Modeling and Optimization of Optical Communication Networks E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 649

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

MODELING and OPTIMIZATION of OPTICAL COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Optical networks are an integral part of many of the technologies that we use every day. It is a constantly changing and evolving area, with new materials, processes, and applications coming online almost daily.

This book provides a basis for discussing open principles, methods and research problems in the modeling of optical communication networks. It also provides a systematic overview of the state-of-the-art research efforts and potential research directions dealing with optical communication metworks. It also simultaneously focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains and explores novel research on wireless and optical techniques and systems, describing practical implementation activities, results and issues.

A handbook on applications for both academia and industry, this exciting new volume includes detailed discussions on real-world case studies on trends and emerging technologies associated with modeling of optical communication networks. This book also describes several numerical models and algorithms for simulation and optimization of optical communication networks. Modeling and optimization presents several opportunities for automating operations and introducing intelligent decision making in network planning and in dynamic control and management of network resources, including issues like connection establishment, self-configuration, and self-optimization, through prediction and estimation by utilizing present network state and historical data. It focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains, and explores the latest developments in applications like photonics, high speed communication systems and networks, visible light communication, nano-photonics, wireless, and MIMO systems.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

1 Investigation on Optical Sensors for Heart Rate Monitoring

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Overview of PPG

1.3 Clinical Application – Heart Rate Monitoring

1.4 Summary

References

2 Adopting a Fusion Approach for Optical Amplification

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Mechanism Involved

2.3 Types of Amplifier

2.4 Hybrid Optical Amplifiers

2.5 Applications

2.6 Current Scenario

2.7 Discussion

2.8 Conclusions

References

3 Optical Sensors

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Glass Fibers

3.3 Plastic Fibers

3.4 Optical Fiber Sensors Advantages Over Traditional Sensors

3.5 Fiber Optic Sensor Principles

3.6 Classification of Fiber Optic Sensors

3.7 Optical Fiber Sensing Applications

3.8 Conclusion

References

4 Defective and Failure Sensor Detection and Removal in a Wireless Sensor Network

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Related Works

4.3 Proposed Detection and Elimination Approach

4.4 Results and Discussion

4.5 Performance Evaluation

4.6 Conclusion

References

5 Optical Fiber and Prime Optical Devices for Optical Communication

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Optic Fiber Systems Development

5.3 Optical Fiber Transmission Link

5.4 Optical Sources Suited for Optical Fiber Communication

5.5 LED as Optical Source

5.6 Laser as Light Source

5.7 Optical Fiber

5.8 Fiber Materials

5.9 Benefits of Optical Fiber

5.10 Drawbacks of Optical Fiber

5.11 Recent Advancements in Fiber Technology

5.12 Photodetector

5.13 Future of Optical Fiber Communication

5.14 Applications of Optical Fibers in the Industry

5.15 Conclusion

References

6 Evaluation of Lower Layer Parameters in Body Area Networks

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Problem Definition

6.3 Baseline MAC in IEEE 802.15.6

6.4 Ultra Wideband (UWB) PHY

6.5 Castalia

6.6 Methodology

6.7 Results and Discussion

6.8 Hardware Setup Using Bluetooth Module

6.9 Hardware Setup Using ESP 12-E

6.10 Conclusions

References

7 Analyzing a Microstrip Antenna Sensor Design for Achieving Biocompatibity

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Designing of Biomedical Antenna

7.3 Sensing Device for Biomedical Application

7.4 Conclusion

References

8 Photonic Crystal Based Routers for All Optical Communication Networks

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Photonic Crystals

8.3 Routers

8.4 Micro Ring Resonators

8.5 Optical Routers

8.6 Summary

References

9 Fiber Optic Communication: Evolution, Technology, Recent Developments, and Future Trends

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Basic Principles

9.3 Future Trends in Fiber Optics Communication

9.4 Advantages

9.5 Conclusion

References

10 Difficulties of Fiber Optic Setup and Maintenance in a Developing Nation

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Related Works

10.3 Fiber Optic Cable

10.4 Fiber Optics Cable Deployment Strategies

10.5 Deployment of Fiber Optics Throughout the World

10.6 Fiber Deployment Challenges

10.7 Conclusion

References

11 Machine Learning-Enabled Flexible Optical Transport Networks

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Review of SDM-EON Physical Models

11.3 Review of SDM-EON Resource Assignment Techniques

11.4 Research Challenges in SDM-EONs

11.5 Conclusion

References

12 Role of Wavelength Division Multiplexing in Optical Communication

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Modules of an Optical Communication System

12.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

12.4 Modulation Formats in WDM Systems

References

13 Optical Ultra-Sensitive Nanoscale Biosensor Design for Water Analysis

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Related Work or Literature Survey

13.3 Tools and Techniques

13.4 Proposed Design

13.5 Simulation

13.6 Result and Analysis

13.7 Conclusion and Future Scope

References

14 A Study on Connected Cars–V2V Communication

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Literature Survey

14.3 Software Description

14.4 Methodology

14.5 Working

14.6 Advantages and Applications

14.7 Conclusion and Future Scope

Future Scope

References

15 Broadband Wireless Network Era in Wireless Communication – Routing Theory and Practices

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Outline of Broadband Wireless Networking

15.3 Routing Mechanisms

15.4 Security Issues and Mechanisms in BWN

15.5 Conclusion

References

16 Recent Trends in Optical Communication, Challenges and Opportunities

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Optical Fiber Communication

16.3 Applications of Optical Communication

16.4 Various Sectors of Optical Communication

16.5 Conclusion

References

17 Photonic Communication Systems and Networks

17.1 Introduction

17.2 History of LiFi

17.3 LiFi Standards

17.4 Related Work

17.5 Methodology

17.6 Proposed Model

17.7 Experiment and Results

17.8 Applications

17.9 Conclusion

Acknowledgment

References

18 RSA-Based Encryption Approach for Preserving Confidentiality Against Factorization Attacks

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Related Work

18.3 Mathematical Preliminary

18.4 Proposed System

18.5 Performance Analysis

18.6 Conclusion

References

19 Sailfish Optimizer Algorithm (SFO) for Optimized Clustering in Internet of Things (IoT) Related to the Healthcare Industry

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Related Works

19.3 Proposed Method

19.4 System Model

19.5 Energy Model

19.6 Cluster Formation Using SFO

19.7 Results and Discussion

19.8 Conclusions

References

20 Li-Fi Technology and Its Applications

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Technology Portrayal

20.3 Distinctive Modulation of Li-Fi

20.4 Antiquity of Improvements and Li-Fi Innovation

20.5 Li-Fi Technology and Its Advantages

20.6 Confines of Li-Fi Innovation

20.7 Application of Li-Fi Technology

References

21 Smart Emergency Assistance Using Optics

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Literature Survey

21.3 Methodology

21.4 Design and Implementation

21.5 Results & Discussion

21.6 Conclusion

References

About the Editors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 PPG signal and corresponding electrocardiogram (ECG).

Figure 1.2 (a) Amplifier design; (b) Signal stages.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 The overall silhouette of an optical amplifier.

Figure 2.2 Construction of semiconductor optical amplifier.

Figure 2.3 Fiber Raman amplifier scheme.

Figure 2.4 EDFA amplifier configuration.

Figure 2.5 Erbium energy level schematic diagram.

Figure 2.6 EDFA–RAMAN hybrid configuration.

Figure 2.7 (a) For shorter distances (100–150 km) use a booster-only setup...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Schematic representation of fiber optic sensor system.

Figure 3.2 Fiber core surrounded by cladding material.

Figure 3.3 The general structure of fiber optic sensor.

Figure 3.4 Basic concept of intrinsic fiber sensor.

Figure 3.5 Extrinsic type fiber optic sensors.

Figure 3.6 Sensor for vibration in fiber optic cables.

Figure 3.7 Schematic illustration of optical fiber sensor with micro-bending.

Figure 3.8 Schematic of a fiber optic phase sensor.

Figure 3.9 An illustration of a fiber optic sensor based on polarization.

Figure 3.10 Diagram of a chemical sensor (ResearchGate).

Figure 3.11 Graph showing the global biosensors market share by category.

Figure 3.12 Involvement of sensing technologies, such as electrochemical, EMS, or M...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Graph illustrating malfunctioned nodes.

Figure 4.2 Categorization of procedure into two steps.

Figure 4.3 Flowchart showing the process of initialization.

Figure 4.4 Flowchart showing scanning process by power level.

Figure 4.5 Flowchart showing scanning process by conversation level.

Figure 4.6 Flowchart showing scanning process by activation state.

Figure 4.7 Activity diagram showing the overall failure nodes recognition process.

Figure 4.8 Flowchart visualizing the process of faulty sensor elimination.

Figure 4.9 Graph visualizing the EFS procedure.

Figure 4.10 Snapshot visualizing the defective sensor.

Figure 4.11 Snapshot visualizing the record showing status of each sensor.

Figure 4.12 Snapshot visualizing the sum of faulty sensors.

Figure 4.13 2-D Graph visualizing entered variables.

Figure 4.14 Graph visualizing the defective sensor’s record.

Figure 4.15 Graph visualizing the work’s performance.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Components of optical fiber communication link [1].

Figure 5.2 Surface emitting LED and its radiation pattern.

Figure 5.3 Edge emitting LED.

Figure 5.4 LED, Laser, and SLED comparison.

Figure 5.5 Energy level diagrams showing the lasing operations.

Figure 5.6 Schematic of a single optical fiber structure.

Figure 5.7 Types of optical fiber.

Figure 5.8 Modified chemical vapor deposition.

Figure 5.9 RAPD structure.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 IEEE 802.15.6 NB PPDU structure [2].

Figure 6.2 IEEE 802.15.6 UWB PPDU structure [2].

Figure 6.3 IEEE 802.15.6 EFC PPDU structure [2].

Figure 6.4 IEEE 802.15.6 superframe structure [2].

Figure 6.5 CSMA/CA procedure in IEEE 802.15.6 standard [2].

Figure 6.6 Connections of modules in Castalia [22].

Figure 6.7 Block diagram.

Figure 6.8 WBAN scenario.

Figure 6.9 Hardware block diagram.

Figure 6.10 Radio comparison [20].

Figure 6.11 Packets received per node GTSoff, general.

Figure 6.12 Packets received per node GTSoff, no Temporal [21].

Figure 6.13 Packets received per node GTSon, general.

Figure 6.14 Packets received per node GTSon, no Temporal.

Figure 6.15 Packets received per node.

Figure 6.16 Application level latency with GTSon and GTSoff.

Figure 6.17 MAC packet breakdown.

Figure 6.18 Packet received by the receiver.

Figure 6.19 Design screen for app development in website.

Figure 6.20 Block design for giving ID for app.

Figure 6.21 Block design for giving authentication and email pass for app.

Figure 6.22 Block design for giving features for app.

Figure 6.23 Block design for receiving text for app.

Figure 6.24 Block design for giving functionality for app.

Figure 6.25 Hardware setup for Bluetooth module.

Figure 6.26 Sensor readings in Android.

Figure 6.27 Hardware setup for ESP 12-E.

Figure 6.28 Temperature readings in website.

Figure 6.29 Humidity readings in website.

Figure 6.30 LED control/alarm, temperature and humidity readings in website.

Figure 6.31 Temperature and humidity readings in smart phone.

Figure 6.32 Algorithm incorporating MQTT.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Block diagram for biomedical antenna sensors design.

Figure 7.2 SRR Design. (a) Double circular. (b) Double rectangle. (c) Single circular. (d) Single rectangle [16].

Figure 7.3 Shape of designed antenna [21].

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Classification of 1D, 2D, and 3D PhC [7].

Figure 8.2 3D photonic crystals in nature.

Figure 8.3 Photonic crystal applications [34].

Figure 8.4 (a) All pass ring resonator. (b) Add-drop ring resonator.

Figure 8.5 Flow of steps involved in router design.

Figure 8.6 (a) Square lattice arrangement of PhC. (b) Triangular or hexagonal lattice arrangement of PhC.

Figure 8.7 (a) 1 x 2 router schematic. (b) 2 x 2 router schematic.

Figure 8.8 (a) 3 x 3 router with 4 PCRR [39]. (b) 3 x 3 router with 6 PCRR [39].

Figure 8.9 (a) Simple PhC waveguide crossing. (b) Broadband waveguide crossing.

Figure 8.10 4 x 4 router [36].

Figure 8.11 4 x 4 router [35].

Figure 8.12 4 x 4 router [37].

Figure 8.13 6 x 6 router [42].

Figure 8.14 (a) Waveguide crossing [38]. (b) 1 x 2 router using micro-cavities [38]. (c) 4 x 4 wa...

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is used for optical fiber communicatio...

Figure 9.2 The fundamental components of a fiber optic transmission system.

Figure 9.3 WDM Fiber Optic Transmission System at its most basic level.

Figure 9.4 DWDM fiber optic transmission system with 4 channels at a low cost.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 The fixed-grid WDM OTN with every color representing a different connection.

Figure 11.2 The multi-line rate optical network.

Figure 11.3 The flexible grid elastic optical network with every color representing a different connection.

Figure 11.4 Space division multiplexing for flexi-grid optical networks (each channel, assigned with a...

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Working of fiber optical communication.

Figure 12.2 Dense light sources.

Figure 12.3 Fiber structure.

Figure 12.4 Individual fiber channel.

Figure 12.5 Multiplexing combines multiple channels in a single fiber.

Figure 12.6 WDM System component.

Figure 12.7 Mach-Zehnder interferometer structure.

Figure 12.8 Representation of the NRZ code.

Figure 12.9 NRZ transmitter diagram.

Figure 12.10 Representation of the RZ code.

Figure 12.11 RZ transmitter.

Figure 12.12 Chirped RZ transmitter.

Figure 12.13 CSRZ transmitter.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 (a) Spores germination by endospore-forming

B. cereus

. (b) Sch...

Figure 13.2

B. cereus

spores – the white spots in the rod-shaped bac...

Figure 13.3 (a) One-Dimensional, (b) two-dimensional, and (c) three-dimensional phot...

Figure 13.4 Schematic 3D model of a ring resonator.

Figure 13.5 Photonic crystal circular structure.

Figure 13.6 Photonic crystal triangular structure.

Figure 13.7 Simulation for Gaussian source.

Figure 13.8 Combined spectrum of circular structure.

Figure 13.9 Combined spectrum of triangular structure.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 Arduino IDE environment.

Figure 14.2 Block diagram of vehicle 1.

Figure 14.3 Block diagram of vehicle 2.

Figure 14.4 Pin description for vehicle.

Figure 14.5 Hardware connection of ultra sonic sensor.

Figure 14.6 Connected car module.

Figure 14.7 Collision detection.

Figure 14.8 Car connected to server.

Figure 14.9 Things speak channel.

Figure 14.10 Channel showing channel clearance.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Structure of WBN.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Optical communication block diagram.

Figure 16.2 Applications of optical communication.

Figure 16.3 Various sectors in optical communication.

Figure 16.4 Papers published in optical communication network.

Chapter 17

Figure 17.1 The operation of the LiFi module.

Figure 17.2 Circuit diagram for securing data communication using LiFi.

Figure 17.3 Code for sender end.

Figure 17.4 Code for receiver end.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Block diagram for RSA-ζ.

Figure 18.2 (a) Test Lena image. (b) R component. (c) B component. (d) G component.

Figure 18.3 (a) Encrypted histogram using RSA. (b) Encrypted using RSA-ζ.

Figure 18.5 (a) G component using RSA. (b) G component using RSA-ζ.

Figure 18.6 (a) B component using RSA. (b) B component using RSA-ζ.

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Network setup.

Figure 19.2 Path between CH and gateway.

Figure 19.3 Latency.

Figure 19.4 Network lifetime.

Figure 19.5 Network throughput.

Figure 19.6 Residual energy.

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1 Li-Fi structure.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 Unit 1 of block diagram.

Figure 21.2 Unit 2 of block diagram.

Figure 21.3 Pin connection of the proposed system.

Figure 21.4 (a) Schematic of the proposed system. (b) Hardware setup of the proposed system.

Figure 21.5 LCD displays of pulse sensing mechanism.

Figure 21.6 LCD displays of accident detection mechanism.

Figure 21.7 LCD display of cancelling the ambulance.

Figure 21.8 Serial monitor display of writing data into EEPROM.

Figure 21.9 Serial monitor display of reading data.

Figure 21.10 Serial monitor display of the pulse oximeter heart rate sensor.

Figure 21.11 Hall effect sensor on DC fan.

Figure 21.12 Steps involved in getting the exact location.

Figure 21.13 Received low pulse alert message.

Figure 21.14 Received accident alert message with the location.

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Different amplifiers – evaluation.

Table 2.2 Comparison between the optical amplifiers.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Difference between laser and LED optical sources.

Table 5.2 LED material and its characteristic.

Table 5.3 Core cladding combinations in glass fiber.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Modulation parameters for PLCP header and PSDU [14].

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Performance analysis of different antenna.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Photonic crystal based routers and their comparison of performance metrics.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 SDM optical fibers within the survey.

Table 11.2 Switching techniques within the survey.

Table 11.3 Super-channel techniques within the survey.

Table 11.4 SDM-EON scenario within the survey.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Simulation parameters.

Table 13.2 Result comparison.

Table 13.3 Simulation parameters.

Table 13.4 Transmitted power for each structure.

Table 13.5 Performance parameters.

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Papers published in optical communication network.

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Comparison of NPCR and UACI values between plaintext and cipher of RSA and RSA-ζ.

Table 18.2 Time complexity involved in each steps in RSA-ζ.

Table 18.3 Comparison of information entropy of images.

Table 18.4 Mean and standard deviations of RSA and RSA-ζ.

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 Simulation parameters.

Guide

Cover Page

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright Page

Preface

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

Index

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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Modeling and Optimization of Optical Communication Networks

Edited by

Chandra SinghRathishchandra R. GattiK.V.S.S.S.S. Sairam

and

Ashish Singh

This edition first published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2023 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-119-83920-0

Cover image: Circuit Board, Kiosk88 | Dreamstime.comCover design by Kris Hackerott

Preface

About the BookThe focus of this book is on the key technologies associated with modelling and optimization of optical communication networks. This book provides a basis for discussing open principles, methods and research problems in the modelling of optical communication networks. It also provides a systematic overview of the state-of-the-art research efforts and potential research directions to deal with optical communication networks. It also simultaneously focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains and explores novel research on wireless and optical techniques and systems, describing practical implementation activities, results and issues.

Key Features of BookThis Book serves like a handbook on applications for both academia and industry. It includes the detailed discussions on real world case studies on Trends & Technologies associated with Modelling of Optical Communication Networks. This Book also describes several numerical models and algorithms for simulation and optimization of optical communication networks. Modelling & Optimization presents several opportunities for automating operations and introducing intelligent decision making in network planning and in dynamic control and management of network resources, including issues like connection establishment, self-configuration and self-optimization, through prediction and estimation by utilizing present network state and historical data.

This book provides a basis for discussing open principles, methods and research problems in Modelling of Optical Communication Networks - It focuses on extending the limits of currently used systems encompassing optical and wireless domains, and explores the latest developments in applications like photonics, high speed communication systems and networks, visible light communication, nano-photonics, wireless, and MIMO systems.

Organization of the BookChapters are organized as Concept of Optical communication & Networking.

Chapter 1 Investigation on Optical Sensors for Heart Rate MonitoringThis chapter focuses on how the Optical Heart Rate Monitoring device operates, the components involved, and issues and challenges faced while monitoring the heart rate. Most wearable optical heart rate monitoring devices use photoplethysmography (PPG) to compute the heartbeat.

Chapter 2 Adopting a Fusion Approach for Optical AmplificationThe chapter focuses on the current state-of-the-art hybrid optical amplifier design, theoretical background, and various inline configurations. In HOAs, main concerns, including other achieved channel capacity, crosstalk, gain uniformity, and transitory consequences, have been discussed.

Chapter 3 Optical SensorsThis chapter presents an extensive review of various optical fiber sensors, their principles, and an up-to-date overview of their applications.

Chapter 4 Defective and Failure Sensors Detection and Removal in Wireless Sensor NetworkThe Scanning Algorithm for Cut Tracking (SCT) and the Elimination of Faulty Sensor (EFS) algorithms are used in this proposed chapter. The SCT Algorithm will be used to track the state of all sensors in this chapter. This approach is very scalable because the workload does not rise as the number of sensors grows.

Chapter 5 Optical Fiber and Prime Optical Devices for Optical CommunicationThis chapter focuses on the Usage of fiber optic cable for optical communication has paved way in establishing links over long distances with higher data rates, light weight, higher security and with low transmission loss.

Chapter 6 Evaluation of Lower Layer Parameters in Body Area NetworksThis chapter includes various interference parameters for throughput and the reasons for loss of packets. Also comparison of different radio models in terms of power is analysed. While in hardware section, using Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) device the sensor data is received in android application (app). Also demonstration of various protocols in the field of Internet of Things (IoT) is presented and finally, Messsage Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) protocol are implemented to read sensor data in the cloud. To make the utilization more reliable, an app is designed for this specific application of WBAN.

Chapter 7 Analysing a Microstrip Antenna Sensor Design for Achieving BiocompatibilityThis chapter discusses about the different design structure like Split Ring Resonator (SRR), Circular Ring Resonator (CRR) and Triangular Ring Resonator. The designed antenna perform accurately without harming any any muscle tissue.

Chapter 8 Photonic Crystal Based Routers for all Optical Communication NetworksIn this chapter, we focus our topic exploring the optical network component - router using photonic crystals, which will be a perfect candidate to be integrated in Photonic integrated circuits (PIC) for optical communication and networking systems. Different configurations of photonic crystal based routers have been detailed and reviewed based on the performance.

Chapter 9 Fiber Optic Communication: Evolution, Technology, Recent Developments, and Future TrendsThis chapter discusses fiber-optic communication systems and their fundamental technologies. It also discusses current developments as well as technological trends for the foreseeable future.

Chapter 10 Difficulties of Fiber Optic Setup and Maintenance in a Developing NationThis chapter focuses on the difficulties associated with fibre cable deployment in India, with a particular emphasis on the economic, regulatory, and managerial difficulties. It is possible that external causes, such as dig-ups during road building, are a result of the problems associated with frequent fibre cutting. A lack of fibre deployment and management regulatory guidelines and policies poses a significant challenge to fiber management in the region.

Chapter 11 Machine Learning-Enabled Flexible Optical Transport NetworksThis chapter overviews the various existing solutions for optimizing the Space Division Multiplexed-Elastic Optical Networks (SDM-EONs). Firstly, in view of enabling the realization of SDM-EONs enabled by the development of appropriate fiber solution to ensure long haul signal transmission.

Chapter 12 Role of Wavelength Division Multiplexing in Optical CommunicationThis chapter focuses on Normal WDM, Coarse WDM, and Dense WDM are the three wavelength patterns used in WDM systems. The data transmission speed increases as a result of the WDM concept.

Chapter 13 Optical Ultra-Sensitive Nanoscale Biosensor Design for Water AnalysisThe present research is on the variation of material index of refraction between the normal water and water infected with B. cereus spores. This technique relies on the unique index of refraction as a spectral signature for the B. cereus spores detection. The designed biosensor is Circular and Triangular resonator structures using Photonic Crystal.

Chapter 14 A Study on Connected Cars-V2V CommunicationThis chapter focuses on the uses a VANET (Vehicular ad hoc networks) for communication purpose. It works 360 degrees at any direction. Exchange of information takes place by adapting a suitable protocol is explained in this chapter.

Chapter 15 Broadband Wireless Network Era in Wireless Communication – Routing Theory and PracticesThis chapter aims to provide BWNs with a straight forward roadmap of theoretical context so that they can manage various efficient routing mechanisms.

Chapter 16 Recent Trends in Optical Communication, Challenges and OpportunitiesThe goal of this chapter is to look at the nonlinearities that arise in optical fibers and the possible solution offered by machine learning techniques for increasing optical fibre communication capacity.

Chapter 17 Photonic Communication Systems and NetworksThis chapter focused on Photon is the particle of light, which is extensively used in modern digital communication systems as a signal carrier. In the previous era, electromagnetic waves were used for communication systems development.

Chapter 18 RSA-Based Encryption Approach for Preserving Confidentiality Against Factorization AttacksThis chapter analyses different attacks possible on the proposed system and reports the efficiency of the proposed system.

Chapter 19 Sailfish Optimizer Algorithm (SFO) for Optimized Clustering in Internet of Things (IoT) Related to Healthcare IndustryThe proposed chapter focuses on SFO based energy efficient algorithm is utilized for discovering the CHs ideal situation. The simulations under energy consumed, network lifetime and throughput are carried out.

Chapter 20 Li-Fi Technology and Its ApplicationsIn this era of communication technology, This chapter focuses on LiFi is another and proficient method of remote communication. LiFi utilizes LED to communicate information. The data transmission of information is done remotely.

Chapter 21 Smart Emergency Assistance Using OpticsAs the number of accidents are increasing, there has to be some device that can help in providing medical assistance immediately. This gives rise to the need for a system which can assist people in such unprecedented emergencies. We therefore intend to provide a solution by building an emergency assistance system that assists people in getting ambulance services in need.

Editing this book was an incredible chance for which parcel of help was expected from many individuals. We had fine support from our family, friends and fellow members especially we thank the Chairman, Principal, faculty, and fraternity of Sahyadri College of Engineering & Management, Mangaluru & NMAM Institute of Technology, Nitte.

Chandra Singh

Rathishchandra R Gatti

K.V.S.S.S.S. Sairam

Ashish Singh

1Investigation on Optical Sensors for Heart Rate Monitoring

V. Vijeya Kaveri1*, V. Meenakshi2, N. Kousika1 and A. Pushpalatha1

1 CSE, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India

2 EEE, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India

Abstract

This chapter focuses on how the optical heart rate monitoring (OHRM) device operates, the components involved, and issues and challenges faced while monitoring the heart rate. Most wearable optical heart rate monitoring devices use photoplethysmography (PPG) to compute the heartbeat. PPG is shorthand for reflecting out onto the surface and trying to measure the quantity of sunlight scattered by blood circulation. PPG sensors emphasize that the beam joining the body disperses in a familiar sequence when blood circulation patterns change. The PPG sensor’s core elements, such as the optoelectronic transmitter, computerized pulse controller, magnetometer, and machine learning, are critical in estimating the heartbeat. PPG assessment in a state of rest (falling asleep, seated, and standing always) is incredibly easy, but measuring PPG throughout the exercise program (workouts, jumping, riding bikes) is challenging. In reality, you will face five significant challenges when using OHRM to create wearable devices such as optical noise, skin tone, cross-over the problem, location of the sensor, and low perfusion. These challenges can be overcome by choosing good opt mechanics and signal extraction algorithms. PPG sensor is used to measure breathing rate, heart rate variability, blood pressure, and cardiac efficiency [3]. OHRM may be used for lifestyle, in-session, and personal health metrics in a real-time scenario. We have also focused on parameters like wearability, accuracy, battery life, and time usage of the device.

Keywords: OHMR, PPG, optical sensor, pulse wave analysis, heart rate, vascular disease, Raynaud’s phenomenon, vein

1.1 Introduction

Photoplethysmography (PPG) is an optoelectronic method for detecting pressure changes in the vasculature of cells [8]. Pulse oximeters, vasculature diagnostic testing, and electronic beat-to-beat cardiac monitoring gadgets are a few commonly produced healthcare devices that use it. The most common element of PPG technology makes only illumination for enlightening the cells and a light detector to evaluate pretty slight seasonal variations in illuminance connected with transformations in blood circulation in the catchment flow rate. PPG is a quasi tissue process that utilizes a red or relatively close beam. Even though its ease of use, the origins of the specific parts of the PPG signal are undisclosed.

1.2 Overview of PPG

1.2.1 PPG Waveform

The ‘AC’ component of the PPG amplitude is commonly referred to as the peristaltic aspect, and intensity repetition of approximately 1 Hz depends entirely on the heartbeat (Figure 1.1). This AC portion is imposed on top of substantial quasi-DC terms of distribution to cells and the traditional blood volume. This DC element constantly changes in response to breath, vascular behavior, and vasoconstrictive vibrations. As per Allen and Murray, body posture impacts these properties [1]. Both AC and DC can be recovered for forthcoming pulsatile analysis using appropriate electrical filtration and update.

1.2.2 Photoplethysmography Waveforms Based on the Origin of Optical Concern

Reflection, propagation, multiple scattering, absorption, and viewable radioactivity are all operations associated with the communication of sunlight with living tissues (Anderson and others). There have been several studies in electro-optic methods regarding PPG dimensions between 1948 and 1993 by Hertzman and Randall [15].

Figure 1.1 PPG signal and corresponding electrocardiogram (ECG).

Researchers identified three significant elements that influence the sensor’s illumination: blood density, microvascular movement, and red blood cell alignment (RBC). The orientation implications were validated by recording the respiratory muscle’s output voltage waveform from dentine and in a discharge tube. Flow rate adjustments should no longer be an option, and more recent times through using Naslund et al. [25], who discovered peristaltic wave patterns in joints. Perfusion is proportional to captured pulses, and the more blood is there, the minimum amount of the emission is ameliorated. The authors in their article [7, 8, 15, 20] has discussed as that attempts to evaluate heartbeats amplitude have often been failure.

The frequency band of the emitted energy is crucial within communication for three reasons [9, 21]: (1) the electro-optic liquid door: cells, mostly water, that also refract sunlight very powerfully in the ultra-violet and more extended electromagnetic frequencies. Melanin consumes a significant amount of light with specific wavelengths. (2) Isobestic wave functions: There are significantly different in absorption among hemoglobin in the blood (HbO2) and reduction in hematocrit levels (Hb) other than at isosbestic light waves, which have been popularly used for PPG mild power source Gordy et al. [14] used measurements made at an isosbestic frequency range. The pulse should be relatively untouched by levels of blood oxygen substance. (3) Vascular surface depth: the density with which a given significance of optical radiation reaches the organisms is determined by the range of frequency. For transmission mode systems, PPG’s catchment (study) volume can be 1 cm3 depending on the probe type. Through arterio-venous anastomosis shunt channels, PPG would offer data on tube nutritive and thermoregulatory blood flow.

1.2.3 Photoplethysmography’s Early on and Modern Records

This section offers a quick outline of the untimely records of PPG and has been in use since the top-notch analysis piece of writing. In 1936, two research organizations, namely Molitor, Kniazuk under Merck Healing Organization, and Hanzlik et al. [22] from Stanford College of medication, defined comparable devices used to screen the blood quantity variations inside the ear of the rabbit subsequent venous occlusion along with the management of vasoactive capsules. Molitor and Kniazuk also disclosed capturing produced from human fingertips using a reflection mode PPG instrument. Hertzman, in the subdivision of body structure at St. Louis University faculty from medication, was an initiator of the PPG system launching.

Hertzman validated the PPG procedure in 1938 by visualizing the density of blood variations evaluated simultaneously with the help of automatic plethysmography with those detected simultaneously by PPG. Hertzman and Dillon [16] used separate electronic amplifiers to divide the AC and DC components and measured vasomotor activity. Hertzman [15] recognized several sources of error with the procedure, emphasizing the importance of good skin contact without applying excessive pressure that might cause blanching. He suggested that the measurement probe should not be moved against the skin. As a result of these observations, complex positioning devices were created. Another critical design consideration was identified as illumination. Hertzman mentioned a battery-operated torch bulb, which turned into much lesser than the excellent value due to its broad area, specifically within the infrared, which brought onto the typical warm-up cells, miscalculation of breathing dispersion outcomes and remarkable elucidation that blended pores and microvascular tissue flow of blood with more prominent vessel alerts. Additionally, maintaining a steady light power was not possible.

1.2.4 Building Blocks of Photoplethysmography

Modern photoplethysmography sensors use the technology of low-fee semiconductors, along with LEDs and matching photodetector models that work in the infrared wavelengths [2, 11, 23, 29] has produced an evaluation of visual sensor methodology for PPG and beats oximetry systems. Burke and Whelan [5], Naschitz et al. [24], and Ugnell and Oberg [28] emphasized the significant need for light source selection. LEDs are light-emitting diodes with a narrow single-bandwidth conversion, typically 50nm. The photodetector of optimal is also crucial [12, 30]. Its essential properties are as follows: they are selected from the matching light source color. The photodetector converts luminosity power into electro power. Those are extremely small, cheaper, sympathetic, and have high throughput.

Daytime filters can be used to protect near-infrared electronics. The photodetector is connected to electronic equipment with a slight noise, such as a trans-impedance amplifier and filtering circuits. The main DC component is reduced in size by a high pass filter, enabling the higher to the lower alternating current element to be brought up to a maximal marginal level of 1 V. To reduce undesirable noise in high bandwidth, electricity can take 50 Hz of electric power source, and filtering circuitry must be carefully chosen. Figure 1.2(a) depicts a design of an operational amplifier. In contrast, Figure 1.2(b) depicts different steps surrounding it, such as short surpass straining, elevated surpass straining, supplementary intensification, indicator inversion, and indicator boundary. This Model System Determines the PPG probe LED by a constant current driver stage.

Figure 1.2 (a) Amplifier design; (b) Signal stages.

Transmission mode operation, where the tissue model is located among the starting place, detecting node, and indication form operating. The LED and detector are put side-by-side and are the two basic PPG operational setups. Transmission mode PPG has more constraints on the body areas that can be studied than reflection mode PPG. The PPG exploration can be made position safe to reduce probe-tissue movement artifact. Other causes of an artifact must be considered while using measurement technology. For example, ambient light interference can cause artifacts, which can be reduced in several ways, including combining valuable query addition to the cells using a dim Velcro twist hit, supplemental shadows in the research region and testing in low-light conditions, as well as digital filtration such as luminous attenuation filtration.

Other new technologies include PPG imaging expertise, digital consulting, and remote monitoring. Schultz et al. [17] and Huelsbusch et al. [27] used an exploratory liquid that evaporates close to the infrared PPG exploring device to study cutaneous blood circulation and associated syncopated anomalies. The goal of the technology was to learn more about maintaining vascular homeostasis permeability and diagnose complications associated with inflammatory processes and curative. Wieringa et al. [31] illustrated a contact-free several spectrum PPG measurement device for remote monitoring imaging primary breathing normalization (SpO2) dissemination. The arrangement will record films of matrices as two-dimensional topographically determined PPG sensory information at a few electromagnetic spectrums during differences in respiration values. An arterial oxygen picture may be helpful in a variety of diagnosing circumstances [10], including determining tissue viability.

PPG has much potential in telemedicine, including patient monitoring from afar or home. Miniaturization, usability, and robustness are essential to design considerations for such systems. This is demonstrated by the use of ring based finger system that uses PPG sensors to monitor heartbeat pulsations Rhee et al. [26]; Zheng et al. [34] and the necessary movement artifact drop, proper sensing location, and sensor calibration [26, 35]. The pulse, oxygen saturation, and respiration may all be detected, as well as hematocrit, which is obtained from optical properties at five variant bandwidths (569, 660, 805, 904, and 975 nm) in a PPG skin display and remote device monitoring entire house. In preliminary clinical testing, the hematocrit was within 10% of the standard gold value. Digital filtering techniques were used to retrieve respiratory data, and the standard ratio for red and near-infrared wavelengths was used to predict blood oxygen saturation (SpO2).

1.2.5 Protocol Measurement and Reproducibility

For example, in clinical physiological measurement, reproducibility is crucial to ensure the precision of detecting significant therapeutic effects. Elements that influence reproducibility include probe–tissue integration pressure, pulse oscillator throughput, motion artifact removal, relating body position, leisure, inhaling, consciousness, and weather conditions.

However, no internationally acknowledged standards for clinical PPG measurement exist. Published research is often based on studies that used widely disparate measurement technologies and methodologies, making it challenging to replicate PPG physiological results across research centers. Only a few studies have attempted to assess the continuity and reproduction of PPG capacity. Jago and Murray [18] conducted a significant investigation on the uncertainty in PPG measurements in a group of healthy adult participants. They looked at the consistency of PPG pulse transit time (PTT) measures taken from the ear, thumb, and toe locations during and between sessions. Both individual site measurements and both right-left side values were evaluated. The findings demonstrated the relevance of factoring in posture, ambient temperature, relaxation, and acclimatization. Bilateral assessments were more repeatable than individual site data because heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure parameters are likely to influence both sides.

Many studies have also enumerated the complicated physical unpredictability of PPG waveforms collected at various body regions. The assessment of autonomic dysfunction and cardiovascular aging are two appliances that use the beat rate fluctuation in PPG parameters. However, obtaining an averaged heartbeat measurement to reflect an entity site can be valuable. To boost assurance in a particular period, amplitude, or form data retrieved using the beat rate from PPG, an averaging duration of at least 60 heartbeats has been advised [1].

1.3 Clinical Application – Heart Rate Monitoring

Heart rate is an essential physical metric to observe in various medical situations, medical centers, and the monitoring of patients. The AC aspect of the PPG heartbeats can calculate heart rate because it is correctly aligned with the chest. The data is commonly displayed next to the SpO2 level in oxygen therapy schemes. The core problem is that too much motion artifact or cardiovascular dysrhythmias can reduce the sense of trust in the rate factor. Machine tools were introduced that improve the effectiveness of beat rate diagnosis. Undemanding electronic filtration and zero-crossing diagnosis is used to fetch heartbeats and inhalation elements since the PPG in-ear communication [23]. The idea of PPG for heartbeat monitoring in emergency obstetric divisions was evaluated utilizing PPG, and Echocardiogram heart rate data was collected constantly and consistently over eight hours [19].

For 77% of the metrics, high-quality ECG transcripts were acquired. The PPG pulse rate was adequately documented, excluding those distorted by offset alteration of the signals (6%). There have been roughly 1% false negatives and 1% false positives in the PPG heartbeat. Quite enhanced methodologies, such as time-frequency methods based on the smoothed Wigner Ville dispersion, were used to derive pulse rate data from PPG sound waves [6, 32].

Necessary associations pulse from the study hand at rest and during limited gesture with indicators approximated from the posterolateral and office supplies source hands were used to estimate the validity of forecasting pulse rate. The moment methodology significantly outperforms two known algorithms for measuring object’s weighted moving average (WMA) and fast Fourier transform (FFT). The mean and standard heart - rate irregularity was limited to 6bpm from 16bpm in WMA, and it was 11bpm in FFT. In correlation to different pulse pace data acquisition systems, Bland and Altman’s assessment [4] discovered that pulse oximeter and radial piezoelectric pulses at the radial nerve have a high degree of similarity [13].

Yu et al. [33] presented a self-activating assessment of the trustworthiness of indication of heartbeat rates obtained since the patient’s symptoms were monitored using ECG and PPG. They used a quality index for each reference heart rate to convey reliability. The support vector machine classifier (SVM) assessed the physiological waveforms. An adaptive peak identification technique was utilized to compute the heartbeat rate independently, filtering out movement caused noise. The method examined the usage of 158 randomly decided samples on 7-second facts examples from trauma patients accumulated throughout the helicopter transport. At least 92% of cases could be matched when the algorithm’s results were compared to manual analysis performed by human professionals. The rules inferred a much less conservative sign of high quality in the remaining 8% of cases, primarily due to ambiguously labeled waveform samples. Sleep research has also benefited from automatic heart rate detection technologies. Foo and Wilson used a double measuring technique to improve PPG signals in poor perfusion circumstances, including an accelerator association detection and a filter with zero phases. A risk assessment matrix has been used to formulate a plan for instantaneously strengthening the PPG signal-to-noise ratio. A risk assessment matrix was used to determine the best approach for dynamically improving the PPG signal-to-noise proportion. While comparing to ECG pulse rate monitoring, the most significant error rate was less than 8%.

1.4 Summary

The generation of photoplethysmography has been brought on this evaluation, and its large capacity for usage in a wide variety of scientific checks has been hooked up. The assessment of the cardiovascular machine has been a first-rate awareness. The call for low-price, effortless, and handy tools is the number one concern, and the network primarily depends upon methodical surroundings. The condition of low-price and tiny semiconductor add-ons with the growth of computer-based beat wave evaluation strategies has contributed to a resurgence of hobby in the approach in current years. PPG-based era is utilized in a selection of commercially available clinical gadgets for figuring out oxygen dissemination, the level of blood pressure, and heartbeat rate, in addition to tracking autonomic features and figuring out the ailment of peripheral vascular. Although the features of the PPG waveform are not fully known, this success has been achieved. Equivalence of dimensions, enhancing ability to repeat, and presenting complete normal statistics levels for evaluation with sufferers and reading healing responses are demanding situations that the generation receives. Imaging using PPG, trouble-free endothelial tests to identify the dysfunction, and other measurement and analysis technologies are likely to advance in future studies.

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Note

*

Corresponding author

:

[email protected]

2Adopting a Fusion Approach for Optical Amplification

E. Francy Irudaya Rani1, T. Lurthu Pushparaj2 and E. Fantin Irudaya Raj3*

1 Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Francis Xavier Engineering College, Tamil Nadu, India

2 MRI Research Lab, TDMNS College, Tamil Nadu, India 3Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dr. Sivanthi Aditanar College of Engineering, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract

Transition and inner-transition metal-based semiconductors with ‘d’ and ‘f’ electron density demonstrate outstanding signal transmission with minimal signal attenuation throughout optical communication system interaction. These competencies are widely used in fiber-optic detection, health - care as well as industrial imaging, telecommunications equipment, Fiber-to-the-Premises (FTTP), communication infrastructure, defense systems, and High Definition (HD) and Conventional Scope (SD) Community Information Broadcast TV (CATV). However, the currently offered optical connection speed is limited in this scenario. Even the incidence of powerful reflective surfaces could be deleterious to the scheme in which such a platform is being used. To tackle the concerns of down signaling, transmission boosting or amplifier configurations that provide damned near polarization-independent characteristics, which are sometimes preferable, were established. The hybridization or mixing of far more productive semiconducting ‘d’ and ‘f’ block metals results in a much more compact arrangement with improved optical transmission transport. SOAs boozed with ‘d’ and ‘f’ electrons might be used in telecom systems as fiber-pigtailed constituents with narrow augmented stimulated emission (ASE). The high gain saturation in SOAs can also be used for nonlinear pattern recognition in telecommunications systems. Its configuration was far more versatile, with a small semiconductor chip containing electronics and fiber interconnection. A convenient housing will now provide great polarization-insensitive Faraday breakers at the input, output, or both ports. Hybrid optical amplifiers (HOAs) play a critical role through wideband concert modulation and therefore are ubiquitously used in increased dense wavelength division multiplexed systems. The chapter summarizes the current state-of-the-art hybrid optical amplifier design, theoretical background, and various inline configurations. In HOAs, main concerns, including other achieved channel capacity, cross-talk, gain uniformity, and transitory consequences, have been discussed. Upon careful consideration, it has been determined that HOAs provide effectively gain flatness without the need for overpriced boost hollowing methodologies, but also a high precision of gain, signal to noise ratio, packet loss ratio, but instead vicissitudes.

Keywords: Optical communication system, Semiconductor optical amplifier, Erbium-doped fiber amplifier, hybrid optical amplifiers, amplified spontaneous emission

2.1 Introduction

The present information era can be defined as high-bandwidth communication enabled by fiber communication systems. Signal deterioration occurs when signals are transmitted across thousands of kilometers long distances. Due to numerous passive components in the medium, the broadcast signals’ strength gradually decreases as they travel along a communications platform. Indeed, the medium’s attenuation continues to be a severe issue that influences light propagation over highly long distances via fiber optic cable. Signal deterioration must be avoided, which necessitates using the amplification procedure.

Additionally, a signal must have a minimum amount of baseline power for the information it transmits to be seen at the receiving end. Due to the limits imposed by transmission channels/systems, optical amplifiers with fiber optic and waveguides remain crucial in fiber transceivers. These limitations would result in fiber loss and dispersion, commonly handled by various amplifiers. Loss and dispersion are connected in nature [1], as seen by a pulse form that creates scattering or loss and vice versa.

Professor E. Snitzer built the first optical amplifiers in 1964, using neodymium and operating in a 1060nanometers spectral window, using the initial optical amplifier ideas established in the early 1960s. Researcher Snitzer also had the first erbium glassy laser on display. In 1970, more experiments at neodymium were done, and it was too early for broad application. Bell Labs developed the first mono fibers using these methods in late 1980. In 1985, erbium was utilized for magnification only at the University of Southampton and AT&T Bell Labs. Erbium’s functioning at 1551 nm, the most critical wavelength in silica fibers, was a considerable gain. When contrasted to OEO regenerators, optical amplifiers are alluded to as all-optical. Optical amplification in the underwater sector is called “regenerators,” which may be confounding to users from the conventional telecom sector.

Electro-optic signal boosters were used for amplifying in the past, in which the optical signal was transformed into a flow of electrons and afterward repeated using a receiver [2]. Nevertheless, resurfacing used to be a time-consuming and expensive procedure, mainly when multi optical systems were employed. As a result, an amplifier circuit has emerged as a viable approach for boosting transmitted signals throughout transmission. It is a mechanism that magnifies an optical power without converting it to an electrical signal, which is a property required in so-called repeaters.

2.2 The Mechanism Involved

Optical amplifiers magnify light beams via a procedure termed stimulated emission, which is analogous to the technique used in the functioning of lasers. Fiber optics are lasers without a feedback loop that gains an optic boost anytime the amplifier is pushed to induce population inversion [3