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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Microconstituents in the Environment Comprehensive introduction to managing novel pollutants commonly released into the environment through industrial and everyday processes Microconstituents in the Environment: Occurrence, Fate, Removal and Management provides the readers with an understanding of the occurrence and fate of microconstituents, pollutants that have not previously been detected or regulated under current environmental laws or may cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects even at insignificant levels, covering their presence in the environment and possible management strategies. The text is practice-oriented and evaluates a wide range of technologies for pollutant removal and how to implement them in the field. In Microconstituents in the Environment, readers will find information on: * Fundamental ideas regarding microconstituents, including their classification, major sources, and detection methods, and their removal via biological treatment techniques * Fate and transport of microconstituents in various environmental domains, including mathematical modeling based on remote sensing techniques * Physicochemical treatment techniques for microconstituents, including precipitation, absorption, filtration, membrane separation, and oxidation * Sustainability and environmental management, including the regulatory framework and requirements for developing a new field application, plus an outlook on green design concepts With its emphasis on management and remediation, Microconstituents in the Environment is a highly useful one-stop resource on the subject for environmental scientists, modelers, government agencies, and research scientists working in the field of environmental pollution.
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Microconstituents in the Environment
Occurrence, Fate, Removal, and Management
Edited by
Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang,Chih-Ming Kao,Makarand M. Ghangrekar,Puspendu Bhunia,Manaswini Behera,and Prangya R. Rout
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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The right of Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Chih-Ming Kao, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Manaswini Behera and Prangya R. Rout to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Surampalli, Rao Y., editor.
Title: Microconstituents in the environment : occurrence, fate, removal and management / edited by Rao Y. Surampalli [and six others].
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022055640 (print) | LCCN 2022055641 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119825258 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119825265 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119825272 (epub) | ISBN 9781119825289 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Pollution. | Water–Pollution. | Pollution prevention.
Classification: LCC TD174 .M52 2023 (print) | LCC TD174 (ebook) | DDC 363.739/4–dc23/eng/20230126
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022055640
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022055641
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Cover design by Wiley
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India
Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Part I Fundamental Ideas Regarding Microconstituents in the Environment
1 Introduction to Microconstituents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Classification of Microconstituents
1.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
1.2.2 Pesticides
1.2.3 Disinfection By-Products
1.2.4 Industrial Chemicals
1.2.5 Algal Toxins
1.3 Source of Microconstituents
1.3.1 Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) in the Environment
1.3.2 Source of Pesticides in the Environment
1.3.3 Source of Disinfection By-Products in the Environment
1.3.4 Source of Industrial Chemicals in the Environment
1.3.5 Source of Algal Toxins in the Environment
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Microconstituents
1.5 Impact on Human Society and Ecosystem
1.5.1 Impact on Human Health
1.5.2 Impact on the Ecosystem
1.6 The Structure of the Book
1.7 Conclusions
2 Occurrence
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Goals of Occurrence Survey
2.3 Environmental Occurrence of Microconstituents
2.3.1 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Groundwater
2.3.2 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Surface Water
2.3.3 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Marine Water
2.3.4 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Drinking Water
2.3.5 Occurrence of Microconstituents in WWTPs Effluent and Sludge
2.3.6 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Soil
2.3.7 Occurrence of Microconstituents in Foods and Vegetables
2.4 Challenges and Future Prospective in Occurrence Survey
2.5 Conclusions
3 Sampling, Characterization, and Monitoring
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Sampling Protocols of Different Microconstituents
3.2.1 Sample Preparation
3.2.1.1 Traditional Sampling Techniques
3.2.1.2 Automatic Samplers and Pumps
3.2.1.3 Pore-Water Sampling
3.2.2 Extraction of Microconstituents
3.2.3 Passive Sampling
3.2.4 Quality Assurance and Quality Control
3.2.5 Internal vs. External Quality Control
3.3 Quantification and Analysis of Microconstituents
3.3.1 Detection Techniques
3.3.2 UV-Visible Optical Methods
3.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy
3.3.4 Chromatographic Methods Tandem Mass Spectrometry
3.3.5 Biological Assay for Detection
3.3.6 Sensors and Biosensors for Detection
3.4 Source Tracking Techniques
3.4.1 Performance Criteria
3.4.2 Tracer Selection
3.4.3 Different Source Tracking Methods
3.4.4 Statistical Approaches in Source Tracking Modeling
3.4.4.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
3.4.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
3.5 Remote Sensing and GIS Applications for Monitoring
3.5.1 Basic Concepts and Principles
3.5.2 Measurement and Estimation Techniques
3.5.3 Applications for Microconstituents Monitoring
3.6 Conclusions
4 Toxicity Assessment of Microconstituents in the Environment
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Microplastics in the Environment
4.3 Microplastics Pathways, Fate, and Behavior in the Environment
4.4 Concentration of Microplastics in the Environment
4.5 Influence of Microplastics on Microorganisms
4.6 Toxicity Mechanisms
4.6.1 Effect on Aquatic Ecosystem
4.6.2 Effect on Human Health
4.6.3 Toxicity Testing
4.6.3.1 Test Without PE MPs
4.6.3.2 With Microbeads
4.6.3.3 Analysis Limitations
4.7 Risk Assessment
4.8 Future Challenges in Quantification of the Environment
4.9 Conclusions
Part II The Fate and Transportation of Microconstituents
5 Mathematical Transport System of Microconstituents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Need for Mathematical Models
5.3 Fundamentals of Pollutant Transport Modeling
5.4 Development of Numerical Model
5.4.1 Advective Transport
5.4.2 Dispersive Transport
5.4.3 Discretization in Space and Time
5.5 Application of Models
5.6 Softwares for Pollutant Transport
5.6.1 Hydrus Model for Pollution Transport
5.7 Mathematical and Computational Limitation
5.8 Conclusions
6 Groundwater Contamination by Microconstituents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Major Microconstituents in Groundwater
6.3 Mechanisms for Groundwater Contamination By Microconstituents
6.4 Modeling Transport of Microconstituents
6.5 Limitations
6.6 Concluding Remarks
7 Microconstituents in Surface Water
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Major Microconstituents in Surface Water
7.2.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
7.2.2 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals
7.2.3 Industrial Chemicals
7.2.4 Pesticides
7.3 Water Cycles, Sources, and Pathways of Microconstituents, and the Applicability of Mathematical Models
7.3.1 Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
7.3.2 Pesticides in Surface Water
7.3.3 The Applicability of Mathematical Models
7.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mathematical Tools
7.4 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments
7.4.1 Adsorption of Microconstituents
7.4.2 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Caffeine
7.4.3 Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Steroidal Estrogen
7.5 Modeling of Microconstituents in Aquatic Environments
7.5.1 BASINS System Overview
7.5.2 HSPF Model Evaluation (Hydrological Simulation Program Fortran Model)
7.5.3 Fundamental Mechanisms of SWAT Pesticide Modeling
7.5.3.1 SWAT Model Description
7.5.3.2 SWAT Model Set-Up
7.5.4 Model Sensitivity Analysis, Calibration, and Validation
7.5.4.1 Coefficient of Determination, R2
7.5.4.2 Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency Coefficient, NSE
7.5.5 Basin Level Modeling (Pesticide Transport)
7.6 Conclusions
8 Fate and Transport of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 The Sources of Microconstituents in Wastewater Treatment Plants
8.1.2 The Behavior of Microconstituents
8.2 The Fate of Microconstituents in WWTPs
8.2.1 Traditional Wastewater Treatment Process
8.2.2 The Fate of MCs in WWTPs
8.2.3 Biodegradation of Microconstituents
8.2.4 Sorption Onto Sludge Solids in WWTPs
8.3 Treatment Methods for Microconstituents Removal
8.3.1 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
8.3.2 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)
8.3.3 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR)
8.3.4 Trickling Filter
8.4 Critical Parameters in WWTP Operation for MCs
8.4.1 ASP Operation
8.4.2 MBR Operation
8.4.3 MBBR Operation
8.4.4 TF Operation
8.5 Conclusions
9 Various Perspectives on Occurrence, Sources, Measurement Techniques, Transport, and Insights Into Future Scope for Research of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Classification and Properties of Microplastics
9.2.1 Classification of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.2.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.2.3 Qualitative Assessment to Identify Microplastics
9.3 Sources of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.4 Measurement of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.5 Occurrence and Ambient Concentration of Microplastics
9.6 Factors Affecting Pollutant Concentration
9.7 Transport of Atmospheric Microplastics
9.8 Modeling Techniques in Prediction of Fate in the Atmosphere
9.9 Control Technologies in Contaminant Treatment
9.10 Challenges in Future Climate Conditions
9.11 Future Scope of Research
9.12 Conclusions
10 Modeling Microconstituents Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques
10.1 Basic Components of Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Models
10.1.1 Source of Light or Energy
10.1.2 Radiation and the Atmosphere
10.1.3 Interaction With the Subject Target
10.1.4 Sensing Systems
10.1.5 Data Collection
10.1.6 Interpretation and Analysis
10.2 Coupling GIS With 3D Model Analysis and Visualization
10.2.1 Modeling and Simulation Approaches
10.2.1.1 Deterministic Models
10.2.1.2 Stochastic Models
10.2.1.3 Rule-Based Models
10.2.1.4 Multi-Agent Simulation of Complex Systems
10.2.2 GIS Implementation
10.2.2.1 Full Integration–Embedded Coupling
10.2.2.2 Integration Under a Common Interface–Tight Coupling
10.2.2.3 Loose Coupling
10.2.2.4 Modeling Environment Linked to GIS
10.3 Emerging and Application
10.3.1 Multispectral Remote Sensing
10.3.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
10.3.3 Geographic Information System (GIS)
10.3.4 Applications
10.3.4.1 Urban Environment Management
10.3.4.2 Wasteland Environment
10.3.4.3 Coastal and Marine Environment
10.4 Uncertainty in Environmental Modeling
10.5 Future of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Pollutant Monitoring
10.5.1 Types of Satellite-Based Environmental Monitoring
10.5.1.1 Atmosphere Monitoring
10.5.1.2 Air Quality Monitoring
10.5.1.3 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC)
10.5.1.4 Hazard Monitoring
10.5.1.5 Marine and Phytoplankton Studies
10.6 Identification of Microconstituents Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques
10.7 Conclusions
Part III Various Physicochemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents
11 Process Feasibility and Sustainability of Struvite Crystallization From Wastewater Through Electrocoagulation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Struvite Crystallization Through Electrocoagulation
11.2.1 Working Principle
11.2.2 Types of Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.1 Batch Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.2 Continuous Electrocoagulation
11.2.2.3 Advantages of Electrocoagulation Over Other Methods for Struvite Precipitation
11.3 Influential Parameters Affecting Struvite Crystallization
11.3.1 pH of the Medium
11.3.2 Magnesium Source and Mg
2+
: PO
4
3–
Molar Ratio
11.3.3 Current Density
11.3.4 Voltage and Current Efficiency
11.3.5 Electrode Type and Interelectrode Distance
11.3.6 Stirring Speed, Reaction Time, and Seeding
11.3.7 Presence of Competitive Ions and Purity of Struvite Crystals
11.4 Energy, Economy, and Environmental Contribution of Struvite Precipitation by Electrocoagulation
11.5 Summary and Future Perspectives
12 Adsorption of Microconstituents
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Adsorption Mechanism
12.3 Adsorption Isotherms and Kinetics
12.3.1 Adsorption Isotherms
12.3.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm
12.3.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm
12.3.1.3 Dubinin–Radushkevich Isotherm
12.3.1.4 Redlich–Peterson Isotherm
12.3.1.5 Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) Isotherm
12.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics
12.3.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Equation
12.3.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Equation
12.3.2.3 Elovich Model
12.3.2.4 Intraparticle Diffusion Model
12.4 Factors Affecting Adsorption Processes
12.4.1 Surface Area
12.4.2 Contact Time
12.4.3 Nature and Initial Concentration of Adsorbate
12.4.4 pH
12.4.5 Nature and Dose of Adsorbent
12.4.6 Interfering Substance
12.5 Multi-Component Preference Analysis
12.6 Conventional and Emerging Adsorbents
12.6.1 Conventional Adsorbents
12.6.2 Commercial Activated Carbons
12.6.3 Inorganic Material
12.6.4 Ion-Exchange Resins
12.6.5 Emerging/Non-Conventional Adsorbents
12.6.5.1 Natural Adsorbents
12.6.5.2 Agricultural Wastes
12.6.5.3 Industrial By-Product (Industrial Solid Wastes)
12.6.5.4 Solid Waste-Based Activated Carbons
12.6.5.5 Bio-Sorbents
12.6.5.6 Miscellaneous Adsorbents
12.7 Desirable Properties and Surface Modification of Adsorbents
12.7.1 Desorption/Regeneration Studies
12.7.2 Column Studies
12.7.2.1 Surface Modification of Adsorbents
12.8 Disposal Methods of Adsorbents and Concentrate
12.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Adsorption
12.9.1 Advantages
12.9.2 Disadvantages
12.10 Conclusions
13 Ion Exchange Process for Removal of Microconstituents From Water and Wastewater
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Properties of Different Ion Exchange Resin
13.3 Functionalities of Polymeric Resins
13.4 Ion Exchange Mechanism
13.5 Ion Exchange Kinetics
13.6 Application of Ion Exchange for Treatment of Microconstituents
13.7 Summary
14 Membrane-Based Separation Technologies for Removal of Microconstituents
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Classification of Available MBSTs
14.3 Classification of Membranes and Membrane Materials and Their Properties
14.3.1 Classification of Membranes
14.3.2 Classification and Properties of Membrane Materials
14.3.2.1 Membrane Classification
14.3.2.1.1 Cellulose Derivatives
14.3.2.1.2 Aromatic Polyamides
14.3.2.1.3 Polysulphone
14.3.2.1.4 Polyimides
14.3.2.1.5 Polytetrafluoroethylene
14.3.2.1.6 Polycarbonates
14.3.2.1.7 Polypropylene
14.3.2.2 Cutting-Edge Membranes
14.4 Fundamental Principles and Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal via Different MBSTs
14.4.1 Fundamental Principles
14.4.2 Hydraulics of Microconstituents Removal
14.4.2.1 Modes of Operation
14.4.2.2 Definitions of Some Frequently Used Terms in MBSTs
14.5 Application of the MBSTs for Removing Microconstituents From Aqueous Matrices
14.6 Membrane Fouling
14.6.1 Classification of Membrane Fouling
14.6.1.1 Particulate or Colloidal Fouling
14.6.1.2 Biological or Microbial Fouling
14.6.1.3 Scaling or Precipitation Fouling
14.6.1.4 Organic Fouling
14.6.2 Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling
14.6.3 Control of Membrane Fouling
14.7 Future Perspectives
14.8 Conclusions
15 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Microconstituents Removal in Aquatic Environments
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of AOPs
15.3 Fundamentals of Different AOPs
15.4 Fundamentals of Individual AOPs
15.4.1 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Ozonation Process
15.4.2 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by UV-Irradiation
15.4.3 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Photocatalysis
15.4.4 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by Electrochemical Oxidation (EO) or Anodic Oxidation (AO) and Sonolysis
15.4.5 Fundamentals of Microconstituents Degradation by the Fenton Process
15.5 Fundamentals of Integrated AOPs
15.6 Fundamentals of UV-Irradiation-Based Integrated AOPs
15.6.1 UV/H2O2
15.6.2 UV Photocatalysis/Ozonation
15.6.3 UV/Fenton Process
15.6.4 UV/Persulfate (PS) or Permonosulfate (PMS)
15.6.5 UV/Cl2
15.7 Fundamentals of Ozonation-Based Integrated AOPs
15.7.1 Ozonation/H2O2
15.7.2 Ozonation/PS or PMS
15.8 Fundamentals of Fenton Process-Based Integrated AOPs
15.8.1 Heterogeneous Fenton Process
15.8.2 Photo-Fenton Process
15.8.3 Sono-Fenton Process
15.9 Fundamentals of Electrochemical-Based Integrated AOPs
15.9.1 Electro-Fenton Process
15.9.2 Sono-Electro-Fenton Process
15.9.3 Photo-Electro-Fenton Process
15.10 Application of Individual/Integrated AOPs for Microconstituents Removal
15.10.1 PPCP Removal
15.10.2 Pesticide Removal
15.10.3 Surfactant Removal
15.10.4 PFAS Removal
15.11 Future Perspectives
15.12 Conclusions
Part IV Various Physico-Chemical Treatment Techniques of Microconstituents
16 Aerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Aerobic Biological Systems/Processes
16.2.1 High-Rate Systems
16.2.1.1 Suspended Growth Processes
16.2.1.2 Attached Growth Processes
16.2.2 Low-Rate Systems
16.3 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes
16.3.1 ASPs
16.3.2 Removal of CECs By Different Aerobic/Anoxic Treatment Processes
16.3.3 MBR and Membranes Technology
16.3.4 ASPs and/or Trickling Filters
16.3.5 Lagoons and Constructed Wetlands
16.3.6 Mixed Technologies
16.4 Aerobic Biodegradation of Selected CECs
16.4.1 Hormones and Their Conjugates
16.4.2 Nanoparticles (NPs) and Nanomaterials (NMs)
16.4.3 Microplastics
16.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
16.6 Conclusions
17 Anaerobic Biological Treatment of Microconstituents
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Types of AD Reactors and Current Status of AD Technology
17.2.1 Suspended Growth Process
17.2.1.1 Anaerobic Contact Reactor (ACR)
17.2.1.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor
17.2.2 Attached Growth Process
17.2.3 AnMBRs
17.2.4 Current Status of AD Technology
17.3 Mechanisms of Pollutant Removal in AD Processes
17.3.1 The Hydrolysis Stage
17.3.2 The Acidogenesis Stage
17.3.3 The Acetogenesis Stage
17.3.4 The Methanogenesis Stage
17.4 AD Technology for Treatment of MCs
17.4.1 Key Characteristics of Selected AD Systems for MCs Removal
17.4.1.1 Reactor Configurations and Combinations of Different Methods
17.4.1.2 Removal of Different MCs and Associated Mechanisms
17.4.2 Biodegradation of Selected MCs in AD Processes
17.4.2.1 MPs
17.4.2.2 NMs/NPs
17.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives
17.6 Conclusions
18 Bio-Electrochemical Systems for Micropollutant Removal
18.1 The Concept of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.2 Bio-Electrochemical Systems: Materials and Configurations
18.2.1 Electrodes
18.2.2 Separators
18.3 Different Types of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell
18.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell
18.3.3 Microbial Desalination Cell
18.4 Performance Assessment of Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5 Pollutant Removal in Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5.1 Treatment of Different Wastewaters in Bio-Electrochemical Systems
18.5.2 Micropollutant Remediation
18.6 Scale-Up of BES
18.7 Challenges and Future Outlook
18.8 Summary
19 Hybrid Treatment Solutions for Removal of Micropollutant From Wastewaters
19.1 Background of Hybrid Treatment Processes
19.2 Types of Hybrid Processes for Microconstituents Removal
19.2.1 Constructed Wetlands
19.2.1.1 Applications
19.2.1.2 Constructed Wetland Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell
19.2.2 Combined Biological and Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.1 Activated Sludge Process Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.2.2 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor Coupled With Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.2.3 Bio-Electrochemical Systems and Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.4 Bio-Electro Fenton-Based Advanced Oxidation Processes
19.2.2.5 Photo-Electrocatalyst-Based Advanced Oxidation Process
19.2.3 Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.1 Granular Sludge Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.2 Advanced Oxidation Process Coupled Membrane Bioreactor
19.2.3.3 Membrane Bioreactor Coupled With Microbial Fuel Cell
19.2.4 Electrocoagulation
19.3 Comparative Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Systems for Microconstituents Removal
19.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
Part V Aspects of Sustainability and Environmental Management
20 Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Management and Regulatory Framework of Microconstituents
20.3 Regulations on Microconstituents
20.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)
20.3.2 Microplastics
20.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Persistent Bioaccumulated Toxics (PBTs)
20.3.4 Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs)
20.4 Concluding Remarks
21 Laboratory to Field Application of Technologies for Effective Removal of Microconstituents From Wastewaters
21.1 Introduction
21.1.1 Microconstituent Origin and Type
21.1.2 Refractory Nature and Corresponding Degradation Barriers of Microconstituents
21.2 Case Studies for Lab to Field Applications
21.2.1 Conventional Treatment Methods
21.2.2 Hybrid Treatment Methods
21.2.2.1 Hybrid Biochemical Processes
21.2.2.2 Hybrid Advanced Oxidation Processes
21.3 Future Outlook
21.4 Conclusions
22 Sustainability Outlook: Green Design, Consumption, and Innovative Business Model
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Sustainable/Green Supply Chain
22.2.1 Collaboration
22.2.2 System Improvements
22.2.3 Supplier Evaluations
22.2.4 Performance and Uncertainty
22.3 Environmental Sustainability: Innovative Design and Manufacturing
22.3.1 Design Improvements
22.3.1.1 Disassembly and Recyclability
22.3.1.2 Modularity Design
22.3.1.3 Life-Cycle Design
22.3.2 Green Manufacturing
22.3.2.1 Green Manufacturing Process and System Development
22.3.2.2 Recycling Technology
22.3.2.3 Hazard Material Control
22.3.2.4 Remanufacturing and Inventory Model
22.3.3 Summary of Environmental Sustainability
22.4 Economical Sustainability: Innovation Business Model
22.4.1 Business Model and Performance
22.5 Social Sustainability
22.5.1 Corporate Social Responsibility
22.5.2 Sustainable Consumption
22.5.3 Brief Summary of Social Sustainability
22.6 Conclusions and Future Research Development
22.6.1 Future Research Development
22.6.2 Industry 4.0 in Sustainable Life
22.6.3 Conclusions
List of Abbreviations
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
CHAPTER 01
Table 1.1 The presence of selected microconstituents...
Table 1.2 Physico-chemical properties...
Table 1.3 Impact of microconstituents...
Table 1.4 Effect of microconstituents...
CHAPTER 02
Table 2.1 General classification...
Table 2.2 Concentration of selected...
CHAPTER 03
Table 3.1 Types of different passive...
Table 3.2 Microconstituents detected...
Table 3.3 Microconstituents detected...
Table 3.4 Microconstituents detected...
Table 3.5 Microconstituents detected...
Table 3.6 Summary of different MCs...
Table 3.7 Sterols/Stanols ratio used...
CHAPTER 05
Table 5.1 Chemical and biological microconstituents.
Table 5.2 Inactivation rate coefficient...
CHAPTER 06
Table 6.1 Classification of PPCPs.
Table 6.2 Modeling transport of MCs.
CHAPTER 07
Table 7.2 The advantages and disadvantages...
Table 7.3 Meteorological data required by HSPF mode.
Table 7.4 GIS data required by HSPF mode.
Table 7.6 Performance evaluation criteria...
CHAPTER 08
Table 8.1 Physico-chemical characteristics of common MPs.
Table 8.2 The solid–water distribution...
Table 8.3 Critical parameters, advantages, and...
CHAPTER 09
Table 9.1 Characteristics of atmospheric...
Table 9.2 Deposition rates and concentration...
CHAPTER 10
Table 10.1 The electromagnetic spectrum...
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.1 The availability and demand...
Table 11.2 Various research works on utilization...
Table 11.3 Various research on continuous...
Table 11.4 Dissimilarities between batch...
Table 11.5 Advantages of electrocoagulation...
Table 11.6 Electrode type, surface area, and...
Table 11.7 Commercial cost of struvite produced...
CHAPTER 12
Table 12.1 Preparation of adsorbents and the...
CHAPTER 13
Table 13.2 Summary of some ion exchange...
CHAPTER 14
Table 14.1 MBSTs employed in removing...
Table 14.2 Application of various MBSTs...
CHAPTER 15
Table 15.1 Application of AOPs for...
CHAPTER 16
Table 16.1 Comparison of suspended...
Table 16.2 Degradation of CECs with...
CHAPTER 17
Table 17.1 MC removal by and key characteristics...
CHAPTER 18
Table 18.1 Different cathode catalysts...
Table 18.2 Different PEMs used in MFCs...
Table 18.3 Treatment of different types...
Table 18.4 Removal of different micropollutants...
CHAPTER 19
Table 19.1 Advantages and disadvantages of...
Table 19.2 Treatment of MCs by using different...
CHAPTER 21
Table 21.1 Performance of different...
CHAPTER 22
Table 22.1 The previous literature...
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Classification of microconstituents.
Figure 1.2 Source and pathway of pharmaceuticals...
Figure 1.3 Source and pathways of pesticides...
Figure 1.4 Source and pathways of disinfection...
Figure 1.5 Source and pathways of industrial...
Figure 1.6 Source and pathway of algal toxins...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Major pathways of MCs in the environmental matrices.
Figure 2.2 Concentrations of selected MCs...
CHAPTER 03
Figure 3.1 Different approach for collection of samples.
Figure 3.2 Different samplers for wastewater...
Figure 3.3 Pore-water sampling method.
Figure 3.4 A. Liquid–liquid extraction...
Figure 3.5 Traditional methods for detection of MCs.
Figure 3.6 Bioassays and biosensors for detection of MCs.
Figure 3.7 IDW interpolation of microplastics...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Research articles on MPs...
Figure 4.2 Pathways of MPs into the environment.
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Space-time diagram.
Figure 5.2 Definition sketch of finite...
Figure 5.3 Comparison of relative concentration...
Figure 5.4 Comparison of relative concentration...
Figure 5.5 Comparison of relative concentration...
Figure 5.6 Comparison of relative concentration...
Figure 5.7 Comparison of breakthrough curves...
Figure 5.8 Variation of Pressure heads with...
Figure 5.9 Variation of moisture content with...
Figure 5.10 Variation of concentration with...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 The occurrence and distribution...
Figure 7.2 Occurrence and distribution of...
Figure 7.3 Occurrence and distribution of...
Figure 7.4 Origins and fate of PPCPs in the...
Figure 7.5 Sources and pathways of PPCPs...
Figure 7.6 Pesticides in the Hydrological...
Figure 7.7 Possible sources and pathways for MCs.
Figure 7.8 Global application of SWAT in pesticide...
Figure 7.9 BASINS system overview. Source: United States ...
Figure 7.10 Schematic representation of the hydrological cycle.
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram showing the source of MPs to WWTP.
Figure 8.2 Schematic representation of conventional WWTP processes.
Figure 8.3 Comparative MCs mass balance across...
Figure 8.4 The major removal mechanisms of MCs biodegradation.
Figure 8.5 Major removal mechanisms sorption of ECs onto sludge solids.
Figure 8.6 Fate during sewage and industrial effluent treatment.
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 Various steps followed for sampling and...
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Components of remote sensing.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Mechanism of struvite precipitation...
Figure 11.2 Continuous electrocoagulation process...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Mass transfer mechanism with basic adsorption terms.
Figure 12.2 Classification of conventional adsorbents.
Figure 12.3 Classification of emerging adsorbents.
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.1 A common grouping of ion exchange...
Figure 13.2 A schematic illustration of mass transfer...
Figure 13.3 A schematic illustration of different...
Figure 13.4 Mechanism involved in removal of nickel...
CHAPTER 14
Figure 14.1 Classification of membranes based...
Figure 14.2 Outside-in flow mode of operation...
Figure 14.3 Fundamental principles involved...
Figure 14.4 Modes of operation of the MBSTs...
Figure 14.5 Schematic representation of osmotic...
Figure 14.6 Modes of operation of the MBSTs depending...
Figure 14.7 Mechanisms of membrane fouling...
CHAPTER 15
Figure 15.1 Schematic representation of photo-excitation...
Figure 15.2 Schematic representation of the doping...
CHAPTER 16
Figure 16.1 Schematic of activated sludge process.
Figure 16.2 Schematic of the Anaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic (A/A/O) process.
CHAPTER 17
Figure 17.1 An anaerobic contact reactor.
Figure 17.2 A UASB reactor.
Figure 17.3 An upflow fixed-bed anaerobic reactor.
Figure 17.4 A downflow anaerobic filter with submerged medium.
Figure 17.5 The main steps of the anaerobic degradation process.
CHAPTER 18
Figure 18.1 Schematic diagram of a microbial fuel cell.
Figure 18.2 Schematic diagram of a microbial electrolysis cell.
Figure 18.3 Schematic diagram of microbial desalination cell.
CHAPTER 19
Figure 19.1 A schematic of a constructed wetland...
Figure 19.2 Schematic diagram of hybrid constructed wetland ...
Figure 19.3 A typical electrocoagulation set-up...
CHAPTER 21
Figure 21.1 Removal mechanisms of MCs in different...
Figure 21.2 Different technologies having potential...
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
About the Editors
Begin Reading
List of Abbreviations
Index
End User License Agreement
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Preface
Microconstituents or contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) refer to any pollutants that have not previously been detected or regulated under current environmental laws, or may cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects even at insignificant levels. They consist of pesticides, industrial chemicals, surfactants, pharmaceutical and personal care products, cyanotoxins, nanoparticles, and flame retardants, among others, that are consistently being found in groundwater, surface water, municipal wastewater, drinking water, and food sources. The presence of CECs in treated effluents and its long-term impact are to be evaluated considering their environmental partitioning and bioaccumulation potential in the aquatic species. There is an urgent need not only to develop reliable and cost-effective methods to analyze a wide range of ECs, but also to find techno-economically feasible options for their efficient removal from different ecosystems.
This book is intended to provide the readers with an understanding of the occurrence and fate of microconstituents in the environment and possible management strategies. The main topics are organized into five core parts with subdivisions of each. Part I deals with the fundamental ideas regarding microconstituents in the environment and consists of four chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the microconstituents and explores their various classifications, properties, and sources, as well as their impact on environmental ecosystems and human health. The presence of microconstituents in environmental samples and the detection methodology are discussed in Chapter 2. The sampling protocols, quantification, and analysis of microconstituents are discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 deals with the toxicity assessment, including acute and chronic toxicity and dose-responses studies. Part II covers the fate and transportation of microconstituents in various environmental domains, including mathematical transport systems of microconstituents (Chapter 5), groundwater contamination by microconstituents (Chapter 6), microconstituent transport in surface water (Chapter 7), fate and transport of microconstituents in wastewater treatment plants (Chapter 8), atmospheric transport of microconstituents (Chapter 9), and modeling microconstituents based on remote sensing and GIS techniques (Chapter 10). Part III encompasses details of the various physicochemical treatment techniques of microconstituents with five chapters. Chemical precipitation (Chapter 11), adsorption (Chapter 12), ion exchange (Chapter 13), filtration and membrane separation (Chapter 14), and advanced oxidation (Chapter 15) are covered in this part. The removal of microconstituents via biological treatment techniques is discussed in Part IV. Aerobic biological treatment (Chapter 16), anaerobic biological treatment (Chapter 17), bioelectrochemical systems (Chapter 18), and hybrid treatment solutions (Chapter 19) are presented in this part. Finally, Part V focuses on the aspects of sustainability and environmental management, including regulatory framework (Chapter 20), laboratory to field application (Chapter 21), and sustainability outlook (Chapter 22).
We hope this book will be of interest to students, scientists, engineers, government officers, process managers, and practicing professionals. As a reference, this book will help the readers readily find the information they are looking for.
The editors gratefully acknowledge the hard work and patience of all authors who have contributed to this book. The views or opinions expressed in each chapter of this book are those of the authors and should not be construed as opinions of the organizations they work for.
Rao Y. SurampalliTian C. ZhangChih-Ming KaoMakarand M. GhangrekarPuspendu BhuniaManaswini BeheraPrangya R. Rout
List of Contributors
Mansi AchhodaDepartment of BiotechnologyThapar Institute of Engineering & TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Lavanya AdagaddaCSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research InstituteNagpurMaharashtraIndia
Department of Civil EngineeringM.S. Ramaiah Institute of TechnologyBangaloreKarnatakaIndia
Richa BabbarDepartment of Civil EngineeringThapar Institute of Engineering & TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Manoj BaranwalDepartment of BiotechnologyThapar Institute of Engineering & TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Manaswini BeheraSchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
Sailesh N. BeheraAir Quality LaboratoryDepartment of Civil EngineeringShiv Nadar UniversityDelhi-NCRGreater NoidaGautam Buddha NagarUttar PradeshIndia
Centre for Environmental Sciencesand EngineeringShiv Nadar UniversityDelhi-NCRGreater NoidaGautam Buddha NagarUttar PradeshIndia
Puspendu BhuniaSchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
Indrajit ChakrabortyDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Sasmita ChandCentre of Sustainable Built EnvironmentManipal School of Architecture andPlanningManipal Academy of Higher EducationManipalKarnatakaIndia
Hung-Hsiang ChenDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Chi Nan UniversityPuliNantou CountyTaiwan
Ku-Fan ChenDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Chi Nan UniversityPuliNantou CountyTaiwan
Younggyun ChoiDepartment of Environmental & IT EngineeringChungnam National UniversityDaejeonRepublic of Korea
Sanket Dey ChowdhurySchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
Sovik DasDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Rajesh Roshan DashSchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
H.N.P. DayarathneSchool of Engineering and Mathematical SciencesLa Trobe UniversityBendigoAustralia
Thakshila Nadeeshani DharmapriyaInstitute of EnvironmentalEngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Manikanta M. DokiDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Brajesh Kumar DubeyDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Makarand M. GhangrekarDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
School of Environmental Science andEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Sanjoy GoraiSchool of Energy & EnvironmentThapar Institute of Engineering &TechnologyPunjabIndia
Nirmalya HalderDepartment of BiotechnologyThapar Institute of Engineering &TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
K.S. HariprasadDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeIndia
Po-Jung HuangDepartment of Chemical and MaterialsEngineeringNational Central UniversityTaoyuanTaiwan
Nagireddi JagadeeshDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyAndhra PradeshTadepalligudemIndia
Sivaraman JayaramanDepartment of Biotechnology &Medical EngineeringNational Institute of Technology RourkelaOdishaIndia
Chih-Ming KaoInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Civil and Environmental EngineeringDepartmentCollege of EngineeringUniversity of NebraskaLincolnOmaha, NEUSA
Nageshwari KrishnamoorthyDepartment of Biotechnology &Medical EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkelaOdishaIndia
Vishnu KumarAir Quality LaboratoryDepartment of Civil EngineeringShiv Nadar UniversityDelhi-NCRGreater NoidaGautam Buddha NagarUttar PradeshIndia
Tsai Chi KuoNational Taiwan University of Scienceand TechnologyTaipeiTaiwan
Fang-Yu LiangInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Jun Wei LimHICoE-Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical ResearchInstitute of Self-Sustainable BuildingDepartment of Fundamental and Applied SciencesUniversiti Teknologi PETRONASSeri IskandarPerak Darul RidzuanMalaysia
Department of BiotechnologySaveetha School of EngineeringSaveetha Institute of Medical andTechnical SciencesChennaiIndia
Wei-Han LinSchool of EnvironmentTsinghua UniversityBeijingPR China
Pu-Fong LiuInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Bandita MainaliSchool of EngineeringFaculty of Science and EngineeringMacquarie UniversitySydneyAustralia
Challa MallikarjunaSchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
Thi-Mahn NguyenDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Chi Nan UniversityPuliNantou CountyTaiwan
C.S.P. OjhaDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeIndia
Jiun-Hau OuInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Balasubramanian ParamasivanDepartment of Biotechnology &Medical EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkelaOdishaIndia
Aditya PariharDepartment of Civil EngineeringThapar Institute of Engineering &TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Monali PriyadarshiniSchool of Environmental Science andEngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Rajat PundlikSchool of InfrastructureIndian Institute of TechnologyBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
Rishabh RajSchool of Environmental Science and EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Dwarikanath RathaDepartment of Civil EngineeringThapar Institute of Engineering &TechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Prangya Ranjan RoutDepartment of BiotechnologyThapar Institute of Engineering andTechnologyPatialaPunjabIndia
Department of BiotechnologyDr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology JalandharPunjabIndia
Chinmayee SahooDepartment of Biotechnology & Medical EngineeringNational Institute of Technology RourkelaOdishaIndia
Naresh Kumar SahooDepartment of ChemistryInstitute of Technical Education and ResearchBhubaneswarOdishaIndia
S.M. SatheDepartment of Civil EngineeringIndian Institute of TechnologyKharagpurWest BengalIndia
Muhammad Kashif ShahidResearch Institute of Environment &BiosystemChungnam National UniversityDaejeonRepublic of Korea
Meena Kumari SharmaDepartment of Civil EngineeringManipal University JaipurRajasthanIndia
Anoop Kumar ShuklaManipal School of Architecture andPlanningManipal Academy of Higher EducationManipalKarnatakaIndia
Satyavati ShuklaKey Laboratory of GeospatialInformaticsGuilin University of TechnologyGuilinPR China
Baranidharan SundaramDepartment of Civil EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyAndhra PradeshTadepalligudemIndia
Rao Y. SurampalliGlobal Institute for Energy, Environment,and SustainabilityLenexa, KSUSA
Mudit YadavAir Quality LaboratoryDepartment of Civil EngineeringShiv Nadar UniversityDelhi-NCRGreater NoidaGautam Buddha NagarUttar PradeshIndia
Zong-Han YangInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Ying-Liang YuInstitute of Environmental EngineeringNational Sun Yat-sen UniversityKaohsiungTaiwan
Civil and Environmental EngineeringDepartmentCollege of EngineeringUniversity of NebraskaLincolnOmaha, NEUSA
Alisha ZaffarDepartment of Biotechnology &Medical EngineeringNational Institute of TechnologyRourkelaOdishaIndia
Tian C. ZhangCivil and Environmental EngineeringCollege of EngineeringUniversity of NebraskaLincolnOmaha, NEUSA
About the Editors
Dr.Rao. Y. Surampalli, Ph.D., P.E., Dist.M.ASCE, received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Environmental Engineering from Oklahoma State and Iowa State Universities, respectively. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the branches of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and also a Board Certified Environmental and Water Resources Engineer (BCEE, D.WRE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) and American Academy of Water Resources Engineers. His career in private practice, government, university and applied research has given him the opportunity to experience and appreciate the varied interests and challenges of the environmental engineering profession, and has conducted applied research on over fifty (50) environmental science and engineering topics. He is an Adjunct Professor in five (5) universities and Distinguished/Honorary Visiting Professor in eight (8) universities. Currently, he serves, or has served, on more than 75 national and international committees, review panels, or advisory boards including the ASCE National Committee on Energy, Environment and Water Policy. A Distinguished Engineering Alumnus of both the Oklahoma State and Iowa State Universities, Dr. Surampalli has received over 30 national awards and honors from ASCE, WEF, IWA, AAEE, NSPE, AAES; and is an elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), an elected Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), an elected Member of the Russian Academy of Engineering (RAE), an elected Distinguished Fellow of the International Water Association (Dist.F.IWA) and Fellow of the Water Environment Federation (F.WEF), an elected Member of the U.S. National Academy of Construction (NAC) and recognized as a Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (Dist.M.ASCE) – the highest honor of ASCE. He also is Editor-in-Chief of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, and past Vice-Chair of Editorial Board of Water Environment Research journal. He has authored more than 700 technical publications in journals and conference proceedings, including more than 370 refereed journal articles, 22 patents, 25 books, and 171 book chapters.
Dr. Tian C. Zhang, Ph.D., P.E., is a professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln (UNL). He received his Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the University of Cincinnati in 1994 and joined the UNL faculty in August 1994. Professor Zhang teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment, remediation of hazardous wastes, and non-point pollution control. Professor Zhang’s research involves fundamentals and applications of nanotechnology and conventional technology for water, wastewater, and stormwater treatment and management, remediation of contaminated environments, and detection/control of emerging contaminants in the environment. Professor Zhang has published more than 190 peer-reviewed journal papers, 82 books chapters, and 17 books since 1994. Professor Zhang is a Diplomate of Water Resources Engineer (D.WRE) of the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers, a Board Certified Environmental Engineer (BCEE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, an elected Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (Dist.M.ASCE), an elected Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), and an elected member of European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA). Professor Zhang is an Associate Editor of Journal of Environmental Engineering (since 2007), Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (since 2006), and Water Environment Research (since 2008). He has been a registered professional engineer in Nebraska since 2000.
Dr. Chih-Ming Kao, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE, D.WRE, F.IWA, F.WEF, F.ASCE, F.AAAS is a Distinguished chair professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at National Sun Yat-sen University, Taiwan. Prof. Kao is also the Coordinator of Environmental Engineering Program at Ministry of Science and Technology, past President of The Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering, and former President of The Taiwan Association of Soil and Groundwater Environmental Protection. Prof. Kao received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Civil and Environmental Engineering from North Carolina State University in 1989 and 1993, respectively. He is a fellow member of International Water Association (IWA), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), an Academician of European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), a fellow member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a fellow member of Environment and Water Resource Institute (EWRI), a Registered Professional Engineer in the branch of Civil Engineering, a Certified Ground Water Professional, and a Professional Hydrologist in the United States. He is also a Diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Diplomate of American Academy of Water Resources Engineers. Prof. Kao received the “Distinguished Researcher Award” from Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology in 2011 and 2015. He is also the receiver of the “Distinguished Engineer Professor Award” from Chinese Institute of Engineers in 2012, and receiver of the “Distinguished Honor Award” from C.T. Ho Foundation in 2013. He also received several awards from ASCE including the State of the Art of Civil Engineering Award in 2013, Hering Medal, Samuel Arnold Greely Award in 2012, and distinguished theory-oriented paper award in 2008 and 2015. He has over 350 refereed publications.
Prof. Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Fellow INAE, MASCE, is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering and, and Heading two academic units, School of Environmental Science and Engineering and PK Sinha Centre for Bioenergy and renewables, and also Professor In-Charge, Aditya Choubey Centre for Re-Water Research at Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. He had been visiting Scientist to Ben Gurion University, Israel and University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK under Marie Curie Fellowship by European Union and had stint as faculty of various capacities in renowned engineering colleges and research institutes. He has been working in the areas of anaerobic wastewater treatment, bioenergy recovery during wastewater treatment using microbial fuel cell and bio-electrochemical systems. He is recognized worldwide in scientific community for his research contribution in the development of bio-electrochemical processes and his research group stands among the top five research laboratories in the world in terms of scientific publications. The first of its kind MFC based onsite toilet waste treatment system ‘Bioelectric toilet’ developed by him received wide publicity in electronic and print media. He has successfully completed multinational collaborative projects with European Countries and few of the projects are ongoing. He has also provided design of industrial wastewater and sewage treatment plants in India and abroad. He has been working on setting up wastewater treatment plants to produce reusable quality treated water at affordable cost. He has guided 21 Ph.D. Research Scholars and 50 Master student’s projects. He has contributed 204 research papers in journals of international repute, out of these 138 papers are on microbial fuel cell and also contributed 44 book chapters. His research work has been presented in more than 250 conferences. He has delivered invited lectures in the many reputed universities in the world.
Dr. Puspendu Bhunia,Ph.D., is presently holding the Professor position at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, India. He received his B.E. degree in Civil Engineering from Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, India in 2002, his M.Tech. and Ph.D. degree in Environmental Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India in 2004, and in 2008, respectively. He joined the Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar faculty in July 2009. Dr. Bhunia teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment, and remediation of hazardous wastes. His research interest includes sustainable natural treatment technologies of wastewater, nutrient removal, and green technologies for waste remediation. Dr. Bhunia has authored 50 technical publications in refereed journals, book chapters and conference proceedings. He has presented several expert talks at different technical conferences organized nationally and internationally. Dr. Bhunia’s research work has been recognized, including the Best Practice Oriented Paper award from ASCE. Dr. Bhunia is member of several professional organizations and also serves as an Associate Editor of ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste and is reviewer for more than 30 international peer reviewed journals.
Dr. Manaswini Behera, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Environmental Engineering in the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, which is among the top 20 Indian institutions. She has received her Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur and master’s degree in environmental engineering and management from Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. She has joined IIT Bhubaneswar in 2014. She is an Associate Editor of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste and and is reviewer for more than 40 international peer reviewed journals. She has published 33 refereed articles in well-known journals, 31 international conference presentations and proceedings, and 21 refereed book chapters. Her area of research is bioenergy recovery during treatment of industrial wastewater and solid waste in bioelectrochemical systems, development of separators for microbial fuel cells, wastewater treatment and reuse. She has successfully completed three sponsored research projects. She is the principal investigator for the ongoing project, SARASWATI-2.0 (INR 12 million) jointly funded by the European Union and the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. She has guided 2 PhD students and is at present supervising six PhD research scholars. She has filed a patent on using ceramic separator as a cost-effective alternative to expensive polymeric membrane in microbial fuel cells.
Dr. Prangya Ranjan Rout, PhD., is presently serving as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biotechnology, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology (TIET), Patiala, Punjab India. He holds B.Tech and M.Tech degrees in Biotechnology and a Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering. His research interest lies in the domain of bioreactor design, anaerobic digestion, bioconversion of wastes to wealth, emerging contaminants removal, membrane technology, resource recovery and reuse, and wastewater treatment. He has authored over 80 publications, including refereed journal articles (33), edited books (2), book chapters (24), national (12) and international conference (11) presentations, technical notes (1), and a granted patent to his credit. Some of the awards he has received include Odisha Young Scientist Award 2017, Best Practice Oriented Paper 2019 by American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE), and Outstanding Reviewer 2019 by ASCE. He is an Associate Editor of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Wastes and has served as a guest editor of a special issue of the journal. He is an Editorial Board Member of Journal of Water Process Engineering, Elsevier. He is also actively involved in Editing contributed book volumes for internationally renowned publishers like CRC Press, John Wiley & Sons, Elsevier, ASCE, etc.
Part I Fundamental Ideas Regarding Microconstituents in the Environment
1 Introduction to Microconstituents
Manaswini Behera1, Prangya Ranjan Rout2,3, Puspendu Bhunia1, Rao Y. Surampalli4, Tian C. Zhang5, Chih-Ming Kao5,6, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar7,8
1 School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India2 Department of Biotechnology, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India3 Department of Biotechnology, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Punjab, India4 Global Institute for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, Lenexa, KS, USA5 Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University Nabraska, Lincoln, Omaha, NE, USA6 Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan7 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India8 School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
1.1 Introduction
Microconstituents (MCs) are a comparatively new group of unregulated natural and manmade substances, including elements and inorganic and organic chemicals, detected within water and the environment that can cause detrimental effects to aquatic environment and human health. Humans, aquatic organisms, and other wildlife can be exposed to these compounds through environmental contact and consumption of foods and water that are contaminated with MCs. The term “microconstituents” has been developed by the Water Environment Federation (WEF) (Cleary 2008). These MCs can make their way into the environment through a variety of routes such as effluent from industries, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, agricultural run-off, run-off from feedlot operations, and other nonpoint sources that are more difficult to quantify.
Microconstituents are also called Micropollutants, Emerging Contaminants, or Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CEC) (Bhandari et al. 2009). The absence of sensitive analytical methods was the major reason for non-detection of the existence of MCs in environmental samples before the late 1990s, as they are present at comparatively low concentrations, typically from a few ng/L to a few hundred µg/L in the aquatic environment. However, even at low concentration levels, many of these pollutants have the ability to cause substantial ecological and/or human health risks. They are considered as CECs because they still remain unregulated or are currently undergoing a regularization process. However, the directives and legal frameworks are not yet in place.
The presence of MCs in the environment can have deleterious effects on aquatic and human life via interference with the endocrine system of living organisms, antimicrobial resistance, and accumulation in soil. Uptake of MCs by plants from contaminated soils and their accumulation in the food chain can be another instrumental problem for the ecosystem and human health. Although most of the MCs have been detected at concentrations of µg/L in water supplies, often lower than their toxic concentrations, they can have longer-term effects than previously believed as some of them may be mutagenic, carcinogenic, and very persistent, with a tendency to bioaccumulate. Conventional WWTPs are not designed to remove these micropollutants because they are either transformed or remain unchanged as they enter the conventional WWTPs. Therefore, many of these MCs appear in the effluents and, in most cases, find their way into surface water and then into drinking water, exposing us to these substances and their possible effects. Since 2000, increased awareness of the risks posed by emerging contaminants to human health has raised concerns for water quality improvement. The presence of MCs in water, even at very low concentrations, has raised concerns among stakeholders, such as drinking water regulators, governments, water suppliers, and the public, regarding the potential risks to human health from exposure to traces of these pollutants via drinking water. Hence, the development of strategies and technologies for their removal and risk management should be of prime importance (Bhandari et al. 2009; Salamanca et al. 2021).
The existence of CECs in the environment is not a new phenomenon and can be dated back to 2000 years ago with the emergence of the oldest global contaminant, lead, due to over exploitation of lead deposits by the Romans and Greeks (Rout et al. 2021). Subsequently, the presence of CECs gradually swept through the traditional contaminants to the present-day nanomaterials, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, disinfection by-products, etc. The first documented awareness of emerging contaminants should probably be attributed to Rachel Carson for her 1962 book “Silent Spring” that commended the link between widespread usage of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and environmental hazards (Carson 2002; Sauvé and Desrosiers 2014). However, extensive investigation of the environmental occurrence of CECs and their detection have been extensively carried out only during the last two decades. The slow development of sensitive analytical techniques to detect the very low concentrations of CECs present in environmental samples is the major cause of the time lag in their detection (Noguera-Oviedo and Aga 2016). Conventionally, gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is used for the analysis of CECs; however, the majority of CECs are not responsive to this technique. The introduction of liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC/MS) could help in realizing the ubiquitous nature of emerging contaminants (ECs) in the environment (Kolpin et al. 2002). Further improvement in mass accuracy and resolving power of quadrupole time of flight (Q-TOF) MS and orbitrap MS have accelerated ECs-related research exponentially in recent years (Rout et al. 2021). Bhandari et al. (2009) have presented an overview of CECs and their classification and have summarized the analytical methods used for separation and quantification of ECs and describes molecular biology approaches to identify organisms capable of degrading these chemicals.
