Microplastics in the Environment E-Book
271,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Enables readers to assess, manage and prevent damage from the environment’s biggest enemy: microplastics
Microplastics in the Environment addresses the biggest unresolved pollution issue: microplastics accumulating in the environment at a rapidly growing rate, giving rise to severe ecological stress and novel diseases in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. This book is a one-stop resource that ties together the latest developments in this fast-moving field, including analytical techniques, risk assessment methods and predictive approaches, and evaluates different strategies that make it possible to minimize and redress microplastics pollution in the near and distant future.
The book is organized into three main parts. Part one explains the fundamental ideas underlying microplastics, including their classification, major sources, detection and characterisation, as well as risk assessment methods. The second part covers the fate and transport of microplastics in various environmental domains, their interaction with ecosystems and the exposure of humans to environment-borne microplastics. The final part surveys current and future approaches to limit and remove the environmental effects of microplastics, from replacement of plastics with biodegradable substitutes to more efficient recycling of plastics to their active removal and remediation.
Microplastics in the Environment includes information on:
- Microplastics’ interaction with agricultural crops, the food and construction industries and water and solid waste pollution control systems
- Microplastics in microbial communities, crops and soil and the subsequent impacts on microbial metabolism, plant growth and geo-chemical properties of soil, respectively
- Consumption of microplastics by aquatic life and consequent effects of microplastics on the development of aquatic organisms including corals, invertebrates and marine and freshwater biota
- Global strategies, existing regulations and policies focused on microplastics management
With its emphasis on management and remediation, Microplastics in the Environment is a valuable resource for environmental scientists, government agencies and researchers working in the field of microplastics pollution.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 1392
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Notes on Editors
Section I: The Existence and Characterization of Microplastics
1 Introduction and Book Overview
1.1 Background and Definition
1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics
1.3 Solutions, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges
1.4 Policies and Practices to Regulate MPs
1.5 Book Structure and Overview of Chapters
1.6 Conclusion
References
2 Classifications and Physiochemical Properties of Microplastics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Structural Properties
2.3 Physical Properties
2.4 Chemical Properties
2.5 Thermal Stability
2.6 Conclusion
References
3 Degradation of Plastics and Formation of Primary and Secondary Microplastics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Physical and Mechanical Degradation
3.3 Chemical Degradation
3.4 Biological Degradation
3.5 Degradation Pathway
3.6 Degradation Products and Byproducts
3.7 Toxicity of Products and Byproducts
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Advanced Techniques for Sampling, Quantification, and Characterization of Microplastics
4.1 Screening
4.2 Sampling and Extraction
4.3 Characterization for Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition
4.4 Quantification
4.5 Harmonizing Approaches and Valuable Minimal Technical Criteria and Specification
4.6 Quality Assurance/Quality Control
4.7 Conclusion
References
5 Technologies for Polymer Identification and Monitoring of Microplastics Distribution
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Instrumentational Methods to Study Microplastics in Different Matrices
5.3 Technologies for Measuring Nano‐Microplastics and Determining the Relative Contributions of Particles of Varying Size, Shape and Chemical Composition
5.4 Distribution and Monitoring of Microplastics
5.5 Review of Existing Monitoring Programs for Marine Microplastics
5.6 Other Techniques for Monitoring
5.7 Conclusions
References
6 Characterizing Microplastics in the Context of Risk Assessment
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The TK/TD of MPs in a Representative Organism
6.3 Determining the Particle Size Range Where Any Toxicity Resides
6.4 Identifying Potential Uncertainties and Concerns
6.5 Determining Relative Levels of Confidence Regarding Toxicological Data
6.6 Conclusion
References
7 Understanding Environmental and Socio‐economic Risks Associated with Microplastics
7.1 Background
7.2 Economic Impacts
7.3 Social Impacts
7.4 Environmental Sensitivity and Variability of Microplastic
7.5 Toxicological Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms
7.6 Strategies for Managing Microplastic in the Environment
7.7 Conclusion and Way‐forward
References
Section II: Microplastics in Different Compartments and their Effects on Environments and Humane Society
8 Microplastics in the Environment
8.1 MPs in the Aquatic Environment (Surface/Ground Waters and Ocean)
8.2 MPs in the Terrestrial Environment (Soil and Sediment)
8.3 MPs in the Polar Region
8.4 MPs in the Atmospheric Environment and Transboundary Transport
8.5 MPs in Food and Agricultural Crops
8.6 MPs Associated with the Construction Industry
8.7 MPs in Urban Environmental Management Systems
8.8 Contaminants Released from Aged MPs
8.9 Fate/Transport and Behavior of MPs in Pollution Control Systems
8.10 Conclusion
References
9 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Various Aquatic Environmental Compartments
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics in the Environment
9.3 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Riverine Environment
9.4 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Estuaries
9.5 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Marine Environment
9.6 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Subsurface
9.7 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature
References
10 Ecological Impacts of Microplastics and Their Additives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Creating Standardized Toxicity Tests for MPs
10.3 Dose–Response Analysis and Formulation of Standards
10.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Microplastics
10.5 Chemical Risk Posed by Ingested Microplastics
10.6 Development of Health‐Based Threshold
10.7 Effects of Exposure: Microplastics Transferred to the Consumers
10.8 Are Microplastics Vectors (for Organisms or Chemical Pollutants in the Environment)? – Sorption of Potentially Toxic Pollutants on Microplastics
10.9 Connect Microplastics to Existing or Novel Adverse Outcome Pathways
10.10 The Relevant Receptors
10.11 Exposure Pathways
10.12 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Ingestion
10.13 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Inhalation
10.14 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Dermal Contact
10.15 Toxicokinetic/Dynamic Processes
10.16 MPs Plus Chemicals/Nanomaterials/Pathogens Attached/Sorbed on them – Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics
10.17 Interrelationships Among Different Factors
10.18 Interaction of Microplastics with PBTs and Other Emerging Contaminants
10.19 Conclusion
References
11 Interactions of Microplastics with Microbial Communities and the Food Web/Plants
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Interactions of MPs with Natural Organic Materials, Crops, and Plants
11.3 Interaction Between Microbial Community and MPs
11.4 Effect of MPs on Metabolic Activities of the Organisms
11.5 Leaching of MPs from Dumpsites to Soil
11.6 MPs from Silage Film for Storage of Silage
11.7 Change in the Geo‐chemical Properties of Soil due to MPs
11.8 Effect of MPs on the Food Web and Food Chain
11.9 Are Biodegradable Plastics Less Negative Than the Others?
11.10 Biostimulation by Nutrients
11.11 Conclusion
References
12 Environmental and Toxicological Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems
12.1 Background
12.2 Sources of MPs in Aquatic Environments
12.3 Consumption of MPs by Aquatic Organisms and Increase in Aquatic Leaching Rate
12.4 Transport of MPs in the Aquatic Trophic Level
12.5 Occurrence of MPs in Aquatic Ecosystems
12.6 Effects of MPs on Freshwater Ecosystems
12.7 Effects of MPs in Marine Ecosystems
12.8 Increase in Toxicity and Impacts on Biodiversity
12.9 Conclusions
References
13 Human Exposures to Microplastics
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Microplastics
13.3 Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Human Beings
13.4 Use of Biomarkers to Elucidate Microplastic Toxicity
13.5 Case Studies on Human Exposure
13.6 Conclusions
References
Section III: Removal, Control, and Management of Microplastics
14 Plastic Pollution Management—Innovative Solutions for Plastic Waste
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Design and Production
14.3 Packaging and Distribution
14.4 Disposal
14.5 System‐based Approaches
14.6 Conclusion
References
15 Preventing Secondary Sources of Microplastics in the Environment
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Reducing Usage of Plastics
15.3 Recycle and Reuse of Microplastics
15.4 Chemical Upcycling of Polymers
15.5 Polymer Construction and Deconstruction
15.6 Cleaning of Plastic Waste from Environment
15.7 Proper Monitoring of Plastic Waste
15.8 Different Multiple Thresholds the Tiered Framework
15.9 Conclusion
15.10 Future Perspective
References
16 Reducing and Eliminating Plastic Waste via Societal Changes
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Importance of Consumer Culture and Behavior
16.3 Reduction, Substitution, and Control of Microplastics From Human Usage
16.4 Future Directions
16.5 Conclusion
References
17 Technologies for Removal and Remediation of Microplastics
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Microplastic Remediation Technologies
17.3 Conclusions
References
18 Catalysis for the Upcycling of Polymers
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Considerations for Substrates and Characterization
18.3 Application of Bio‐Based Catalysts
18.4 Application of Electrocatalysts
18.5 Application of Chemical Catalysts
18.6 Conclusion
References
19 Biodegradable Bioplastics
19.1 Production of Bioplastics
19.2 Standards and Guidelines to Test the Biodegradability of Bioplastics
19.3 Application of Bioplastics
19.4 Limitations of Bioplastic
19.5 Environmental Sustainability of Bioplastics
19.6 Economic Assessment of Bioplastics
19.7 Comparison of Bioplastic with Polymer‐Based Plastic
19.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
20 Global Strategies/Policies and Citizen Science for Microplastic Management
20.1 Guidelines for Pollutant Control at Source
20.2 Enforcement of Legislative Measures
20.3 Existing Regulations and Acts in Global Scenarios
20.4 Public Perception and Participation
20.5 Community Analysis‐Based Models
20.6 Conclusions
References
21 Life Cycle and Techno‐Economic Assessment of Microplastics Remediation Technologies and Policies
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Technological Efficiency and Social Impact
21.3 Economic Aspect and Cost–Benefit Analysis
21.4 LCA of Treatment Techniques
21.5 Conclusion
References
22 Case Studies on Microplastic Contamination with a Focus on the Impact of the COVID‐19 Pandemic
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Microplastic Contamination
22.3 COVID‐19 Pandemic: Impact on Waste Management
22.4 Interactions Between Microplastics and COVID‐19
22.5 Case Studies: COVID‐19‐Related Microplastic Pollution
22.6 Environmental Consequences of Microplastics and COVID‐19
22.7 Human Health Risks
22.8 Mitigation Strategies
22.9 Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Properties of Different MPs
Table 2.2 Density of Different MPs (Data taken from Rodríguez‐Seijo ...
Table 2.3 Polymeric MPs and Their Monomers, Monomer Structure, and Chemical...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Physical Degradation of Various Plastics
Table 3.2 Different Mode of Biodegradation of Plastics
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 An Overview of Potential Sampling Procedures Based on the Researc...
Table 4.2 Method of Extraction and Summarized Vital Characteristics Essenti...
Table 4.3 Overview of Possible Sampling Approaches Dependent on the Researc...
Table 4.4 The Profile of Aquatic Sampling, Along with the Appropriate Tools...
Table 4.5 Method of Extraction and Summarized Vital Characteristics Essenti...
Table 4.6 The Appropriate Extraction Technique for the Sample Depends on Te...
Table 4.7 The Most Common Polymer Types with Their Density
Table 4.8 Application, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Analytical Methodol...
Table 4.9 Standardized Protocol Adoption for Evaluating the Impacts of Micr...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Identification of MP Abundance in Water Samples Using Various Sta...
Table 5.2 Identification of MP Abundance in Sediment Samples Using Various S...
Table 5.3 Identification of MP Abundance in Aquatic Biological Samples Usin...
Table 5.4 Technologies Used for Measuring and Characterizing Nano‐Microplas...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 List of Various Models in Different Environmental Compartments an...
Table 9.2 List of Studies on Modeling Microplastic Transport in Riverine En...
Table 9.3 Modeling Studies on the Transport of Microplastics in Estuarine E...
Table 9.4 Modeling Studies on the Transport of Microplastics in the Marine E...
Table 9.5 Modeling Studies on Microplastic Transport in the Subsurface Envi...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Interactions Between Microplastics and Other Pollutants: Biologi...
Table 12.2 Impacts of Microplastics on Various Aquatic Food Products
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Point of Origin of Various Plastic Wastes
Table 14.2 Application Cases of Design for Recycling of Plastic Packaging
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Various Recycling Processes with Their Respective Advantages and...
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Sustainable Substitutes for Conventional Products
Table 16.2 Alternatives to Reduce Plastic Use in Daily Life
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Overview of Various MP Remediation Technologies
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 LCA of Different Bioplastics
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 TEA and LCA on MP Remediation Techniques
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Types and Sources of Microplastics
Figure 1.2 (a) Chronological Milestones in the History of MP. (b) Number of ...
Figure 1.3 Impacts of Microplastics on Environment, Society, and Economics
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Types and Sources of Nonbiodegradable Plastic Polymers
Figure 2.2 Primary and Secondary MPs
Figure 2.3 Factors Affecting the Interactions Between MPs and Organic Compou...
Figure 2.4 Importance of Crysrallinity in MPs Characteristics
Figure 2.5 Distinct Size Categories of Plastics Found in the Environment
Figure 2.6 Proposed Relationship Between Particle Size, Surface Area and Tot...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Major Types of Plastic Polymer
Figure 3.2 General Process of Plastic Degradation
Figure 3.3 Changes in the Properties of Plastics After Degradation
Figure 3.4 A Schematic Diagram Showing the Processes Involved in the Degrada...
Figure 3.5 Primary Pathway of PE Degradation
Figure 3.6 The Photodegradation Pathway for PP
Figure 3.7 The Degradation Pathway for PET
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Primary and Secondary Microplastic with Their Common Source of Ge...
Figure 4.2 Step‐by‐Step Strategy for Well‐Prepared Study
Figure 4.3 Different Sampling Locations Are Represented in the Aquatic Envir...
Figure 4.4 A Graphical Outline of the Microplastic Process from Sampling to ...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Schematic of MP Definitions and Classifications based on Size, Sh...
Figure 5.2 The Marine Conservation Society in the UK Outlines Six Goals to A...
Figure 5.3 Illustrates Various Bioturbation Types, Depicting Diverse Ways Or...
Figure 5.4 Fate, Dispersal, and Accumulation of MPs and Their Potential Impl...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Schematic Representation of the Microplastic and Related Toxicoki...
Figure 6.2 Graphical Representation of the Bioaccumulation Pathway
Figure 6.3 Major Uncertainty and Concerns in the Microplastic‐based Investig...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Overview of Occurrence, Toxicity, and Various Factors of Micropla...
Figure 7.2 Ecotoxic Effect of Microplastic on Aquatic Ecosystem
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Possible Sources and Pathways of MPs in the Environment and Relat...
Figure 8.2 Migration of Microplastics in Soil and Impact on Humans
Figure 8.3 Source and Transport of Microplastics in Soil
Figure 8.4 Relative Reporting Frequencies of MPs' Polymer Types
Figure 8.5 Various Techniques Used for the Mitigation of MPs
Figure 8.6 General Mechanism of Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollut...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic Representation of Microplastic Transport Processes in t...
Figure 9.2 Spatial Distribution of Plastic Concentrations along the Dommel R...
Figure 9.3 Breakthrough Curves (Left) and Map of Basins and River Network (R...
Figure 9.4 Transport Distances of Microplastic Particles at Monitoring Point...
Figure 9.5 Schematic Overview of Microplastic Point‐Source Inputs to Rivers ...
Figure 9.6 River Export of Microplastics into the European Seas as Calculate...
Figure 9.7 Concentration of Microplastics at the Surface (a–c) and Bottom (d...
Figure 9.8 Zones of Microplastic–Sediment Interaction Based on Sediment Conc...
Figure 9.9 Spreading of Microplastics Along the Coast (
x
‐axis) and Ocean Dep...
Figure 9.10 Measured (Symbols) and Simulated (Lines) Breakthrough Curves (BT...
Figure 9.11 Measured (Symbols) and Simulated (Lines) Retention Profiles at t...
Figure 9.12 Experimental and Modeled Breakthrough Curves of PE, PP, PS, PTFE...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A Condensed Representation of the Methodology Employed to Assess...
Figure 10.2 A Basic diagram Illustrating the Sequence of Events When Micropl...
Figure 10.3 This Figure Illustrates the Primary Routes of Food Contamination...
Figure 10.4 Framework of Adverse Outcome Pathway
Figure 10.5 The Source‐Pathway‐Receptor Model in the Context of Microplastic...
Figure 10.6 Illustrates the Network of Interconnections Facilitating the Dis...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Transport and Accumulation of Microplastics into the Food Web
Figure 11.2 Microplastics Accumulation and Its Impact on Plants' Roots, Stea...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 The Analysis Results of Conducting a Bibliometric Analysis Using...
Figure 12.2 Sources of Microplastics in Aquatic Environments
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Schematic Representation of the Exposure Pathways of Human Being...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 The Life Cycle of Plastic Which Initiates from Raw Materials and...
Figure 14.2 Schematic Representation of Methods for Recycling Various Plasti...
Figure 14.3 (a) Survey of Peer‐Reviewed Articles Since 2003. (b) Contributio...
Figure 14.4 Interrelationship of System, Material, Product, and Chemical Asp...
Figure 14.5 Schematic Representation of Different Aspects of Product Design ...
Figure 14.6 Typical Representation of Recent Trends for Plastic Waste Manage...
Figure 14.7 Schematic Diagram Demonstrating Chemical Upcycling: (i) Chemical...
Figure 14.8 The Evolution of Synthetic Turf Starting from the 1960s Till Pre...
Figure 14.9 Word Cloud Indicating the Importance of Education and Awareness ...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Different Types of Monitoring Methods
Figure 15.2 Different Management Strategies that Can Be Adopted to Reduce MP...
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Word Cloud of Social and Environmental Awareness on Plastic Poll...
Figure 16.2 The Evolution of Green Consumer Awareness
Figure 16.3 Citizen Scientists Raise Public Awareness and Influence Policy M...
Figure 16.4 Common Eco‐labels from Different Countries
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms in the Filtration Process: (a) P...
Figure 17.2 Operational Modes of Membrane Separation Processes: (a) Cross‐Fl...
Figure 17.3 Mechanisms of Membrane Fouling: (a) Pore Narrowing, (b) Pore Plu...
Figure 17.4 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms in the Dynamic Membrane Technolo...
Figure 17.5 Schematic Representation of the Rapid Sand Filtration Process
Figure 17.6 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal by Adsorption
Figure 17.7 Removal Mechanisms of Microplastics by Density Separation
Figure 17.8 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal by Magnetic Separation
Figure 17.9 Schematic Representation of the Coagulation/Flocculation Process...
Figure 17.10 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal via Ionic Layer Compression...
Figure 17.11 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal via Charge Neutralization an...
Figure 17.12 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal via Sweep Coagulation
Figure 17.13 Mechanisms of Microplastic Removal via Interparticle Bridging
Figure 17.14 Flow Diagram of Microplastic Removal Mechanisms by Advanced Oxi...
Figure 17.15 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms by Photocatalysis
Figure 17.16 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms by Biodegradation
Figure 17.17 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms by (a) Side Stream Membrane Bio...
Figure 17.18 Microplastic Removal Mechanisms in the Electrocoagulation Proce...
Figure 17.19 Schematic Representation of Microplastic Removal Mechanisms in ...
Figure 17.20 Schematic Representation of Microplastic Removal Mechanisms in ...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 (a) Schematic of Three‐Electrode Setup for PET Upcycling into FA...
Figure 18.2 (a) Electron micrographs of platinum‐supported SrTiO
3
nanocuboid...
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Benefits and Limitations of Bioplastics
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Removal Approaches of Microplastics
Figure 20.2 Microplastic Bans Around the World
Figure 20.3 17 Sustainable Development Goals
Figure 20.4 The Popularity of Microplastics in Google Searches
Y
‐axis num...
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 SWOT Analysis on MP Remediation Through (a) Physical Treatment M...
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Size Range of Plastic Objects
Figure 22.2 Sources of MPs
Figure 22.3 Route of Entry of Microplastic into the Environment
Figure 22.4 Generation and the Fate of MPs During the Pandemic
Figure 22.5 Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
Figure 22.6 Route and Exposure of Microplastic to Aquatic Life
Figure 22.7 Exposure Route and Effect of MPs on Human
Figure 22.8 Mitigation Strategies
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Notes on Editors
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
iii
iv
xvii
xviii
xix
xx
xxi
xxii
xxiii
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
383
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
629
630
631
632
Microplastics in the Environment
Fate, Impacts, Removal, and Management
Edited by
Rao Y. SurampalliTian C. ZhangBashir M. Al‐HashimiChih‐Ming KaoMakarand M. GhangrekarPuspendu BhuniaSovik Das
This edition first published 2025© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved, including rights for text and data mining and training of artificial intelligence technologies or similar technologies. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Bashir M. Al‐Hashimi, Chih‐Ming Kao, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, and Sovik Das to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
Registered OfficesJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USAJohn Wiley & Sons Ltd, New Era House, 8 Oldlands Way, Bognor Regis, West Sussex, PO22 9NQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand. Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
Trademarks: Wiley and the Wiley logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates in the United States and other countries and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of WarrantyWhile the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives, written sales materials or promotional statements for this work. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist where appropriate. The fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Applied for:Hardback ISBN: 9781394251070
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Courtesy of Dr Sovik Das
Preface
Wide‐spread applications and easy availability have established plastic commodities as day‐to‐day essentials. However, due to the prevalent improper disposal practices, plastic products gradually degrade to form micro‐sized plastics termed as “secondary microplastics (MPs),” which, together with the primary MPs (that are deliberately created in minuscule sizes for its use in cosmetics, personal care products, etc.), are persist in the environment, causing huge, long‐term menaces to the environment and living organisms. The presence of MPs in water, soil, and air leads to a pathway for MPs entering into the food chain, affecting multiple organisms with chronic ailments through bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Thus, there exists a strong need to identify the potential sources, analyze the characteristics, and develop reliable, efficient, and cost‐effective treatment methods to completely eliminate the toxic effects of MPs from the environment.
This book focuses on providing the readers with insights on the fate, occurrence, impacts, removal methodologies, and management strategies of MPs in the environment. The primary topics of the book are categorized into three sections comprising a total of 22 chapters. The first section delves into the classification of MPs based on various physico‐chemical properties and degradation pathways of MPs in Chapters 1–3, along with comprehending the different techniques for sampling and quantifying the MPs in Chapter 4. Further, Chapter 5 focuses on various monitoring methods for MPs such as aerial, spatiotemporal, remote sensing, GIS, etc. in addition to describing several polymer identification techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and so on. Moreover, the first section comprises the need to understand the environmental and socioeconomic risks and the toxicity levels associated with MP spread through Chapters 6 and 7. The second section particularly specifies MPs in different compartments and their effects on environments and humane society. Chapter 8 covers sources, distribution, fate/transport, and the behavior of MPs in the environment and different systems (e.g., agricultural crops, the food and construction industry, water and solid waste pollution control systems, recycling, and remediation systems). The fate and modeling of MPs through the above‐depicted systems and environmental compartments are briefly comprehended through numerical, stochastic, computational, and various other modeling approaches in Chapter 9. Furthermore, Chapter 10 deals with toxicity assessment (for both carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic) of MPs along with focusing on the exposure pathways and interaction of MPs with various emerging contaminants and, persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic substances (PBTs). Whereas the interaction of MPs with various microbial communities, crops, soil, and the subsequent impacts on microbial metabolism, plant growth, and geo‐chemical properties of soil respectively are depicted in Chapter 11 along with specifying the effects of MPs in the food chain and food web. While Chapter 11 focused on the terrestrial environment, Chapter 12 highlights the impacts of MPs on aquatic ecosystems by describing the sources, occurrence, and transport of MPs in aquatic environments, consumption of MPs by aquatic life, consequent effects of MPs on the development of aquatic organisms, including corals, invertebrates, marine, and freshwater biota. Moreover, the second section concludes by explaining about the human exposure pathways of MPs and the subsequent toxic effects, reinforced with certain case studies in Chapter 13. The final section, i.e., Section 3, of the book furnishes the readers with potential solutions for MP pollution through certain measures and alterations taken in the life cycle of plastic production through Chapter 14 and possible prevention measures for hindering the formation of secondary MPs in the environment via Chapter 15. Furthermore, societal strategies to minimize and eradicate plastic waste are described in Chapter 16, and different MP removal technologies such as physical, chemical, biological, and hybrid treatments are elucidated in Chapter 17. Also, Chapters 18 and 19 inform the reader about the applicability of various catalysts for polymer upcycling and about the various potentials and possibilities of biodegradable bioplastics, respectively. Whereas Chapter 20 raises awareness among the readers on the global strategies, existing regulations, and policies based on MP management. In addition, the technological efficiencies, economic feasibility, and environmental and societal impacts of multiple MP treatment technologies are integrated in Chapter 21. The book concludes by illustrating certain case studies, which highlight the impact of COVID‐19 on the elevated MP pollution through Chapter 22.
This particular book on fate, impacts, removal, and management of MPs in the environment intends to aid students, scientists, researchers, engineers, government officers, process managers, and practicing professionals in addressing and fostering knowledge on MP pollution in different compartments of the environment. The book also will serve as a reference for undergraduate and graduate students, as well as for practicing professionals.
The editors convey deep gratitude and sincere appreciation for the diligent efforts and patience of all authors for their valuable contributions to this book. The perspectives expressed in each chapter of this book are those of the authors and should not be construed as opinions of the organizations they work for.
Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, Bashir M. Al‐Hashimi, Chih‐Ming Kao, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Sovik Das
Notes on Editors
Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli, PhD, PE, BCEE, Hon BC.WRE, F.WEF, F.AAAS, Dist.F.IWA, M.EASA, Dist.M.ASCE, NAC, is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability (GIEES). He was with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for 30 years and retired as an engineer director. He received MS and PhD degrees in environmental engineering from Oklahoma State University and Iowa State University, respectively. He is a registered professional engineer in the branches of civil and environmental engineering, and also a Board Certified Environmental Engineer (BCEE) and Water Resources Engineer (BC.WRE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) and the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers (AAWRE). He is an adjunct professor in seven universities and Distinguished/Honorary Visiting Professor in six (6) well‐known universities abroad. Currently, he serves, or has served on over 85 national and international committees, review panels, or advisory boards including the ASCE National Committee on Energy, Environment and Water Policy. He also served as President of Civil Engineering Certification (CEC), Inc., an entity of ASCE for board certification of various specialties within civil engineering. He is a Distinguished Engineering Alumnus of both the Oklahoma State and Iowa State universities, and an elected member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), an elected member of the U.S. National Academy of Construction (NAC), an elected fellow of the Water Environment Federation and Distinguished Fellow of International Water Association, an elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), and a Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He also is Editor‐in‐Chief of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, past Vice‐Chair of Editorial Board of Water Environment Research Journal and Editor‐in‐Chief of Nanotechnology for Environmental Engineering Journal (Springer Nature), and serves on the editorial boards of 8 other refereed environmental journals. He has authored over 400 articles in refereed journals, 22 approved patents, 27 refereed books and 183 refereed book chapters, 250 national and international conference presentations and proceedings, and presented over 160 plenary/keynote or invited presentations worldwide. He has received over 30 national awards/honors.
Dr. Tian C. Zhang, PhD, PE, BCEE, BC.WRE, F.ASCE, F.AAAS, Dist.M.ASCE, is a professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska‐Lincoln (UNL), USA. He received his BS degree in civil engineering from Wuhan University of Technology, China, in 1982, his MS degree in environmental engineering from Tsinghua University, China, in 1985, and his PhD in environmental engineering from the University of Cincinnati in 1994. He joined the UNL faculty in August 1994. Professor Zhang teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment, remediation of hazardous wastes, and nonpoint pollution control. Professor Zhang's research involves fundamentals and applications of nanotechnology and conventional technology for water, wastewater, and storm water treatment and management, remediation of contaminated environments, and detection/control of emerging contaminants in the environment. Professor Zhang has published more than 250 peer‐reviewed journal papers, 80 book chapters, and 16 books since 1994. Professor Zhang is a member of the Water Environmental Federation (WEF), and Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors (AEESP). Professor Zhang is a Diplomate of Water Resources Engineer (BC.WRE) of the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers, Board Certified Environmental Engineers (BCEE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Distinguished Member of American Society of Civil Engineers (Dist.M.ASCE), and Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS), and Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA). Professor Zhang is the associate editor of Journal of Environmental Engineering (since 2007), Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (since 2006), and the managing editor of Water Environment Research (since 2008). He has been a registered professional engineer in Nebraska, USA, since 2000.
Bashir M. Al‐Hashimi, CBE, FREng, FRS, FIEEE, FIET, FBCS, is the Vice President (Research & Innovation) and ARM Professor of Computer Engineering at King's College London in the United Kingdom. He is internationally recognized for his sustained and pioneering research contributions to advanced semiconductor chips test, energy‐efficient embedded systems and the emerging research field of energy harvesting computing. His research has led to substantive innovations in enabling hardware and software technologies with application in mobile and digital electronic devices. A highly cited researcher, he has published more than 350 technical papers, with eight best paper awards at international conferences and has authored/coauthored and edited five books and eight book chapters, with his most recent as Many‐core Computing: Hardware and Software, IET press (2019). He has overseen the successful supervision of 45 PhD students and has secured over £25m in external research funding from UK research funders and industry. The impact of his computer engineering research and technology transfer has been significant in both academia and industry across the world and it has led to numerous distinctions. He was cofounder (2008) and codirector of the ARM‐Southampton Research Centre, which is an industry‐university collaborative center involving the University of Southampton and ARM, recognized as an exemplar in the UK for industry‐academia collaboration. Bashir has led successfully a number of large EPSRC‐funded multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research consortia, including the Holistic battery‐free electronics project and the recently completed £5.6m EPSRC PRiME Programme Grant, which included four universities and five industrial partners. He was awarded in 2020 the UK Institution of Engineering and Technology's Faraday Medal for contributions to manufacturing test of electronics systems (the Institution's highest honor and one of the most world's most prestigious international awards for engineers and scientists). In 2018, he received one of the highest national UK honors when he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II for sustained services to industry and engineering. He was appointed to the Research Excellence Framework (REF) for research impact evaluation of British Higher Education in both 2014 and 2021 and has contributed to numerous government research and education consultations through his active participation in the UK National Engineering Academy ‐ the Royal Academy of Engineering (RAEng) since election to the fellowship in 2013, where he has also been an elected member of the trustee board since 2021. In 2014, he received the Royal Society Wolfson Fellowship for scientific contributions to energy‐efficient and reliable computing systems, and in 2012, he received the Design and Test in European Conference Fellowship in recognition of contributions to electronic design and technical leadership. He was an elected fellow of the IEEE in 2009 for contributions to low‐power integrated circuits and systems and was recently elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society and the membership of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts in the same year, 2023. He has an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering and a PhD from University of York (1989).
Dr. Chih‐Ming Kao, PhD, PE, BCEE, BC.WRE, F.IWA, F.WEF, F.AAAS, Dist.M.ASCE is a Distinguished Chair Professor in the Institute of Environmental Engineering at National Sun Yat‐Sen University, Taiwan. Professor Kao is also the coordinator of Environmental Engineering Program at Ministry of Science and Technology, past president of The Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering, and former president of The Taiwan Association of Soil and Groundwater Environmental Protection. Professor Kao received his MS and PhD degrees in civil and environmental engineering from North Carolina State University in 1989 and 1993, respectively. He is a fellow member of International Water Association (IWA), Distinguished Member of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), a member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA), a fellow member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a fellow member of Environment and Water Resource Institute (EWRI), a registered professional engineer in the branch of civil engineering, a certified ground water professional, and a professional hydrologist in the United States. He is also a Diplomate of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers and Diplomate of American Academy of Water Resources Engineers. Professor Kao received the “Distinguished Researcher Award” from Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology in 2011 and 2015. He is also the receiver of the “Distinguished Engineer Professor Award” from Chinese Institute of Engineers in 2012, and receiver of the “Distinguished Honor Award” from C.T. Ho Foundation in 2013. He also received several awards from ASCE including the State‐of‐the‐Art of Civil Engineering Award in 2013, Hering Medal, Samuel Arnold Greeley Award in 2012, and distinguished theory‐oriented paper award in 2008 and 2015. He has over 350 refereed publications.
Prof. Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Fellow INAE, M.EASA,M.ASCE, is Institute Chair Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, and heading two academic units, School of Environmental Science and Engineering and PK Sinha Centre for Bioenergy and renewables, and also Professor‐in‐Charge, Aditya Choubey Centre for Re‐Water Research at Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He had been visiting scientist to Ben Gurion University, Israel, and University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, under Marie Curie Fellowship by European Union and had stint as faculty of various capacities in renowned engineering colleges and research institutes. He has been working in the areas of anaerobic wastewater treatment, bioenergy recovery during wastewater treatment using microbial fuel cell and bio‐electrochemical systems. He is recognized worldwide in scientific community for his research contribution in the development of bio‐electrochemical processes and his research group stands among the top five research laboratories in the world in terms of scientific publications. The first of its kind MFC‐based onsite toilet waste treatment system “Bioelectric toilet” developed by him received wide publicity in electronic and print media. He has successfully completed multinational collaborative projects with European countries and few of the projects are ongoing. He has also provided design of industrial wastewater and sewage treatment plants in India and abroad. He has been working on setting up wastewater treatment plants to produce reusable quality treated water at affordable cost. He has guided 25 PhD research scholars and 50 master student's projects. He has contributed 230 research papers in journals of international repute, out of these 138 papers are on microbial fuel cell and also contributed 50 book chapters. His research work has been presented in more than 250 conferences. He has delivered invited lectures in the many reputed universities in the world.
Dr. Puspendu Bhunia,PhD, is presently holding the Associate Professor position at the School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India. He received his BE degree in civil engineering from Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, India, in 2002, his MTech and PhD degrees in environmental engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, in 2004 and 2008, respectively. He joined the Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, faculty in July 2009. Dr. Bhunia teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment and remediation of hazardous wastes. His research interest includes sustainable natural treatment technologies of wastewater, nutrient removal, and green technologies for waste remediation. Dr. Bhunia has authored over 80 technical publications in refereed journals, book chapters, and conference proceedings. He has presented several expert talks at different technical conferences organized nationally and internationally. Dr. Bhunia's research work has been recognized, including the Best Practice Oriented Paper Award from ASCE. He is a member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA). Dr. Bhunia is a member of several professional organizations and also serves as an associate editor of ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste and is reviewer for more than 30 international peer‐reviewed journals.
Dr. Sovik Das, PhD, is presently working as an Assistant Professor in environmental engineering of the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India. He completed doctoral research work in the field of environmental engineering from the Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. He is engaged in research work pertaining to bioelectrochemical systems such as microbial electrosynthesis cell, microbial fuel cell, and microbial electrolysis cell for the treatment of different waste streams with concomitant valuable recovery. Currently he is looking in the domain of green hydrogen production from waste and removal of emerging contaminants from water matrix through both electrochemical and bioelectrochemical technologies. He has more than 60 international publications in reputed international journals and 11 book chapters to his credit. Also, he is currently editing two books for International Water Association and Springer Nature. Further, he is also the Associate Editor of Sustainable Chemistry for the Environment of Elsevier, Heliyon (Chemical Engineering Section) of Cell Press, Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste of ASCE and Editorial Board Member of Scientific Reports published by Nature. Moreover, he has served as a reviewer for more than 60 international journals published by Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, etc., and has reviewed more than 500 manuscripts.
Section IThe Existence and Characterization of Microplastics
1Introduction and Book Overview
Yasser Bashir1, Nehaun Zargar1, Neha Sharma1, Almeenu Rasheed1, Sovik Das1, Makarand M. Ghangrekar2, Puspendu Bhunia3, Bashir M. Al‐Hashimi4, Rao Y. Surampalli5, Tian C. Zhang6, and Chih‐Ming Kao7
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
2 Department of Civil Engineering, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
3 Environmental Engineering, School of Infrastructure, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
4 King’s College, Strand Campus, London, UK
5 Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability, Lenexa, KS, USA
6 Civil & Environmental Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Nebraska‐Lincoln, Omaha, NE, USA
7 Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Sun Yat‐Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
1.1 Background and Definition
Plastics are used in an increasing range of applications to ease the day‐to‐day life of individuals, ranging from food packaging to textiles, disposable medical equipment, and technological equipment and their machinery parts, owing to their exceptional properties. However, improper disposal techniques used for nonbiodegradable plastics have resulted in their persistent presence in the environment leading to an upsurge in plastic pollution. Moreover, the consequential exposure of the microparticles derived from plastics is toxic to human beings. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration defines plastic debris as microplastic (MP) when the particle has a diameter of less than 5 mm (Pironti et al., 2021). These MPs can be mainly categorized into two types based on their origin: primary and secondary MPs (Figure 1.1). Primary MPs are defined as small‐sized plastic particles manufactured intentionally in certain minuscule sizes for being used in personal care products and cleaning formulations as microbeads and abrasives, whereas secondary MPs are formed due to the degradation or fragmentation of larger plastic products, such as plastic films, domestic waste, atmospheric deposition, and automobile emissions, in the environment by various natural weathering processes (Ahmed et al., 2021; Pironti et al., 2021). These MPs are further categorized based on their ease of degradation as biodegradable and nonbiodegradable MPs. Biodegradable MPs can be degraded completely by microbes such as fungi, algae, and bacteria, while nonbiodegradable MPs persist in the environment for longer durations without getting degraded easily (Thakur et al., 2023). Materials such as polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polybutylene succinate, and polycaprolactone are some of the common types of biodegradable MPs usually found in plastic bottles, plastic films, medical instruments, tissues, diapers, disposal cups, and food packaging (González‐Pleiter et al., 2019; Krueger et al., 2015; Lambert & Wagner, 2018). Furthermore, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), nylon, corflute, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high‐impact polystyrene (HIPS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyurethane are some of the types of nonbiodegradable MPs usually found in various types of cans, bottles, food packaging, tires, bumpers, clothes, gaskets and cushions of the furniture (Shah et al., 2008; Wagner & Lambert, 2018; Zhang & Chen, 2020).
Figure 1.1 Types and Sources of Microplastics
In addition to the hydrophobic nature of MPs, the high polymer content and surface area aid in resisting the natural degradation processes and thereby persisting in nature (Verschoor, 2015). However, photodegradation, mechanical breakdown, and biological degradation may contribute to their eventual fragmentation into smaller particles having different shapes such as fragments, fibers, spheres, beads, and different colors based on the original color of the parent plastic and additives present (Crawford & Quinn, 2016). These fragmented plastic particles can permeate and persist in the food chain, ultimately leading to bioaccumulation in larger consumer organisms, indicating the prolonged ecological consequences of MP pollution. In this regard, the ingestion pathway is considered as one of the major exposure routes of MPs in several secondary consumers of the ecosystem due to the consumption of MP‐contaminated food. Furthermore, MPs can be absorbed through soil, water, atmosphere, and living organisms, which ultimately impacts the well‐being of humans subsequently.
Recently, researchers have indicated the presence of MPs in various compartments of the ecosystem, such as living organisms ranging from microscopic zooplankton to large mammals, surface water bodies, soil, air, marine environment, and different types of wastewater (Ahmed et al., 2021; Anderson et al., 2017; Carr et al., 2016; Eerkes‐Medrano et al., 2015; Hidayaturrahman & Lee, 2019) The chronological demonstration of major milestones of MPs and the escalating trend of studies on MP pollution (Figure 1.2) demonstrates the requirement of MP eradication from the environment. The release of MPs is majorly attributed from manufacturing industries and road dust, encompassing components such as tires, bitumen, and road marking paints subsequently, facilitating the transportation of MPs to the freshwater systems and ultimately to the ocean (Ngo et al., 2019). However, the first research paper on MP pollution was published in 2004, which coined the term “microplastics” for the first time (Thompson et al., 2004). Furthermore, the studies on freshwater matrices based on MP pollution in 2012 indicate the fast spread of MPs to different matrices (Alencastro, 2012). Nevertheless, recent studies have reported the detection of 2.4 ± 1.3 × 105 of both MPs and nanoplastics (NPs) particles per liter of bottled water, with varying composition and morphology, unveiling the critical need to address this issue and eliminate the substantial consumption of MPs and NPs (Qian et al., 2024). Furthermore, the detection of MPs within the size range of 20–469 μm in the blood sample and the detection of 1.42 ± 1.50 MP/g of lung tissue in humans indicate the chances of MP intake through ingestion and inhalation, respectively (Jenner et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2023). In addition, MP was also detected in 76% of the breastmilk samples tested, majorly composed of PE, PVC, and PP particles, within the size range of 2–12 μm (Ragusa et al., 2022). Apart from these, the first‐time detection of MPs in all portions of the human placenta, in 2021, within the size range of 5–10 μm, throws light on the huge concern of fetal health and the exposure route of these pollutants (Ragusa et al., 2021). In addition, the detection of MPs in products such as beer, milk, and honey, in poultries such as sheep, ducks, and other organisms such as mussels, crabs, and seabirds demonstrates the intensity of MP spread within the ecosystem (Amélineau et al., 2016; Beriot et al., 2021; Diaz‐Basantes et al., 2020; e Silva et al., 2016; Susanti et al., 2021; Wójcik‐Fudalewska et al., 2016).
Besides humans, 6.7–13.9 MPs/L of cloud water with particles size ranging between 7.1 and 94.6 μm were detected at high‐altitude clouds of Japanese mountains indicating the widespread presence of MPs in the environment (Wang et al., 2023). Furthermore, the MP contamination reveals new levels with the first MP detection at Mt. Everest, from a sample collected at an elevation of 8440 m above mean sea level, and the presence of plastic pollutants along with the detection of ingested MPs from the guts of deep aquatic amphipods from six deep ocean trenches including Mariana Trench and New Hebrides Trench (Jamieson et al., 2019; Napper et al., 2020). Notably, researchers found it astounding to detect the presence of MPs in human‐untouched areas such as the Amazon Forest and the Polar Regions. The Antarctic and Arctic polar samples were identified with an average of 29 MP particles/L and 0.34 ± 0.31 particles/m3 of water, respectively (Aves et al., 2022; Lusher et al., 2015). Moreover, the Amazon River basin was detected to contain 417–8178 MP particles/kg of dried sediment. The fact that MPs are present at every crevice of the Earth is a direct consequence of the longtime irresponsible usage and disposal of plastic particles. Nevertheless, these detection studies will keep on escalating with time revealing the true nature of the threat created by humans themselves.
Figure 1.2 (a) Chronological Milestones in the History of MP. (b) Number of Papers Published Till 2023 on MP Pollution as per SCOPUS Database Using Keywords “Microplastic” OR “Microplastics” OR “Micro‐Sized Plastic” AND “Pollution,” Limiting to Research “Articles” Conveyed Through “English” Language
To tackle this issue, researchers have come up with various household treatment methods to minimize the intake of MPs and NPs on a daily basis, such as boiling tap water (Yu et al., 2024). The study indicates the aggregation of MPs and NPs on the incrustations of calcium carbonate from the tap water, during high temperatures while boiling. Also, the study effectively removed about 80% of PS, PE, and PP particles within the size range of 0.1–150 μm, illustrating the significance of the conventional boiling method in separating out MPs and NPs from the water matrices (Yu et al., 2024). Nevertheless, further research is necessary to come up with alternatives, like bioplastics, which will replace the toxic MPs owing to the former’s easily degradable nature. Moreover, it can replace petrochemical‐based plastic polymers, thereby reducing plastic pollution and ensuring a sustainable and plastic‐free environment.
1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics
Plastic has become an inalienable part of everyone's lives; however, unethical and irresponsible disposal of plastic has emerged as a menace over time. These plastics break down into MPs by natural weathering and, hence, are becoming multifaceted threat to the environment, society, and economics (Tran et al., 2023). Due to their fine particulate nature, MPs are ingested by aquatic organisms, leading to bioaccumulation, digestive blockage, and chronic toxicity. Furthermore, ingestion of MPs by the phytoplankton and zooplankton also lowers their carbon consumption, thus resulting in reduced carbon sequestration by marine organisms (Shen et al., 2020). The occurrence of MPs has also been found in soil as a result of plastic mulching, sludge utilization, effluent of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) used for irrigation, and atmospheric deposition (He et al., 2018). Consequently, the uptake of MPs by plants is also causing trophic transfer of it into food chains, posing a serious threat to living beings.
At present, MPs are widely found in seafood, bottled water, and other food products, becoming the routes of MPs in humans. According to an investigation, it was noted that an individual's annual consumption of MPs is estimated to be between 39,000 and 52,000, with tap water contributing between 3,000 and 4,000 MPs to this total (Emenike et al., 2023). Ingestion of MPs by humans is linked with various health consequences, including oxidative stress, tissue damage, and inflammation (Emenike et al., 2023). Moreover, MPs also amalgamate with other toxic chemicals and lead to a toxic synergistic effect on the environment. For instance, Verdú et al. (2023) concluded that MP adsorbed on the triclosan caused higher mortality than just triclosan itself on Daphnia magna. Furthermore, MPs are also present in indoor and outdoor air, which, on entering the human body through inhalation may cause irritation and inflammation of the respiratory tract, resulting in symptoms such as wheezing, coughing, dyspnea, and worsening of preexisting respiratory disorders like asthma. These airborne MPs also adsorb other pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which can be genotoxic once they enter the body through the respiratory system (Gasperi et al., 2018).
The adverse impacts of the MPs are not only limited to the environment and living beings; but these also lead to significant economic consequences, affecting different sectors as well as the economy of the nation. Activities related to fishing and aquaculture are seriously jeopardized by MPs, leading to lower quality of farmed fish, thus rendering them unmarketable. Furthermore, a decrease in water quality caused by MP pollution in the ocean has an impact on the survival of fish larvae. This may result in a lower annual catch of fish, which affects fisheries and aquaculture profits and is becoming a serious threat to fisherman by declining their source of income. Furthermore, plastic‐laden beaches discourage tourists due to unclean and unpleasant surroundings, which has a detrimental effect on the tourism sector by lowering visitor numbers and revenue for nearby businesses (Kumar et al., 2021). It was estimated that the decline in fishing, tourism, aquaculture, and other industries due to marine plastic pollution caused a gross domestic product (GDP) loss of US$7 billion in 2018. In addition, clean‐up activities to eradicate plastic debris from different ecosystems incur great expense to the governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and concerned citizens, which amounts upto $15 billion annually, hence affecting public budgets (Dalberg, 2021). It is evident that the presence and accumulation of MP in the environment is a global concern, and collective efforts are required to safeguard the ecosystem and living beings from MP pollution (Figure 1.3). This can be achieved by eliminating plastics, switching to biodegradable plastics, or enforcing more stringent policies by the government for plastic usage so that harmony between the environment and human is maintained for a better future.
Figure 1.3 Impacts of Microplastics on Environment, Society, and Economics
