are a distinct group of microorganisms that generate a diverse range of natural pigments. These pigments have been used for dyeing wool and silk in Europe and other regions since ancient times. There are around 20,000 species of lichen described worldwide, with India accounting for 10% (200 lichens) of that total. The Himalayan region is abundant in many types of lichen, which serve as a valuable source of diverse hues used in textile dyeing. Parmelioid lichens synthesize depsides and depsidones, chemical compounds produced from the acetate–polymelonate pathway, by combining two or three phenolic units. Lichens, particularly orchil lichens, were particularly valuable as sources of purple and violet colorants for dyeing. Roccella and Lecanora lichen species contain substances that serve as precursors to orchil and litmus. These substances exhibit a pH-dependent color change, appearing red in acidic settings and blue-violet in alkaline situations. The extraction of lecanoric acid from Rocella sp. yields a concentration of 3% to 4% of its dry weight. Parmelia species and Xanthoria parietina synthesize atranorin, whereas Ochrolechia tartarea and Lecanora pustulata produce gyrophoric acid. Parmelia saxatilis and other Parmelia species produce salazinic acid derived from atranorin.
1.2.1.6 Pigments from Yeasts, Actinomycetes, and Archaea
Yeast species are recognized as rich sources of natural pigments, particularly carotenoids, produced in significant quantities. Notable yeasts known for carotenoid production include Phaffia rhodozyma, Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous, and various species of Rhodosporidium, Rhodotorula, Sporobolomyces, and Sporidiobolus [34–36]. Species, such as Rhodotorula glutinis and Blakeslea trispora, are particularly valued by biotech companies and industries for their ability to produce high-value pigments like β-carotene, torulene, and torularhodin [37, 38]. P. rhodozyma, a pink yeast from basidiomycetes isolated in the 1960s, gained attention for its synthesis of astaxanthin. Efficient isolation methods for P. rhodozyma have since been established, highlighting astaxanthin’s potential antioxidant properties [39, 40]. Additionally, certain yeasts like Saccharomyces neoformans var. nigricans can produce melanins [41], while Y. lipolytica generates a brown pigment from tyrosine [42]. With glucose as its carbon source, C. lipolytica produces biliverdin, a green tetrapyrrolic bile pigment with antimutagenic and antioxidant effects [43]. Low biliverdin production is characteristic in yeasts. Cloning and optimizing E. coli production has been achieved with enhanced yield and efficiency [44]. Carbon supply, extraction solvents, chemical agents, light, temperature, metal ions, and aeration levels affect yeast carotenoids biosynthesis yields and operating costs.
1.2.1.7 Conventional Microbial Pigment Sources
Conventional sources of microbial pigments are usually those that have been historically recognized and used for different purposes (Figure 1.2). Nevertheless, the scientific community is constantly making progress in discovering previously unknown microbial sources and the pigments they produce, which hold promise for a wide range of industries.
1.2.1.7.1 Streptomyces Species
The streptomyces species belong to the phylum Actinobacteria, known for their remarkable ability to produce pigments. These pigments have a wide range of applications in various industries due to their beneficial properties, such as antioxidants, antimicrobial agents, immunosuppressants, and antitumor compounds [45–48]. The most important pigments produced by different Streptomyces species include actinorhodin (S. coelicolor) and undecylprodigiosin (A. madurae, S. coelicolor, S. longisporus). Actinorhodin (quinone) has found use in the textile industry as a blue dye, while undecylprodigiosin (alkaloid) shows promise in the field of medicine for its antibiotic and anti-cancer properties in addition to being used as a pH indicator in response to pH-dependent color changes [49].
Figure 1.2 Conventional sources of microbial pigments.
1.2.1.7.2 Serratia marcescens
Serratia marcescens is an opportunistic anaerobic gram-negative bacterium that can produce a vibrant red pigment called prodigiosin [50]. Prodigiosin has been extensively researched for its remarkable antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer properties. It has also been utilized for its coloring properties [51, 52].
1.2.1.7.3 Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Chromobacterium violaceum
Escherichia coli and C. violaceum have been used in scientific research to create natural colorants, such as carotenoids, indigo, anthocyanins, and violacein [53, 54]. Violacein, a purple pigment has demonstrated promising properties as an antimicrobial and anticancer agent [55]. Researchers are currently investigating the potential uses of E. coli strains that have been modified to produce violacein [56]. Violacein from C. violaceum has been extensively researched for its antimicrobial and anticancer properties, making it a promising candidate for various medical applications [57, 58].
1.2.1.7.4 Monascus Species
Monascus species are capable of producing a valuable secondary metabolite known as Monascus pigments (MPs) [59]. They have extensive applications in the food industry, serving as a means to enhance color, as well as additives and alternatives to nitrites in meat products [60]. MPs provide red (rubropuntantamine and monascorubramine), orange (rubropunctatin and monascorubrine), and yellow (angkak flavin and monascine) colors, known for their potential therapeutic applications and their use as a dye in industries, such as cosmetics and textiles [61].
1.2.1.7.5 Haematococcus pluvialis (Microalgae)
Haematococcus pluvialis, a freshwater green microalga, contains several beneficial chemicals as carotenoids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and others. A rich source of xanthophyll carotenoids, particularly astaxanthin, it is frequently used as an industrial pigment [62]. H. pluvialis produces many carotenoids, including cantaxanthin, lutein, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, and violaxanthin among others [63]. Astaxanthin (Red) is a powerful antioxidant that finds applications in various industries, including food, cosmetics, and aquaculture. It is known for its ability to enhance the color of fish and crustaceans [64].
1.2.1.8 Nonconventional Microbial Pigment Sources
Lesser-known microorganisms and recently discovered sources are being explored as alternative sources of microbial pigments. The wide range of pigments produced by different microorganisms highlights the diversity found in non-conventional microbial sources. As scientific exploration in this field progresses, it is expected that additional sources and pigments will be uncovered, broadening the potential for their utilization across various industries. A schematic representation of non-conventional microbial pigments is provided below (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Nonconventional sources of microbial pigments.
1.2.1.8.1 Arthobacter Species
The Arthrobacter genus is part of a wide range of microorganisms that have been discovered to produce a variety of pigments with a wide range of structures and hues that are quite rare (similar to the ‘chemical plasticity’ observed in Streptomyces species) [65]. These colors include orange and yellow (riboflavin and carotenoids), blue and green (indigoidine, indochrome, and their derivatives), and red (porphyrins and carotenoids). The pigment created by specific strains of Arthrobacter has promising uses in the food and cosmetic sectors [66].
1.2.1.8.2 Paracoccus Species
Paracoccus carotinifaciens, a fascinating organism with abundant red carotenoids finds its extensive use as a feed additive for salmon and trout [67]. P. carotinifaciens (E-396T) is an orange-pigmented, rod-like structure that is capable of producing astaxanthin [68].
1.2.1.8.3 Deinococcus radiodurans
Bacteria belonging to the phylum Deinococcus–Thermus have gained recognition for their remarkable ability to withstand and survive under harsh conditions, such as radiation, oxidation, desiccation, and high temperature. The pigmentation of cultured Deinococcus–Thermus bacteria is typically red or yellow, which is a result of their carotenoid synthesis capability. These bacteria contain distinct carotenoids, such as deinoxanthin from Deinococcus radiodurans and thermozeaxanthins from Thermus thermophilus [69]. Deinoxanthin is a carotenoid with potential antioxidant properties, and research is exploring its applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries [70].
1.2.1.8.4 Pseudomonas Species
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a commercially valuable organism as it is known for its ability to produce various soluble pigments, including pyocyanin (blue-green), pyoveridin (yellow-green), pyorubin (red), and pyomelanin (brown) [71]. Pseudomonas aeruginosa also produces a bluish-green phenazine (pyocyanin-blue pus), along with fluorescein, a yellowgreen fluorescent pigment. Some strains can also produce pigments that are dark red or black. Pyocyanin exhibits promising properties that could be beneficial as anti-cancer and antimicrobial agents [72]. Extensive research has been conducted to explore the potential applications of pyoverdine in bioremediation processes.
1.2.1.8.5 Xanthomonas Species
Most Xanthomonas bacteria synthesize pigments called xanthomonadins, which are yellow, brominated aryl-polyene compounds. Xanthomonadins are specific to Xanthomonas bacteria and are valuable for chemotaxonomic and diagnostic purposes [73]. Previous research analyses have found that xanthomonadins might offer protection against damage caused by visible light when photosensitizers are present. The pigments found in Xanthomonas species have various potential applications in industries, such as food and cosmetics. Additionally, these pigments are involved in the pathogenesis of Xanthomonas species [74].
1.2.1.8.6 Yeasts (e.g., Candida, Rhodotorula, etc.)
Certain yeasts in the basidiomycetous family can produce pigments, specifically carotenoids. These carotenoids include γand β-carotene, torulene, and torularhodin (Rhodotorula spp. and Sporobolomyces Roseus), as well as astaxanthin (Phaffia rhodozyma) [75]. Yeasts are highly interesting sources of carotenoids that show great promise for various applications in the fields of food, feed, and pharmaceuticals [14].
1.2.2 Classification Based on the Chemical Nature of Pigments
1.2.2.1 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are naturally produced by eukaryotic organisms (plants, algae, fungi) and prokaryotic cells like bacteria. These compounds range in color from red to yellow, including shades of orange. They are in high demand in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, and food industries, leading to exploration for alternative natural sources. Bacterial carotenoid synthesis has gained attention for industrial use. Bacteria produce carotenoids with C30 and C40 skeletons, categorized into carotenes (hydrocarbon carotenoids) like phytoene, lycopene, and β-carotene, and oxygenated carotenoids (xanthophylls) like zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, and others [76]. The Carotenoid Database now has information on over 1200 carotenoids and carotenoid precursors derived from 722 different species. Among these, 324 carotenoids originate from bacteria, with 251 of them being unique to these microorganisms [75]. The quantities and kinds of carbon units exhibit variations, such as C30, C40, C45, and C50, where some bacteria produce C30 carotenoids via an alternative route. Overall, there have been reports of thirty-seven compounds that contain C30 carotenoids. The presence of double bonds in these polyenes facilitates the inclusion of environmentally unfettered radicals and the dispersion of charges across the chains. Carotenoids possess antioxidant properties, making them very susceptible to light, heat, oxygen, isomerization (cis/trans), acidic environments, and/or basic circumstances. Carotenoids have a wide range of uses and are effective in treating eye illnesses because of their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory qualities [77]. Lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin are stored in the human eye and function by selectively blocking damaging ultraviolet (blue) light, hence avoiding oxidative stress in the eye.
1.2.2.2 Terpenoids
The aroma industry is very interested in terpenoid flavor and fragrance molecules. Microbial manufacturing provides a sustainable and independent method to get required terpenoids, bypassing the need for natural sources. Genetically modified microbes may be used to produce terpenoids using inexpensive and sustainable resources [78]. The modular architecture of terpenoid biosynthesis makes it highly compatible with the concept of a microbial cell factory [79]. By engineering a platform host that promotes a high flow of central C5 prenyl diphosphate precursors, a wide variety of target terpenoids can be produced simply by adjusting the pathway modules responsible for converting the C5 intermediates into the desired product [78].
1.2.2.3 Chlorophylls
Chlorophylls are widely distributed pigments found in photosynthetic algae, bacteria, and higher plants since they play crucial roles in the process of photosynthesis. Their structure is responsible for such a crucial function [80]. Moreover, when included in our regular diet as constituents of plant-based foods or edible seaweeds, these bioactive compounds have been linked to potential advantages for human health, such as the ability to prevent mutations, protect against DNA damage, and possess strong antioxidant properties that counteract the harmful effects of free radicals and inhibit lipid oxidation. Chlorophylls are tetrapyrroles of the chlorin type, in which the pyrrole subunits are connected by methine bridges.
1.2.2.4 Flavins
Flavin is a yellow substance that is based on pteridine and has an N-heterocyclic isoalloxazine ring. It is water-soluble and yellow, and it may be synthesized by different types of microorganisms as well as by plants. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc) can generate a variety of different flavins, including riboflavin (vitamin B2), roseoflavin, toxoflavin, and ankaflavin, among others. The first report of the riboflavin synthesizing fungus is Ashbya gossypii, which is isolated from infected cotton balls [81, 82]. However, due to the high demand for natural pigment, recently advanced industrial production is taken into account which will be briefly discussed in the latter part of this chapter.
1.2.2.5 Polyketides
Many filamentous ascomycete genera, along with other fungi, create many colors derived from polyketides that originate from the fungi themselves. Fungal polyketides consist of tetraketides and octaketides, which are formed of eight C2 units that are interconnected to form a polyketide chain [83]. Fungi naturally create several types of polyketide colors, such as melanins, anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, hydroxyanthraquinones, azaphilones, quinones, etc. Monascus species strains have historically been used for the manufacturing of red alcoholic drinks and red bean curd in eastern Asian nations. During cultivation, they generate pigments that are resistant to heat and may be used over a broad variety of pH levels. Monascus pigments consist of over 10 compounds, with six being well recognized. These include monascin and ankaflavin, which contribute to the yellow coloration, monascorubin, and rubropunctatin, which contribute to the orange coloration, and monascorubramine and rubropunctamine, which contribute to the red coloration and exhibit varying solubilities in various solvents [84].
1.2.2.5.1 Melanins
Melanin is a primordial pigment that emerged in the early stages of all living beings. Melanin is renowned for its distinctive capacity to absorb a broad spectrum of radiations. Furthermore, melanization is regarded as a means of survival for several creatures that reside in inhospitable environmental situations. Due to its multifunctionality, the pigment has been found to serve as (a) an antioxidant and scavenger of radicals, (b) a photo-protector that effectively absorbs and dissipates solar radiation as heat, (c) an absorber that binds metals and organic compounds, and (d) an organic semiconductor. In addition to these tasks, melanin is regarded as environmentally safe and compatible with living creatures due to its natural synthesis in the majority of species. The diverse biological functions of melanin in bacteria and fungi have been thoroughly documented in the scientific literature [85]. Nevertheless, the regulation of melanin production in various microbes has only been examined in recent times [86]. Microbial melanin is an important source of natural melanin due to its benefits, including the absence of seasonal growth limitations, cost-effectiveness, and eco-friendliness. Microbial melanins are mostly synthesized by the conversion of either tyrosine (using the DOPA route) or malonyl-coenzyme A (using the DHN pathway), facilitated by certain sets of enzymes [87].
1.2.2.5.2 Anthraquinones
Anthraquinones are a significant group of organic compounds that may be found in both natural and manufactured forms. They exhibit a diverse array of hues, spanning from red to blue. Anthraquinone derivatives have been employed for centuries for medicinal purposes, including their use as colorants. These derivatives possess various properties, such as the ability to hinder bacterial growth, eliminate fungus, combat viruses, eradicate insects, act as laxatives, and function as antibacterial and anti-inflammatory drugs [88]. They have the potential to be used as alternative sources that are not dependent on agro-climatic conditions. The current understanding of fungal anthraquinones is very intricate, characterized by a wide range of chemical structures and a multitude of elements that might influence the composition of quinoidal pigments produced by a certain species [89].
1.2.2.6 Amino Acid Derivatives
Monascus sp. KCCM 10093 was used to produce pigments by adding various Land D-forms of amino acids as a precursor [90]. In Griffin’s study conducted in 1952, it was observed that just a light brown color was achieved. However, the introduction of L-phenylalanine or L-tyrosine led to the development of a much darker amber pigment [91].
1.2.2.7 Cyclic Peptides
Marine microorganisms provide a valuable source for identifying novel chemical compounds that possess advantageous biological properties for medication development. Two novel polyene macrolides, pyranpolyenolides A and B, along with a new natural cyclic peptide and two previously identified polyenes were extracted from a culture of the marine Streptomyces sp. MS110128 [92].
1.2.2.8 Indigoids
Indigo and indigoid pigments are widely used in the textile, culinary, and medicinal sectors. Presently, there is an increasing emphasis on the advancement of eco-friendly methods for manufacturing indigo, namely via the use of microbial biosynthesis [93
