Microplastics in the Ecosphere E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Microplastics in the Ecosphere Discover the environmental impact of microplastics with this comprehensive resource Microplastics are the minute quantities of plastic that result from industrial processes, household release and the breakdown of larger plastic items. Widespread reliance on plastic goods and, particularly, single-use plastics, which has been increased by the COVID-19 pandemic, has made microplastics ubiquitous; they can be found throughout the ecosphere, including in the bloodstreams of humans and other animals. As these plastics emerge as a potential threat to the environment and to public health, it has never been more critical to understand their distribution and environmental impact. Microplastics in the Ecosphere aims to cultivate that understanding with a comprehensive overview of microplastics in terrestrial ecosystems. It analyzes microplastic distribution in aerosphere, hydrosphere, and soil, tracing these plastics from their production on land to their distribution--overwhelmingly--in maritime ecosystems. The result is a book that will inform researchers and policymakers as we look to tackle this emerging challenge globally. Microplastics in the Ecosphere readers will also find: * Introductory information about the production and distribution of single-use plastics * An emphasis on management and mitigation strategies designed to reduce contamination over time * A multidisciplinary approach, combining concepts and analytical techniques from a range of scientific fields Microplastics in the Ecosphere is a valuable guide for researchers and scientists, advanced undergraduate and graduate students, industry professionals, and policymakers looking to understand the impact of these widespread materials.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Section I: Single Use Plastics
1 Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Materials and Methods
1.3 Results and Discussion
1.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
2 Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans – A Review
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Polar Regions
2.3 Future Perspectives
2.4 Conclusions
References
3 Microplastics – Global Scenario
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Environmental Issues of Plastic Waste
3.3 Coprocessing of Plastic Waste in Cement Kilns
3.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste Through Plasma Pyrolysis Technology (PPT)
3.5 Constraints on the Use of Plastic Waste Disposal Technologies
3.6 Alternate to Conventional Petro‐based Plastic Carry Bags and Films
3.7 Improving Waste Management
References
4 The Single‐Use Plastic Pandemic in the COVID‐19 Era
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.3 Trends in Production and Consumption of SUPs during the Pandemic
4.4 SUP Waste from the Pandemic
4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Section II: Microplastics in the Aerosphere
5 Atmospheric Microplastic Transport
5.1 The Phenomenon of Microplastic Transport
5.2 Factors Affecting Microplastic Transport
5.3 Microplastic Transport Modelling
References
6 Microplastics in the Atmosphere and Their Human and Eco Risks
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere
6.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health and the Eco Risk
6.4 Strategies to Minimise Atmospheric MPs through Future Research
6.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
7 Sampling and Detection of Microplastics in the Atmosphere
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Classification
7.3 Sampling Microplastics
7.4 Sample Preparation
7.5 Detection and Characterisation of MPs in the Atmosphere
7.6 Conclusion
Funding
References
8 Sources and Circulation of Microplastics in the Aerosphere – Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends in MP Accumulation
8.3 Formation of MPs
8.4 Atmospheric Circulation, Transport, Suspension, and Deposition
8.5 Atmospheric Chemistry of MPs
8.6 Predicting MP Dispersion and Transport
8.7 Eco‐Environmental Impacts
8.8 Future Perspectives
References
Section III: Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
9 Interaction of Chemical Contaminants with Microplastics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Interactions
9.3 Mechanisms
9.4 Environmental Burden of Microplastics
9.5 Future Approaches
References
10 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Microplastics in Rivers and Tributaries
10.3 Microplastics in Lakes
10.4 Microplastics in Groundwater Sources
10.5 Microplastics in Glaciers and Ice Caps
10.6 Microplastics in Deltas
10.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
11 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate:
11.1 Plastics and Microplastics
11.2 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate
11.3 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
12 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment – Effects on Ocean Carbon Sequestration and Sustenance of Marine Life
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment
12.3 Microplastics and Ocean Carbon Sequestration
12.4 Microplastics and Marine Fauna
12.5 Microplastic Pollution, Climate Change, and Antibiotic Resistance – A Unique Trio
12.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Section IV: Microplastics in Soil Systems
13 Entry of Microplastics into Agroecosystems: A Serious Threat to Food Security and Human Health
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Sources of Microplastics in Agroecosystems
13.3 Implications of Microplastic Contamination on Agroecosystems
13.4 Human Health Risks
13.5 Knowledge Gaps
13.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
14 Migration of Microplastic‐Bound Contaminants to Soil and Their Effects
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Microplastics as Sorbing Materials for Hazardous Chemicals
14.3 Types of Microplastic‐Bound Contaminants in Soils
14.4 Effects of Exposure and Co‐exposure in Soil – Consequences of Contaminant Sorption for MP Toxicity and Bioaccumulation
14.5 Microplastic‐Bound Contaminants in Soils as Potential Threats to Human Health
14.6 Conclusions
References
15 Plastic Mulch‐Derived Microplastics in Agricultural Soil Systems
15.1 Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture
15.2 Types of Synthetic Polymer Mulch Films
15.3 Weathering of Plastic Mulches and Distribution of Mulch Microplastics in Soils
15.4 Mulch Microplastic Pollution in Soil
15.5 Mulch Microplastics as a Vector
15.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
References
16 Critical Review of Microplastics in Soil
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sources and Transfer of Microplastics in Soils
16.3 Classification, Qualification, and Quantification of Microplastics in Soil
16.4 Effects and Risks of Microplastics on Soil Health
16.5 Analytical Methodologies for Microplastics in Soil
16.6 Epilogue and Future Perspectives
Acknowledgment
References
17 What Do We Know About the Effects of Microplastics on Soil?
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Why and How Do MPs End Up in the Soil?
17.3 Microplastic Transport in Soils
17.4 Microplastics as Carriers of Soil Contaminants – Contaminant Vectors
17.5 Microplastic Effects
17.6 Conclusions and Perspectives for Future Research
References
18 Microbial Degradation of Plastics
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Diversity of Plastic‐Degrading Microbes
18.3 Mechanism of Microbe‐Mediated Decomposition of Plastics
18.4 Molecular Factors in the Microbial Breakdown of Plastics
18.5 Microbes and Sustainable Degradation of Plastics
References
19 Microplastics and Soil Nutrient Cycling
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Microplastics in Soil
19.3 Effect of Microplastics on Nutrient Cycling
19.4 Effect of Microplastic‐Driven Factors on Soil Nutrient Cycling
19.5 Mechanisms of Microplastic‐Driven Plant Toxicity/Nutrient Uptake
19.6 Future Perspectives
References
Section V: Microplastics in Food Systems
20 Microplastics in the Food Chain
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Presence of Microplastics in the Food Chain
20.3 Possible Health Effects of Microplastics in Food
20.4 How to Minimize Microplastic Contamination in Food
20.5 Summary
References
21 Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water
21.1 Microplastics in Salt
21.2 Microplastics in Drinking Water
21.3 Summary
References
22 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood (Invertebrates) and Seaweeds
22.1 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds
Acknowledgement
References
23 Microplastic Toxicity to Humans
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Ingestion of Microplastics
23.3 Human Exposure to Inhalation of Microplastics
23.4 Human Exposure to Dermal Contact with Microplastics
23.5 Conclusions
References
Section VI: Treatment Technologies and Management
24 Management of Microplastics from Sources to Humans
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Classification and Sources of Microplastics
24.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health
24.4 Social and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics
24.5 Prospects in Microplastic Management
24.6 Summary
References
25 Single‐Use Ordinary Plastics vs. Bioplastics
25.1 Ordinary Plastic – General Characteristics
25.2 Bioplastics – General Characteristics
25.3 Biodegradability of Bioplastics
25.4 Selected, Innovative Methods of Bioplastic Production
25.5 Environmental Benefits of Using Bioplastic
25.6 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Section VII: Case Studies
26 Plastic Nurdles in Marine Environments Due to Accidental Spillage
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Presence and Sources of Plastic Nurdles in the Environment
26.3 Accidental Spillages of Plastic Nurdles
26.4 X‐Press Pearl Ship Disaster – A Case Study
References
27 Compost‐Hosted Microplastics – Municipal Solid Waste Compost
27.1 Municipal Solid Waste
27.2 Microplastics in Municipal Solid Waste Compost
27.3 Impact of Microplastic‐Contaminated Compost on Soil Properties
27.4 Compost‐Hosted Microplastics as a Vector
27.5 Future Perspectives
References
28 Single‐Use Ordinary Plastics and Bioplastics – A Case Study in Brazil
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Types of Bioplastic
28.3 Possible Substitutions
28.4 The Recycling Approach
28.5 Energy Recovery
28.6 Public Policies
28.7 Impacts of Environmental Legislation
28.8 Challenges of Bioplastics Production
28.9 Conclusions
References
29 Microplastics Remediation – Possible Perspectives for Mitigating Saline Environments
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Assimilation of Microplastics in Saline Water Bodies and Soil Ecosystems
29.3 Microplastic Self‐Aging and Degradation: Hopes and Risks for the Ecosystem
29.4 Microplastics: Technologies for Remediating Saline Environments
29.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Microplastic Remediation in Saline Conditions
29.6 Conclusion: Hopes, and Resistance to Environmental Remediation to Achieve a Cleaner Environment
References
30 The Management of Waste Tires: A Case Study in Brazil
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Methodology
30.3 Results and Discussions
30.4 Reverse Logistics Tires in Brazil
30.5 Discussion
30.6 Conclusions
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Top 10 publishing databases and journals that published documents...
Table 1.2 Top 10 published articles in the field of microplastics.
Table 1.3 Analysis of author keywords and research areas.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Ocean plastic pollution sources.
Table 2.2 Size categories of plastic pollutants.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Global plastic production (in millions of tons) and industries co...
Table 3.2 Types of plastics and their uses.
Table 3.3 Synthetic polymer fibres and their applications.
Table 3.4 Microplastics in the environment.
Table 3.5 Membrane technology for separating microplastics (MPs) from vario...
Table 3.6 Microplastics in marine and continental environments.
Table 3.7 Summary of sample treatment details, polymer particles shape, pol...
Table 3.8 Main environmental variables involved, key findings, and knowledg...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Estimated daily face masks and medical waste with confirmed COVID...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Correlation between meteorological variables and MPs flux dry and...
Table 5.2 Atmospheric MPs deposition flux in cities of the world.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Characteristics of atmospheric microplastics reported in differen...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Analytical techniques for detection and quantification of micropl...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Distribution of microplastics in the atmosphere and abundance of ...
Table 8.2 Inhalation of atmospheric microplastics by human in different age...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Interaction of organic pollutants and microplastics: a literature...
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Microplastic concentration, composition, size, and shapes in lan...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Primary microplastics in the aquatic environment: sources, plast...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Average abundance, types, size, and source of microplastics in a...
Table 13.2 Types of microplastics and their effects on plants.
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Contaminants proven to be adsorbed on microplastics.
Table 14.2 Effects of microplastic‐bound contaminants on soil organisms.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Concentrations of leachable organic micro‐pollutants from plasti...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Main sources (direct and indirect) of microplastics in soils.
Table 16.2 Primary uses of heavy metals as additives in polymer products an...
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Studies of the impact of MPs on plant performance.
Chapter 18
Table 18.1 Different types of commercial plastics.
Table 18.2 Microbes and enzymes involved in the degradation of plastics.
Table 18.3 Salient aspects of recent findings about microbial degradation o...
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Selected references on microplastic‐soil nutrient interactions a...
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Presence of microplastics in food.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Summary of present values for microplastic abundance, dominant p...
Table 21.2 Summary of recent research on factors affecting microplastic con...
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Policies, initiatives, and strategies implemented by various cou...
Chapter 25
Table 25.1 Types of bioplastic.
Table 25.2 Global bioplastic production.
Chapter 27
Table 27.1 Abundance, shape, size, color, and type of MPs detected in compo...
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 Possible substitutions for plastics in Brazil.
Table 28.2 Green plastics produced in Brazil.
Table 28.3 Total amount of household and/or public solid waste collected an...
Chapter 29
Table 29.1 Global microplastic pollution research.
Table 29.2 Microplastic pollution reports in outlying areas.
Table 29.3 Some microplastic ingestion reports.
Table 29.4 Methods for remediating microplastics.
Table 29.5 Microplastic remediation in saline environments.
Chapter 30
Table 30.1 Waste tire generation in the US, China, Japan, Germany, Brazil, ...
Table 30.2 Tire composition and waste tires by weight.
Table 30.3 Comparison between legislation, systems implemented for collecti...
Table 30.4 Some fuel heat power and CO
2
emission factors.
Table 30.5 Waste tire coprocessing capacity per region in Brazil.
Table 30.6 Destination of tires by tire manufacturers after approval of Con...
Table 30.7 Destination of tires by tire importers after approval of Conama ...
List of Illustrations
f04
Figure 1 The word cloud map generated from the titles and keywords of the ch...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Temporal distribution of publications on microplastics and their ...
Figure 1.2 Top 10 funding agencies around the globe in terms of their publis...
Figure 1.3 Top 10 global affiliations in the microplastics field.
Figure 1.4 Top 10 countries around the world that contributed to the micropl...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Percentage of species endangered by plastic trash.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Global release of microplastics into the world's oceans – primary...
Figure 3.2 The plastics discarded in a single year entangle the earth four t...
Figure 3.3 Plastic‐polluted beach.
Figure 3.4 Exponential growth of research publications on microplastics.
Figure 3.5 Subject areas and the number of research publications on micropla...
Figure 3.6 Marine litter poses a serious threat to organisms in marine ecosy...
Figure 3.7 Global evaluation of sources of primary microplastics in the mari...
Figure 3.8 Continental microplastics, features, and environmental transport ...
Figure 3.9 Scheme of environmental pathways between microplastics reservoirs...
Figure 3.10 Trend of the occurrence of the main keywords (KWs) other than
mi
...
Figure 3.11 Trend of the occurrence of the main keywords (KW) other than
mic
...
Figure 3.12 (a) Subset 3 and (b) subset 4 of a 2020 (fraction 1 and 2, respe...
Figure 3.13 Microplastics in food and marine systems.
Figure 3.14 Major sources of microplastics and their transport into food sys...
Figure 3.15 Schematic description of the interaction and mechanisms between ...
Figure 3.16 Summary of UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) directly impa...
Figure 3.17 Goal 14 is the only UN Sustainable Development Goal with indicat...
Figure 3.18 Flow diagram for coprocessing of plastic waste in cement kilns t...
Figure 3.19 Process block diagram for conversion of plastic waste into fuel ...
Figure 3.20 Process flow diagram of plasma pyrolysis for disposal of plastic...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Contribution of polymer types to plastic demand.
Figure 4.2 Distribution of European plastic converter demand by segment.
Figure 4.3 Estimated face mask use and medical waste per population per day....
Figure 4.4 SUPs that are inappropriately discarded, their influence on anima...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Cycle of MPs through several media.
Figure 5.2 Transport routes and fallout of microplastic pollutants in variou...
Figure 5.3 Global emissions of microplastics.
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Typical shapes and colours of atmospheric microplastics. (a) Shap...
Figure 6.2 Schematic representation of the plastic cycle.
Figure 6.3 Atmospheric microplastics: human exposure through breathing air....
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Some of the commonly used equipment for microplastic study: (a) F...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Sources, occurrence, and pathways of atmospheric microplastics in...
Figure 8.2 Potential pathways of atmospheric microplastic formation and tran...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Mechanistic pathways responsible for the contaminant‐microplastic...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Plastic bottle fragmentation on the Bahlui riverbank, Iasi city,...
Figure 10.2 Diversification of sampling methods in future microplastic resea...
Figure 10.3 Microplastic formation in agricultural soil, and potential leaka...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Sizes and shapes of microplastics.
Figure 11.2 Representation of solid waste microplastics as carriers of micro...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Comparison of global releases of plastics and primary microplast...
Figure 12.2 Schematic representation of ocean carbon sequestration by phytop...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Sources of microplastics in agroecosystems.
Figure 13.2 Effects of microplastics on the soil ecosystem and plant health....
Figure 13.3 Microplastic‐induced health disorders in human beings.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Cycling of mulch microplastics in the ecosphere illustrating deg...
Figure 15.2 Soil properties potentially affected in the presence of mulch mi...
Figure 15.3 Mulch microplastics as a vector to bind, release, and transport ...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Number of documents on “microplastics” and “soil” in the Scopus ...
Figure 16.2 Percentage of documents by continent on “microplastics” and “soi...
Figure 16.3 Sources of microplastics in terrestrial environments (not exhaus...
Figure 16.4 Classification of microplastics.
Figure 16.5 Microplastics entering soil.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Primary sources of MPs in soils.
Figure 17.2 Almond fields near Évora, Alentejo, Portugal.
Figure 17.3 How MPs can impact plant–soil systems, alone or in synergy with ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Microbial degradation of plastics. Microbes form biofilms on the...
Figure 18.2 Structure of poly (ethylene terephthalate) hydrolase (PETase). T...
Figure 18.3 Plastic contamination water in a water channel. Plastics spread ...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Microplastics (MPs) deposited in the soil environment. (a) Munic...
Figure 19.2 Possible pathways for microplastic‐soil nutrient interaction, wi...
Figure 19.3 Potential mechanisms of microplastic‐induced responses to soil n...
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Passage of microplastics through the food chain and food value c...
Figure 20.2 Transmission of microplastics through food.
Credit:
eugenelucky ...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Microplastic entry pathways into marine environments. Microplast...
Figure 22.2 Microplastic accumulation through trophic transfer in the marine...
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 Sources and routes of human exposure to microplastics.
Figure 23.2 The influence of microplastics on the human body due to their co...
Figure 23.3 The influence of microplastics on the human body due to their in...
Figure 23.4 The effect of microplastics on the human body due to skin contac...
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Interconnected network through which microplastics and nanoplast...
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Obtaining polyethylene in the process of ethylene polymerization...
Figure 25.2 Applications for bioplastics.
Figure 25.3 Production of polylactic acid.
n
and
m
are large numbers.
Figure 25.4 Examples of two PHA molecules: poly‐3‐hydroxyvalerate and poly‐4...
Figure 25.5 Comparison of the degradation time of selected wastes in the nat...
Figure 25.6 Worldwide production potential of bioplastics.
Chapter 26
Figure 26.1 Marine plastic nurdle pollution reported in countries worldwide....
Figure 26.2 Occurrence of maritime accidents, nurdle spillage, and the fate ...
Figure 26.3 (a) Partially sunk MV X‐Press Pearl. (b) washed off nurdles on S...
Figure 26.4 (a) Abundance of nurdles at different locations on the Sarakkuwa...
Figure 26.5 (a), (b), (c) Partially burnt large debris, (d) Nurdle sample co...
Chapter 27
Figure 27.1 The main types of waste released in domestic and commercial area...
Figure 27.2 Various steps of a typical composting process.
Figure 27.3 Distribution pathways of microplastics in compost to various eco...
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Impact of plastic waste generated by Brazilians.
Figure 28.2 Garbage discarded on Brazilian beaches.
Figure 28.3 Origins of plastics and bioplastics.
Figure 28.4 Poll on plastic waste legislation.
Figure 28.5 Proportion of land needed to replace 20% of each energy/material...
Chapter 29
Figure 29.1 Global plastic waste management in 2015, and microplastic origin...
Figure 29.2 Important parameters affecting microplastic degradation in the e...
Figure 29.3 Microplastic sources in saline water bodies.
Figure 29.4 Potential microplastic sources in saline soils.
Figure 29.5 What leads to practical and successful microplastic remediation?...
Chapter 30
Figure 30.1 Removal of waste tires from the Tietê River, from Cebolão to Pen...
Figure 30.2 Waste tire generation and registered vehicles by country per inh...
Figure 30.3 Waste tire generation and registered vehicles by country per inh...
Figure 30.4 Waste tire generation and waste tires per capita vs. GDP per cou...
Figure 30.5 Coprocessed waste tires in Brazil from 2005 to 2020.
Figure 30.6 Retread tires in the United States, Brazil, and EU countries....
Figure 30.7 Evolution of collection points in Brazil, following the approval...
Figure 30.8 Displacement of waste tires between collection points and destin...
Figure 30.9 Energy recovery and materials recovery from 2012 to 2019 in Braz...
Figure 30.10 Block diagram of reverse logistics for tire manufacturers' recy...
Figure 30.11 Block diagram of reverse logistics for tire manufacturers’ recy...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
List of Contributors
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Microplastics in the Ecosphere
Air, Water, Soil, and Food
Edited by
Meththika Vithanage
University of Sri Jayewardenepura
Sri Lanka
and
Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad
University of Hyderabad (an Institution of Eminence)
India
This edition first published 2023© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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List of Contributors
Muthumali U. AdikariDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Sri Lanka
Mansoor Ahmad BhatDepartment of Environmental EngineeringEskişehir Technical UniversityEskişehir, Türkiye
Balram AmbadeDepartment of ChemistryNational Institute of Technology JamshedpurJharkhand, India
Luís Peres de AzevedoMaterials Engineering DsCFederal University of Ouro PretoOuro Preto, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Arunima BhattacharyaCentre National de la Recherche ScientifiqueInstitut National de la Santé et de la RechercheMédicale, ARNA, Institut Européen de Chimie etBiologie, Université de BordeauxPessac, France
Nanthi BolanSchool of Agriculture and EnvironmentUWA Institute of AgricultureUniversity of Western AustraliaPerth, Western Australia, Australia
Alfredo Jorge Palace CarvalhoChemistry and Biochemistry DepartmentLAQV‐REQUIMTE, School of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Cláudia C.N. de CarvalhoDepartment of Biology, State University of AlagoasSantana do IpanemaAlagoas, Brazil
Bimal Bhusan ChakrabortyCentre for Soft Matter, Department of ChemistryAssam UniversitySilchar, India
Sudip ChoudhuryCentre for Soft Matter, Department of ChemistryAssam UniversitySilchar, India
Asitha T. CoorayDepartment of Chemistry; Instrument Centre, Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Kuheli DebCentre for Soft Matter, Department of ChemistryAssam UniversitySilchar, India
Donia DominicDepartment of Botany, St. George's CollegeAruvithura, ErattupettaKerala, India
Ana V. DordioChemistry and Biochemistry Department;MARE – Marine and Environmental SciencesCentre School of Sciences and TechnologyUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Fatma Nur EraslanDepartment of Environmental EngineeringEskişehir Technical UniversityEskişehir, Turkey
Denise Crocce Romano EspinosaChemical Engineering DepartmentPolytechnic School of University of São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
Jorge M.S. FariaNational Institute for Agrarian and Veterinarian ResearchINIAVOeiras, Portugal
Teresa FerreiraChemistry and Biochemistry Department, School of Sciences and Technology; HERCULES LaboratoryUniversity of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Eftade O. GagaDepartment of Environmental Engineering and Environmental Research Center (ÇEVMER)Eskişehir Technical UniversityEskişehir, Türkiye
Sanchala GallageDepartment of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries & NutritionWayamba University of Sri Lanka; University of Sri LankaMakandura, Sri Lanka
Kadir GedikDepartment of Environmental EngineeringEskişehir Technical UniversityEskişehir, Turkey
Anu GopinathDepartment of Aquatic Environment ManagementKerala University of Fisheries and Ocean StudiesCochin, India
Sunayana GoswamiDepartment of ZoologyBiswanath CollegeAssam, India
Sedat GundogduDepartment of Basic Sciences, Faculty of FisheriesCukurova UniversityAdana, Turkey
Nurani IkhlasDepartment of Environmental EngineeringFaculty of EngineeringInstitut Teknologi Pembangunan SurabayaIndonesia
Marta JaskulakDepartment of Immunobiology and Environment MicrobiologyMedical University of GdańskGdańsk, Poland
Jasintha JayasankaDepartment of Biosystems Technology, Faculty of TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Chamila V.L. JayasingheDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka
Sharmila JayatilakeDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka
Lander de Jesus AlvesPostgraduate Program in Biology and Biotechnology of MicroorganismsState University of Santa Cruz (UESC)Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil
Priya JoseDepartment of Botany, St. George's CollegeAruvithura, ErattupettaKerala, India
Dinushi KaushalyaDepartment of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries & NutritionWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila, Sri Lanka
Santhirasekaram KeerthananEcosphere Resilience Research Centre, Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Farhan R. KhanNorway Norwegian Research Centre (NORCE)Bergen, Norway
N.K. Sandunika KithminiDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka
Pabasari A. KoliyabandaraDepartment of Civil and Environmental Technology Faculty of TechnologyUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraHomagama, Sri Lanka
K.M. Prakash M. KulathungaDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka
Anna Kwarciak‐KozłowskaFaculty of Infrastructure and EnvironmentCzęstochowa University of TechnologyCzęstochowa, Poland
Carlos Alberto Ferreira LagarinhosMetallurgical and Materials DepartmentPolytechnic School of University of São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
Magdalena MadełaInstitute of Environmental EngineeringCzestochowa University of TechnologyCzestochowa, Poland
Dhammika N. Magana‐ArachchiMolecular Microbiology & Human Diseases UnitNational Institute of Fundamental StudiesKandy, Sri Lanka
Mehdi MahbodDepartment of Water Sciences and EngineeringCollege of AgricultureJahrom University, Jahrom, Iran
Laura A.T. MarkleyDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringSyracuse UniversitySyracuse, NY United States
Florin‐Constantin MihaiCERNESIM Center, Department of Exact Sciences and Natural SciencesInstitute of Interdisciplinary Research “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of IașiIași, Romania
Manju P. NairDepartment of Aquatic Environment ManagementKerala University of Fisheries and Ocean StudiesCochin, India
Ayanthie NavaratneDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of PeradeniyaPeradeniya, Sri Lanka
Fábio C. NunesAcademic DepartmentFederal Institute Baiano (IF BAIANO)Santa Inês, Bahia, Brazil
Yudith Vega ParamitadeviEnvironmental Engineering and Management Study ProgramVocational Studies of IPB UniversityIndonesia
Amir ParnianNational Salinity Research Center (NSRC)Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO)Yazd, Iran
Aleena Maria PaulDepartment of BotanySt. George's CollegeAruvithura, Erattupetta, Kerala, India
Saurav PaulCentre for Soft Matter, Department of ChemistryAssam UniversitySilchar, India
Kalani Imalka PereraInternational Program in Hazardous Substances and Environmental ManagementChulalongkorn UniversityBangkok, Thailand
Ana Paula PintoMediterranean Institute for AgricultureEnvironment and Development, MED & Global Change and Sustainability Institute, CHANGEInstitute for Advanced Studies and Research;Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, School of Sciences and Technology, University of ÉvoraÉvora, Portugal
Majeti Narasimha Vara PrasadSchool of Life SciencesUniversity of Hyderabad (an Institution of Eminence)Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Nirmala PrasadiDepartment of Food ScienceOntario Agriculture College, University of GuelphGuelph, Ontario, Canada
K.S.D. PremarathnaEcosphere Resilience Research Centre, Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
H. Umesh K.D.Z. RajapakseDepartment of Food Science and TechnologyWayamba University of Sri LankaMakandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka
Anushka Upamali RajapakshaEcosphere Resilience Research CentreFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Bimastyaji Surya RamadanEnvironmental Sustainability Research Group (ENSI‐RG), Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of EngineeringUniversitas DiponegoroIndonesia
Sammani RamanayakaLancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityLancaster, United Kingdom
Beata RatnawatiEnvironmental Engineering and Management Study ProgramVocational Studies of IPB UniversityIndonesia
Ersa RishantiDepartment of Geophysics and MeteorologyFaculty of Mathematics and Natural Science of IPB UniversityIndonesia
Aryadeep RoychoudhuryDiscipline of Life Sciences, School of SciencesIndira Gandhi National Open UniversityMaidan Garhi, New Delhi, India
Sarika SasiDepartment of BotanySt. George's CollegeAruvithura, Erattupetta, Kerala, India
Gobishankar SathyamohanDepartment of ChemistryNational Institute of Technology JamshedpurJharkhand, India
Abin SebastianDepartment of BotanySt. George's College, AruvithuraErattupetta, Kerala, India
Kirk T. SempleLancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityLancaster, United Kingdom
Samanthika SenarathDepartment of Food Science & Technology, Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries & NutritionWayamba University of Sri LankaGonawila, Sri Lanka
Madushika SewwandiEcosphere Resilience Research CentreFaculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Misriya ShajiDepartment of BotanySt. George's College, AruvithuraErattupetta, Kerala, India
Sheenu SharmaSoil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab Department of BotanyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
Anand Narain SinghSoil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab Department of BotanyPanjab University, Chandigarh, India
Siril SinghDepartment of Environment Studies; Soil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab, Department of BotanyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
José R. de Souza FilhoAcademic DepartmentFederal Institute Baiano (IFBAIANO)Catu, Bahia, Brazil
Sasimali SoysaDepartment of Physical Sciences and Technology Faculty of Applied SciencesSabaragamuwa UniversityBelihuloya, Sri Lanka
Ishara U. SoyzaInstrument Centre, Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Giuseppe SuariaNational Research Council (CNR)Institute of Marine Sciences (ISMAR)Lerici, Italy
Jorge Alberto Soares TenórioChemical DepartmentPolytechnic School of The University of São PauloSão Paulo, SP, Brazil
Ana TuryantiDepartment of Geophysics and MeteorologyFaculty of Mathematics and Natural Science of IPB UniversityIndonesia
Meththika VithanageEcosphere Resilience Research Centre, Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Janitha WalpitaDepartment of Multidisciplinary Studies, Faculty of Urban and Aquatic Bioresources; Instrument Centre Faculty of Applied SciencesUniversity of Sri JayewardenepuraNugegoda, Sri Lanka
Rasika P. WanigatungeDepartment of Plant and Molecular BiologyUniversity of KelaniyaKelaniya, Sri Lanka
Hasintha WijesekaraDepartment of Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied SciencesSabaragamuwa UniversityBelihuloya, Sri Lanka
Madhuni WijesooriyaDepartment of Botany, Faculty of ScienceUniversity of RuhunaMatara, Sri Lanka
Rajni YadavSoil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab Department of BotanyPanjab UniversityChandigarh, India
Iwona ZawiejaFaculty of Infrastructure and EnvironmentInstitute of Environmental Engineering, Czestochowa University of TechnologyCzestochowa, Poland
Hao ZhangLancaster Environment CentreLancaster UniversityLancaster, United Kingdom
Katarzyna ZorenaDepartment of Immunobiology and Environment MicrobiologyMedical University of GdańskGdańsk, Poland
Preface
Microplastics (MPs) are emerging global contaminants, and the scientific community is becoming increasingly interested in this topic. This book discusses recent developments in multidisciplinary research on MPs, including their distribution in the soil, hydrosphere, and aerosphere, as well as their sources, fates, distribution, toxicity, and management. Particularly during the SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic, there has been tremendous production and consumption of single‐use MPs. But although most MPs are produced on land, they are eventually deposited in the marine environment. This book reviews the state of single‐use plastics and MPs in the atmosphere, the ocean, soil systems, and the food chain and food web along with treatment technologies and management.
The sampling, processing, and analytical procedures employed to date to identify MPs are complex. Leaching MPs from landfills and industrial wastewater, vector transport of pollutants, and MPs found on beaches and in marine settings are all evaluated in the hydrosphere. Additionally, MPs in sewage sludge, soils fertilized with sludge, and soils irrigated with wastewater are explored, as well as any potential consequences for plants and human health. Important management strategies are also covered, including suggestions for useful information for policymakers, non‐experts, environmental researchers, ecologists, and toxicologists. The interplay of MPs at the macro and molecular levels with the human, animal, and environmental domains is highlighted (Figure 1). As MPs enter or accumulate in the food chain or participate in the food web, their fate in the ecosystem is crucial. It is well‐recognized that MPs have a significant capacity for adsorbing a wide range of pollutants, particularly organic toxins. Therefore, it is anticipated that all of the findings will contribute to the establishment of necessary environmental laws and policies as well as pinpoint knowledge gaps regarding MP pollution and contamination.
MPs in the environment originate from a variety of sources and are distributed worldwide. Sources include abrasion of synthetic textiles during laundry, tire abrasion while driving, city dust, spills, road markings, weathering and abrasion by vehicles, marine coatings, etc., in addition to domestic items such as personal care products and industrial uses such as plastic pellets in manufacturing, transport, and recycling. MPs also come from marine accidents such as the X‐Press Pearl maritime disaster in 2021, which released thousands of tons of plastic nurdles and other polymers into the marine environment, contaminating coral reefs, seagrass beds, and the food chain. The pathways of global MP cycling include the road runoff pathway, wastewater pathway, wind pathway, and ocean pathway. The fate of MPs in the environment is particularly important because they are transferred to and accumulate in the food chain and become part of the food web.
Management of plastics and MPs is critical for many reasons:
Every year, several million tons of primary and secondary MPs leak into the oceans.
Discarded plastics could wrap around the earth four times in a single year.
Disposable plastic items represent 50% of marine litter.
About 95% of disposable plastic packing is wasted.
Plastics can survive in the environment for up to 500 years.
Recycling plastics takes 88% less energy than making new plastic. We can save a huge amount of gasoline by recycling plastics.
Figure 1 The word cloud map generated from the titles and keywords of the chapters in this book.
“Mission Starfish 2030: Restore Our Ocean and Waters” is a document prepared by an independent commission of the European Union for Healthy Oceans, Seas, and Coastal and Inland Waters. Its overall goal is to restore the earth's oceans and waters by 2030. More concretely, inspired by the shape of a starfish, the Mission highlights four interdependent challenges – unsustainable footprint; climate change; lack of understanding, connection, and investment; and inadequate governance – by proposing five overarching objectives for 2030:
Filling the knowledge and emotional gap
Regenerating marine and water ecosystems
Zero pollution
Decarbonizing our waters, ocean, and sea waters
Revamping governance
This book is relevant for helping to achieve the Mission Starfish goals via plastic abatement.
Section ISingle Use Plastics
1Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe
Mansoor Ahmad Bhat1, Fatma Nur Eraslan1, Eftade O. Gaga1,2, and Kadir Gedik1
1 Department of Environmental Engineering, Eskişehir Technical University, 26555, Eskişehir, Türkiye
2 Environmental Research Center (ÇEVMER), Eskişehir Technical University, 26555, Eskişehir, Türkiye
1.1 Introduction
Plastics consist of monomers, additives, dyes, and other ingredients, most of which are toxic. They are combinations of unreacted monomers and hazardous chemicals that can cause adverse health effects if they enter the human body. Microplastics are plastics smaller than 5 mm (Arthur et al. 2009; Thompson et al. 2004) formed from the breakdown of plastics over time due to natural or anthropogenic causes. Even if microplastics are not visible, they can affect the quality of the air, water, and soil.
Most microplastics are created by the breakdown of larger items such as clothing, car tires, and mismanaged urban plastic waste. It is known that microplastics accumulate in the soil and roadside dust in cities (Jan Kole et al. 2017). Low‐density polymeric materials can easily be suspended by wind, water, and vehicle traffic and transported long distances by air circulation, leading to the presence of microplastics in different areas of the environment.
Another source of microplastic is the textile industry (Bhat et al. 2021). Synthetic fibers are necessary materials originating from the textile industry and are used in every field. Polyester, especially polyethylene terephthalate, is the most widely used synthetic fiber in the textile industry due to its hydrophobic property, elasticity, and high thermal insulation. Other fibers used in the textile industry are nylon, acrylic, and polypropylene.
Plastics are considered environmentally permanent; however, once released into the environment, they become susceptible to disintegration by exposure to external forces like chemical decomposition, photo‐oxidation, biological decomposition, and mechanical forces that disrupt their structural integrity. Plastics that are broken down naturally or anthropogenically by external factors are not destroyed but are broken down into smaller pieces each time.
Although the basis of plastics is petroleum, which is organic, its structure suits the purpose of plastic. Each different type of plastic means another chemical bond and the use of another chemical. There are more than 5000 different types of plastic on the market, so the number of chemicals used to produce plastic is quite large (Zimmermann et al. 2019). Each plastic's unique structure causes the plastics to be not evaluated as a whole, and recycling becomes difficult. It has been observed that microorganisms can degrade most organic‐based polymers in a hot and humid environment. However, providing a suitable environment is not easy in practice, and more research is needed to confirm the validity of this approach (Pekhtasheva et al. 2012).
Microplastics can be harmful to humans, animals, and the environment due to their small dimensions (Bhat et al., 2022a, 2022b). They have been found in humans: for example, cellulosic and plastic microfibers were observed in human lung tissue (Pauly et al. 1998). Research has also found that a person can breathe between 26 and 130 airborne microplastics in an indoor environment (Prata 2018). Plastic fibers have been found to remain in lung fluid for 180 days (Law et al. 1990). Therefore, inhaling microplastics will cause problems due to their accumulation in the human body (Bhat et al., 2022a, 2022b).
Microplastics and nanoplastics are new topics, and their definitions are still limited. Microplastics are defined based on their size as polymeric particles ˂5 mm (Arthur et al. 2009; Thompson et al. 2004). Very little biological information is known about polymeric particles ˂5 mm and are more likely to be ingested than larger items. However, the decision about size limits is not based on actual evidence but rather on pragmatism. Using the prefix micro, the size definition of microplastics should be within the micro range: between 1 and 1000 μm. If we use a size definition below ˂5 mm, these polymeric particles should be described as millimeter‐, micro‐, and nano‐sized polymeric plastics, because the ˂5 mm definition includes the millimeter, micrometer, and nanometer size range. From a nomenclature point of view, it would be intuitive to categorize plastics based on conventional size units. In general, plastics with sizes in the nanometer scale (1–1000 nm) should be nanoplastics. Following this reasoning and using the SI prefixes for length, microplastics would have sizes of 1–1000 μm, followed by milli‐plastics (1–10 mm), centi‐plastics (1–10 cm), and deci‐plastics (1–10 dm). However, this conflicts with the current terminology. For example, nanoplastics and microplastics are typically considered 1–100 nm and 1–5000 μm in size, respectively. Accordingly, new size categories, fully consistent with the SI nomenclature, would have little chance of being adopted by the scientific community. As a pragmatic compromise, we propose the following categories: (i) nanoplastics, 1 to <1000 nm (to conform to existing definitions of nanomaterials, a subdivision in nanoplastics [1 to <100 nm] can be made); (ii) microplastics, 1 to <1000 μm; (iii) mesoplastics, 1 to <10 mm; and (iv) macroplastics, 1 cm and larger.
Apart from the size definition, researchers also define microplastics as polymeric particles produced from the breakdown of bigger plastic particles, while nanoplastics are formed from microplastics; however, microplastics and nanoplastics are also categorized into primary and secondary polymeric particles. So, the definitions of microplastics and nanoplastics should include both primary and secondary polymeric particles. We define microplastics and nanoplastics as polymeric particles that are either deliberately designed for commercial use or produced from the breakdown of larger plastic particles. It is clear that microplastics (˂5 mm) include a broad range of sizes, and it is impossible to see all these particles with the naked eye, especially when taking a sample in the micro or nano range. Microplastics can also be defined as polymeric particles, half of which can be seen by the naked eye.
The majority of studies on microplastics to date have seen fibers in their samples irrespective of other types of microplastics (Dris et al. 2015, 2016, 2017; Prata et al. 2020; Soltani et al. 2021; Song et al. 2021; Su et al. 2020; Szewc et al. 2021; Truong et al. 2021). The reason is that fibers are straight and long and usually larger than other microplastics like pellet fragments. Researchers have primarily focused on the millimeter size of microplastics, and fibers are abundant under this size range. Other microplastics can also be seen under the micro‐ or nanometer size range dimensions, including pellets, fragments, granules, films, etc. So during the analysis of microplastics in the future, not only the millimeter size range but also micro‐size ranges should also be considered.
Scientific study using bibliometric analysis has recently gained popularity (Can‐Güven 2020; Eraslan et al. 2021; Sun et al. 2020; Yu et al. 2020). Statistical and quantitative analysis of research publications displays quantifiable data when examining research trends in the literature for the growth of specific themes. As a result, we can analyze the specific research patterns and characteristics of the research literature in a given field, such as the metrological characteristics of the research literature in that field. This approach is also gaining popularity as a tool for scientific investigation. The data visualization and analysis software RStudio (biblioshiny, the shiny interface for bibliometrix) has transformed traditional bibliometric analysis, making it one of the most popular tools for knowledge mapping (Eraslan et al. 2021). It enhances the visualization of the analytic process and enables quick access to the bibliometric structure of a study subject. This can assist researchers in identifying potential future study hotspots.
This work used RStudio, and data was retrieved from the Web of Science database to assess papers connected to microplastics research. As a first step, the study evaluated the distribution of annual article production and total citations to identify the top funding agencies, affiliations, and countries around the globe in the field of microplastics. Moreover, the top 10 publishers, journals, published articles, author keywords, and research areas were analyzed. Using these findings, it is possible to see how researchers, institutions, and journals are distributed geographically and chronologically and how knowledge bases and research focuses are structured. Scholars may use this information to see how knowledge and theories have evolved, and they can use that information to help guide their future work.
1.2 Materials and Methods
Microplastics have been the subject of several studies and evaluations in recent years. A few articles used bibliometric analysis to evaluate the metadata, which allowed us to study the literature data using mathematical and statistical methodologies. For example, a bibliometric analysis of academic research may provide valuable information on a critical study topic, its subtopics, scholars who are leaders in the field, and potential collaboration prospects. Web of Science data is constantly updated, so the results would be slightly different if the same search were conducted on a subsequent day. The core collection of the Web of Science was used as the source database, with the retrieval keywords Microplastic*, Microplastics*, Micro plastic*, and Micro plastics*. In 2004, Thompson et al. (2004) from the University of Plymouth suggested the concept of microplastics for the first time. Accordingly, the research period was selected from 1980 to 2021, and collected data was assessed from 1980 to 2003 and 2004 to 2021 to check the pre and post trends in the field of microplastics. Data on microplastics research literature was downloaded from the Web of Science on 1 November 2021. The source journals were set to Science Citation Index Expanded, Social Sciences Citation Index, Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Conference Proceedings Citation Index Science, Book Citation Index Science, Conference Proceedings Citation Index Social Science Humanities, Emerging Sources Citation Index, and Book Citation Index Science Social Science and Humanities, and a total of 8257 records were retrieved. These were downloaded in the BibTeX file format with a full record and cited references. Finally, the data was analyzed using RStudio (Eraslan et al. 2021). The data for plastic production by countries was downloaded from World Population Review (2021).
1.3 Results and Discussion
The bibliometric analysis for the keywords microplastic, microplastics, micro plastic, and micro plastics showed 16 document types: articles (6334), review articles (907), proceedings papers (393), editorial materials (152), early access (143), book chapters (97), meeting abstracts (79), news items (51), corrections (44), letters (37), data papers (10), books (2), book reviews (2), notes (2), retracted publications (2), and retractions (2). This scientific information was published in 18 different languages: English (8125), Russian (33), German (31), Chinese (18), Spanish (10), Japanese (8), French (6), Korean (5), Portuguese (4), Ukrainian (4), Czech (3), Malay (2), Turkish (2), Croatian (1), Dutch (1), Eskimo (1), Indonesian (1), Polish (1), and unspecified (1). The scientific information was primarily published in article form, and English was the leading language.
1.3.1 Trends in Scientific Production and Citations
Microplastics are a virgin topic, and in the last decade, this has become a hot topic for research. International researchers noticed when Thompson et al. (2004) initially defined microplastics in 2004, and researchers began studying microplastics. Since then, the number of papers published on the topic has increased steadily. Researchers are trying every possible way to define them and optimize the methodology, but huge gaps remain.
Figure 1.1 Temporal distribution of publications on microplastics and their total citations from 1980 to 2021.
The total number of publications and their citations were analyzed in the field of microplastics from 1980 to 2021 (Figure 1.1). The aim was to determine annual trends in article production and citations. The amount of attention focused on microplastics varies with time, and the number of papers published in a field in a year may represent the level of research advancement in that topic. To date, 8257 documents have been published about microplastics. These documents have 274 294 citations. Until 2003 (pre‐microplastics period), only 199 documents were published in the microplastics field. These documents do not used the word microplastic separately but instead use microplasticity or microplastic deformation. Before 2003, the research documents did not consider microplastics a pollutant but worked primarily on the deformation of microplastics. However, from 2004 to 2021 (microplastics post‐period), 8052 documents were published. More than 90% of the documents were published in the last eight years, and these documents have more than 90% of the total citations. This indicates that the last decade (rapid growth period) has seen a tremendous increase in the number of publications on microplastics compared with previous decades. This trend is expected to grow as this field is still open, and there are vast gaps. The number of documents published each year from 1980 to 2013 was fewer than 100; however, from 2014 to 2021, ≥100 documents were published per year. The fewest documents (2) were published in 1984, while the most (2483) were published in 2021. The documents published in 1980 had 0 citations, while those in 2021 had the most citations: 109 082.
1.3.2 Top Funding Agencies
The top 10 funding agencies around the globe in the field of microplastics were assessed (Figure 1.2) to find the encouraging ones to develop and implement policies on microplastics research worldwide. Are these funding agencies from the countries producing more plastic? And are they from underdeveloped, developing, or developed countries? The National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) was the leading funding agency with 1276 published articles. It was followed by the European Commission and the National Key Research and Development Program of China, with 409 and 208 published articles, respectively. The Natural Environment Research Council had the fewest published articles (112) among the top 10 funding agencies.
These top 10 funding agencies were from Asia (3), Europe (5), America (1), and South America (1). All of them are supported by their respective government bodies. In Asia, all three funding agencies were from China, and China is also the leading country in plastic production, producing almost 59 million tons of plastic annually. In Europe, the five funding agencies were the European Commission (1) and agencies from Germany (1), Portugal (1), and the United Kingdom (2). One agency was from America, and the South American funding agency was from Brazil. Of the European countries, Germany is the third leading country in plastic production (14.48 million tons of plastic waste per year). The United States is the second leading country in plastic production (37.83 million tons of plastic waste per year) (Figure 1.3) (World Population Review 2021). This indicated that countries producing more plastic were the top funding agencies, which implies these countries are spending more money on microplastics research. All the top funding agencies were from developed countries except Brazil, a developing country, which means developed countries produce plastic and spend more money on microplastics research.
Figure 1.2 Top 10 funding agencies around the globe in terms of their published articles.
Figure 1.3 Top 10 global affiliations in the microplastics field.
1.3.3 Top 10 Global Affiliations
An assessment of the top 10 global affiliations in the microplastics field was done (Figure 1.3) to determine their origin countries, how they contribute to plastic pollution, and their status (underdeveloped, developing, or developed). The Chinese Academy of Science was the leading international affiliation in the microplastics field in terms of published articles (37), followed by the Centre National De La Recherche Scientifique CNRS (250) and the Universite Gustave Eiffel (216), while the Universidade De Aveiro had the fewest published articles (128). The top 10 affiliations were from Asia (3) and Europe (6), plus 1 from both Europe and Asia (Russia). In Asia, all three affiliations were from China. China is also the leading country in plastic production, producing 59 million tons of plastic every year. In Europe, the affiliations were from France (2), Germany (1), Italy (1), the Netherlands (1), and Portugal (1). Apart from Asia and Europe; one affiliation was from Russia. Germany is the third leading country in plastic production (14.48 million tons); however, Russia is the ninth leading country in plastic production (5.84 million tons of plastic every year) (World Population Review 2021). From these affiliations, it is clear that top affiliation countries worldwide are also top leading plastic producers, and all these global affiliations are from developed countries.
1.3.4 Top Countries
The top 10 countries worldwide in the microplastics field in terms of published articles were plotted (Figure 1.4
