Modern Electroplating E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Electrochemical Society Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 2297

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

The definitive resource for electroplating, now completely up to date

With advances in information-age technologies, the field of electroplating has seen dramatic growth in the decade since the previous edition of Modern Electroplating was published. This expanded new edition addresses these developments, providing a comprehensive, one-stop reference to the latest methods and applications of electroplating of metals, alloys, semiconductors, and conductive polymers.

With special emphasis on electroplating and electrochemical plating in nanotechnologies, data storage, and medical applications, the Fifth Edition boasts vast amounts of new and revised material, unmatched in breadth and depth by any other book on the subject. It includes:

• Easily accessible, self-contained contributions by over thirty experts
• Five completely new chapters and hundreds of additional pages
• A cutting-edge look at applications in nanoelectronics
• Coverage of the formation of nanoclusters and quantum dots using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
• An important discussion of the physical properties of metal thin films
• Chapters devoted to methods, tools, control, and environmental issues
• And much more

A must-have for anyone in electroplating, including technicians, platers, plating researchers, and metal finishers, Modern Electroplating, Fifth Edition is also an excellent reference for electrical engineers and researchers in the automotive, data storage, and medical industries.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Preface

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Acknowledgements

Conversion Factors

Graphical Conversions

The Electrochemical Society Series

Chapter 1: Fundamental Considerations

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Electrode Potential

1.3 Kinetics and Mechanism of Electrodepositton

1.4 Growth Mechanism

1.5 Electroless and Displacement Deposition

1.6 Electroless Diffusion Barrier

1.7 PEG and PPG as Suppressors in Copper Electrodeposition

1.8 Influence of Additives and the Effect of Aging in Electrodeposited Copper

1.9 Electrodeposition Of Alloys

1.10 Structure and Properties of Deposits

1.11 Multilayered and Composite Films

1.12 Interdiffusion in Thin Films

1.13 Structure And Composition

1.14 Properties

1.15 Applications

References

Chapter 2: Electrodeposition of Copper

2.1 History and Development

2.2 Applications

2.3 Principles

2.4 Functions of Solution Constituents

2.5 Addition Agents

2.6 Operating Conditions

2.7 Effects of Impurities in Plating Solutions

2.8 Analytical Methods

2.9 Properties and Structure

2.10 Current Modulation Techniques

2.11 Plating on Steel, Zinc, Plastics, and Aluminum

2.12 Plating of Printed Wiring Boards

2.13 Patterned Electrodepqsition for Microelectronics

2.14 Electroforming

2.15 High-Speed Electroplating

2.16 Diamond Turning

2.17 Miscellaneous

2.18 History and Development

2.19 Applications

2.20 Functions of Major Solution Constituents

2.21 Comparison of Sodium and Potassium Formulations

2.22 Addition Agents

2.23 Solution Types: Strike and Rochelle Solutions

2.24 Operating Conditions and Solution Characteristics

2.25 Maintenance and Control

2.26 High-Efficiency Cyanide Copper Solutions

2.27 Operating Conditions and Solution Characteristics

2.28 Maintenance and Control

2.29 Anodes

2.30 Materials of Construction

2.31 Environmental

2.32 Structure and Properties

2.33 History and Development

2.34 Applications

2.35 Basic Chemistry

2.36 Constituents

2.37 Maintenance and Control

2.38 Structure and Properties

2.39 Plating of Printed Wiring Boards

2.40 Alumina

2.41 Properties

2.42 Mechanism

2.43 Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Composites

References

Chapter 3: Electrodeposition of Nickel

3.1 Retrospective on Nickel Electroplating Solutions

3.2 Basics

3.3 Decorative Electroplating

3.4 Functional Electroplating and Deposit Properties

3.5 Nickel Electroforming

3.6 Nickel Anode Materials

3.7 Quality Control

3.8 Pollution Prevention

References

Chapter 4: Electrodeposition of Gold

4.1 Typical Direct Current (DC) Plating Baths

4.2 Mechanism of Deposition

4.3 Pulse Plating

4.4 Substrate Preparation

4.5 Stains

4.6 Test Methods

References

Chapter 5: Electroless and Electrodeposition of Silver

5.1 Electroless Deposition

5.2 Electrodeposition

References

Chapter 6: Tin and Tin Alloys for Lead-Free Solder

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Electrodeposition of Tin

6.3 Electrodeposition of Tin Alloys

6.4 Material Properties and Applications of Electroplated Tin and Tin Alloys

6.5 Tin Whiskers

6.6 Applications of Electroplated Tin and Tin Alloys in Electronics

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 7: Electrodeposition of Chromium

7.1 Principles

7.2 Theory of Chromium Electrodeposition

7.3 Hexavalent Chromium

7.4 Methods of Operations of Chromium Plating Solutions

7.5 Mixed Catalysts and Self-Regulating Baths

7.6 Chromic Acid Baths: Operating Conditions

7.7 Throwing Power

7.8 Metallic Impurities

7.9 Maintenance and Control

7.10 Tests of Deposits

7.11 Physical Properties of Chromium Plate

7.12 Chemical Properties

7.13 Trivalent Chromium Baths

7.14 Other Special Types of Chromium Plate

7.15 Regulations

References

Chapter 8: Electrodeposition of Lead and Lead Alloys

8.1 Electrolyte Types

8.2 General Information on the Electrodeposition of Lead

8.3 Properties of Electrodeposited Lead Coatings

8.4 Dispersion Plating

8.5 Lead Alloys

8.6 Electrodeposition of Lead Dioxide

8.7 Deposition from Nonaqueous Solutions

8.8 Underpotential Deposition

8.9 Applications of Electrodeposited Lead

References

Chapter 9: Electrodeposition of Tin–Lead Alloys

9.1 Electrolyte Systems

9.2 Alloy Compositions

9.3 Bath Compositions

9.4 Additives

9.5 Anodes

9.6 Maintenance and Control

9.7 Electrochemical Deposition Equivalent for Tin–Lead Alloys

9.8 Density of Tin–Lead Alloys

9.9 Deposition Rate

9.10 Properties of Electroplated Tin–Lead Films

9.11 Solderability

9.12 Electrical Contact Resistance

9.13 Hardness

9.14 Applications of Tin–Lead Coatings

References

Chapter 10: Electrodeposition of Zinc and Zinc Alloys

10.1 Barrel-and-Rack Plating [7, 10–13]

10.2 Continuous Plating

10.3 Recent research advances

References

Chapter 11: Electrodeposition of Iron and Iron Alloys

11.1 Principles

11.2 Ferrous Sulfate Bath

11.3 Ferrous Chloride Bath

11.4 Iron Oxides

11.5 Preparation, Maintenance, and Control

11.6 Equipment

11.7 Anodes

11.8 Characteristics of Deposits

References

Chapter 12: Palladium Electroplating

12.1 Geological Occurrence [4–6]

12.2 Supply, Demand, and Uses of Palladium

12.3 Brief History of Electroplated Palladium

12.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Palladium

12.5 Electrochemistry of Palladium

12.6 Electrodeposition of Palladium

12.7 Palladium Alloys

12.8 Recent Technical Advances and Emerging Applications

12.9 Current Economic Concerns

12.10 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 13: Electrochemical Deposition Process for ULSI Interconnection Devices

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Copper Deposition for Interconnection by Electrochemical Techniques

13.3 Electroless Process for ULSI Interconnect Fabrication Process

13.4 Summary

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 14: Electrodeposition of Semiconductors

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Silicon (Si)

14.3 Groups III–V (13–15) Compounds

14.4 Chalcogenide Semiconductors

14.5 Electrodeposition of Oxide Semiconductors

14.6 Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 15: Deposition on Nonconductors

15.1 Recent Developments

15.2 Metalization

15.3 Deposit Characterization—Adhesion

15.4 Sensitizat1on—Catalysis (Prior to Electroless Deposition)

15.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 16: Conductive Polymers: Electroplating of Organic Films

16.1 Electropolymerization: Electrochemical Synthesis of Conducting Polymers

16.2 Polymer Batteries

16.3 Electronic Devices

16.4 Chemical Sensors

16.5 Further Research and Development of Electropolymerized Coatings

References

Chapter 17: Electroless Deposition of Copper

17.1 Electrochemical Model

17.2 Anodic Partial Reaction

17.3 Cathodic Partial Reaction

17.4 Kinetics of Electroless Cu Deposition

17.5 Growth Mechanism

17.6 Structure

17.7 Properties

17.8 Deposition of Electroless Copper for IC Abrication

17.9 Formation of Cu Nanoparticles by Electroless Deposition of Cu

17.10 Electrochemical Control System for Electroless Copper Deposition

Appendix

References

Chapter 18: Electroless Deposition of Nickel

18.1 Nucleation

18.2 Metallizing Principles

18.3 Electroless Nickel Plating Baths

18.4 Film Properties

18.5 Composites

References

Chapter 19: Electrochemical Synthesis of Metal Alloys for Magnetic Recording Systems

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Preparation of High-Bs Soft Magnetic Film Using Electrodeposition Techniques

19.3 Preparation of High-Magnetic-Flux-Density CoNiFeB Film by Electroless Deposition

19.4 Preparation of Magnetic Seed Layer of Pd Nanocluster by Displacement Plating

19.5 Chemical Synthesis of FePt Nanoparticles for High-Density Magnetic Recording Media

19.6 Summary

References

Chapter 20: Electroless Deposition of Palladium and Platinum

20.1 Electroless Plating of Palladium

20.2 Electroless Plating of Platinum

20.3 Summary

References

Chapter 21: Electroless Deposition of Gold

21.1 Characteristics of Borohydride and DMAB Baths

21.2 Practical Problems Associated with Original Borohydride and DMAB Baths

21.3 Improved Borohydride and DMAB Baths

21.4 Cyanide Baths with Other Reducing Agents

21.5 Noncyanide Baths

21.6 Recent Applications

21.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 22: Electroless Deposition of Alloys

22.1 Electroless Alloy Plating Baths

22.2 Physical Properties of Electroless Alloy Deposits

22.3 Summary

References

Chapter 23: Preparation for Deposition

23.1 Principles

23.2 Conventional Processes

23.3 Emerging Technology

23.4 Measuring Degree of Cleanliness

23.5 Strategies for Cleaning

References

Chapter 24: Manufacturing Tools

24.1 Electroplating Equipment

24.2 Barrel Platers

24.3 Vibratory Platers

24.4 Rack Platers

24.5 Strip Platers

24.6 Decorative and Engineering Plating

24.7 Wafer Plating Equipment

24.8 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 25: Monitoring and Control

25.1 Process Monitoring

25.2 Bath Constituent Concentration Monitoring and Replenishment

25.3 Monitoring and Control of Finished Product

25.4 Summary

References

Chapter 26: Environmental Aspects of Electrodeposition

26.1 Background

26.2 Green Chemistry

26.3 Environmental Management Systems

26.4 Electroplating Industry and Regulatory Environment

26.5 Environmental Impact of Electroplating Technologies

26.6 Impact Minimization and Zero Discharge

26.7 Applications of Electrodeposition in Metal Recovey

26.8 Light-Induced Processes

26.9 Economic Considerations

References

Chapter 27: Applications to Magnetic Recording and Microelectronic Technologies

27.1 Magnetic Recording

27.2 Copper Electrodeposition for Microelectronics Applications

27.3 Electrodeposition of Copper on Seedless Barrier Layers

27.4 Development of Deposition Techniques for Epitaxial, Smooth, and Continuous Ultrathin Cu Films

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 28: Microelectromechanical Systems

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Microfabrication Techniques

28.3 Characteristic Features of Electrodeposition Through High-AR Patterns

28.4 Electrodeposition of Metals and Alloys for MEMS

28.5 Magnetic MEMS and Electrodeposition of Magnetic Materials

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 29: Analysis of Electroplated Films Using Dual-Beam FIB/SEM and TEM Techniques

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Introduction to Electroplating of Copper on Silicon Wafers

29.3 Principles of Dual-Beam FIB/SEM Technology

29.4 Analysis of Electroplated Copper Using FIB/SEM Techniques

29.5 TEM Sample Preparation Techniques

29.6 Analysis of Electroplated Films Using TEM Technique

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 30: Ionic Liquid Treatments for Enhanced Corrosion Resistance of Magnesium-Based Substrates

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Current Coating Technologies

30.3 Ionic Liquids

30.4 Ionic Liquids and Surface Treatments

30.5 Surface Conversion Treatments

30.6 Metallic Film Deposition

30.7 Conclusion

References

Appendix 30A: Chemical Conversion, Electro- and Electroless Deposition Bath Formulae

Appendix

Index

Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on theweb at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer ofWarranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.Nowarranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation.You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Modern eletroplating / edited by Mordechay Schlesinger, Milan Paunovic. – 5th ed.

p. cm. – (The ECS series of texts and monographs; 52)

Includes index.

Summary: “Electroplating is the coating of an electrically conductive object with a layer of metal using electrical current resulting in a thin, smooth, even coat of metal on the object. This text covers the methods and applications of electrochemical deposition of metals, alloys, semiconductors, and conductive polymers. It provides practical advice and some theortical background to those entering the field of electrodeposition. Like previous editions, the fifth edition will be the first stop referece for the electroplating conmmunity. This fully updated edition includes significant advances in the field, from emerging electrodepostion techniques to electroplating in medical and data storage industries” – Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-0-470-16778-6 (hardback)

1. Electroplating. I. Schlesinger, Mordechay. II. Paunovic, Millan.

TS670.M554 2010

671.7′32– dc22

Preface

Ours is the information age. Consequently, the demand for high-performance, low-cost, and nonvolatile information storage systems is on a constant rise. There are a great variety of information storage systems, with varying degrees of development and commercialization. Those include, but are not limited to, magnetic tape drives, hard disc drives, magnetic floppy disc drives, magneto-optic (MO) disc drives, phase change optic disc drives, semiconductor flush memory, magnetic random-access memory (RAM), and holographic optical storage. Electrochemical deposition techniques are essential in the production of most of the above. This, among many others, is the raison d'être for the present (fifth) and the earlier (fourth) editions.

The fourth edition of Modern Electroplating appeared some 10 years ago. A great deal of progress has taken place in those years in the area of electrochemical plating and related fields. It is these developments that make this new edition both desirable and necessary. Those profound changes are reflected in the present edition in a number of different ways. Essentially, all chapters were rewritten, some by different authors, and/or updated. Unfortunately, two authors who contributed to the fourth edition (Drs. Rolf Wyle and Ned Mandich) have since passed on. Two chapters have been removed altogether and new ones are replacing them. The two new chapters are titled “Electrochemical Deposition Process for ULSI Interconnection Devices” by Osaka and Yoshino and “Electrochemical Synthesis of Metal Alloys for Magnetic Recording Systems” by Sugiyama, Yoshino, Hachisu, and Osaka. Four new chapters have been added: “Applications to Magnetic Recording and Microelectronic Technologies” by Brankovic, Vasiljevic, and Dimitrov; “Microelectromechanical Systems” by Zangari; “Analysis of Electroplated Films Using Dual-Beam FIB/SEM and TEM Techniques” by Meng-Burany; and “Ionic Liquid Treatments for Enhanced Corrosion Resistance of Magnesium- Based Substrates” by Petro, Schlesinger, and Song. These and most other changes, including the publication of the new second edition in 2006 of Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition, reflect the present tendency of the applications of electroplating more and more in the arena of nanoelectronics in particular and nanotechnology in general as alluded to above. Typically, it may be observed that whereas the fourth edition is comprised of 26 chapters on about 800 pages, the present edition contains 30 chapters and is about the same number of substantially enlarged pages. In this edition as in the previous the chapters are self-contained in that those may be read in any order that the reader finds useful. Thanks are due to the over 30 contributors/authors who made this edition possible.

MORDECHAY SCHLESINGER

Windsor Ontario, Canada

MILAN PAUNOVIC

Port Washington, New York

Preface to the Fourth Edition

In planning this new edition of Modern Electroplating, we have realized from the start that it would be impossible to include in one volume both the fundamental aspects and the technology itself. For this reason we have decided to publish the recent developments in the science of deposition in a separate volume titled Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition. That volume was published in November 1998. Therefore, the present volume includes only a brief summary of fundamental technological advancements, and this is presented in the first, introductory chapter.

Since the last edition of Modern Electroplating in 1975, electrochemical deposition has evolved from an ill-defined area, as the Preface to the previous edition calls it, into an exact science. This development is, in the first place, seen as responsible for the ever-increasing number and widening types of applications of this branch of practical science and engineering.

The most significant developments in any field of science or technology in general, and in electrochemistry in particular, are made by those who possess a good understanding of the fundamental aspects of the discipline, which in this case is electrochemical deposition. We, the editors, found it necessary and highly desirable to seek and present to the reader a companion volume that, for all intents and purposes, makes essentially a completely new contribution and not just a revised version of the earlier editions. Thus, for the sake of illustration, the present edition includes a chapter devoted to the electrodeposition of semiconductors. Another deals with environmental issues. Last, but not least, in this connection, neither of the editors nor the vast majority of the contributors were associated with any of the earlier editions.

Technological areas in which the possession of technical knowledge of electroplating is found to be essential include all aspects of electronics; macro-, micro-, and nano-optics; opto-etectronics; and sensors of most types. In addition, a number of key industries, such as the automotive industry, employ methods of electroplating. This is so even when other methods such as evaporation and sputtering CVD (chemical vapor deposition) are an option. Electroplating is therefore often used for reasons of economy and/or convenience.

This volume is divided into 26 chapters. After a three-part introductory chapter by Paunovic, Schlesinger, and Weil come 13 chapters dealing with the electrodeposition of copper (Dini), nickel (DiBari), gold (Kohl), silver (Schlesinger), tin (Abys et al.). chromium (Snyder et al.), lead and alloys (Jordan), tin-lead alloys (Jordan), zinc and alloys (Winand), iron and alloys (Izaki), palladium and alloys (Abys et al.), nickel and cobalt alloys (DiBari), and semiconductors (T. E. Schlesinger). Closing this series of chapters is one on deposition on nonconductors (Schlesinger), and conductive polymers (Osaka et al.). Next come 6 chapters dealing with electroless deposition of copper (Paunovic), nickel (Schlesinger), cobalt (Osaka), palladium and platinum (Ohno), gold (Okinaka), and electroless alloys (Ohno). Finally, 4 chapters close the book, and these are on preparation for deposition (Dexter Snyder), manufacturing technologies (Turner), manufacturing control (Turner), and environmental considerations (Tomkiewicz).

In the preface to Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition we stated that it may be considered a lucky coincidence that this volume is published close to the time that copper interconnection technology is introduced in the microelectronic industry. This is still the case. There has been a truly revolutionary change from physical to electrochemical techniques in the production of microconductors on silicon, and developments in electrochemical deposition are bound to generate and maintain in the twenty-first century an increased interest and urgent need for up-to-date information regarding the technology. The present volume together with the Fundamentals volume should be of great help in understanding these advancements.

The chapters were written by different authors and so differences in style and approach will be evident. We the editors have tried to smooth those differences without changing the basic message present in each chapter. We also intend this volume to be a useful reference for practitioners of deposition as well as for individuals who are about to enter this modern ever-evolving field of practical knowledge. For this reason each chapter is complete and may be read and consulted separately, and certainly the book can be read in any order.

Our thanks and heartfelt gratitude go to many members of the Electrochemical Society and in particular to those of the Electrodeposition Division. Our thanks also go to our respective families for their patience and understanding during the hectic long hours we spent in preparing this volume.

MOROECHAY SCHLESINOER

Windsor Ontario. Canada

MILAN PAUNOVIC

Yorktown Heights. New York

Graphical Conversions

The Electrochemical Society Series

Corrosion Handbook

Edited by Herbert H. Uhlig

Modern Electroplating, Third Edition

Edited by Frederick A. Lowenheim

Modem Electroplating, Fourth Edition

Edited by Mordechay Schlesinger and Milan Paunovic

The Electron Microprobe

Edited by T. D. McKinley, K. F. J. Heinrich, and D. B. Wittry

Chemical Physics of Ionic Solutions

Edited by B. E. Conway and R. G. Barradas

High-Temperature Materials and Technology

Edited by Ivor E. Campbell and Edwin M. Sherwood

Alkaline Storage Batteries

S. Uno Falk and Alvin J. Salkind

The Primary Battery (in Two Volumes)

Volume I Edited by George W. Heise and N. Corey Cahoon

Volume II Edited by N. Corey Cahoon and George W. Heise

Zinc-Silver Oxide Batteries

Edited by Arthur Fleischer and J. J. Lander

Lead-Acid Batteries

Hans Bode

Translated by R. J. Brodd and Karl V. Kordesch

Thin Films-Interdiffusion and Reactions

Edited by J. M. Poate, M. N. Tu, and J. W. Mayer

Lithium Battery Technology

Edited by H. V. Venkatasetty

Quality and Reliability Methods for Primary Batteries

P. Bro and S. C. Levy

Techniques for Characterization of Electrodes and Electrochemical Processes

Edited by Ravi Varma and J. R. Selman

Electrochemical Oxygen Technology

Kim Kinoshita

Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and Technology

Edited by Kari E. Spear and John P. Dismukes

Corrosion of Stainless Steels

A. John Sedriks

Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition

Milan Paunovic and Mordechay Schlesinger

Semiconductor Wafer Bonding: Science and Technology

Q.-Y. Tong and U. Göscle

Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook, Second Edition

Edited by R. Winston Revie

Contributors

Joseph A. Abys Cookson Electronics–Enthone Inc., Orange, CT

Stanko R. Brankovic Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX

Jack W. Dini Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA (Retired)

George A. Di Bari INCO, Saddle Brook, NJ (Retired)

Norma R. de Tacconi University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX

Nikolay Dimitrov Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University–SUNY, Binghamton, NY

Takuma Hachisu Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Masanobu Izaki Toyohashi University of Technology, Toyohashi, Japan

Manfred Jordan Dr. Ing. Max Schlotter, Geislingen/Steige, Germany

Paul A. Kohl School of Chemical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA

Sinichi Komaba Department of Applied Chemistry, Tokyo University of Science, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, Japan

Masaru Kato Kanto Chemical Co., Soka Saitama-ken, Japan

Nenend V. Mandich (Deceased)

Toshiyuki Momma Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Xianying Meng-Burany University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

Tetsuya Osaka Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Izumi Ohno Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan (Retired)

Yutaka Okinaka Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Milan Paunovic IBM T J Watson Research Center, York town Heights, NY

Robert Petro University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

Krishnan Rajeshwar University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX

Tom Ritzdorf Semitool, Inc., Kalispell, MT

Mordechay Schlesinger University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

Dexter D. Snyder GM Research and Development Center, Warren, MI (Retired)

Donald L. Snyder ATO Tech, Cleveland, OH

T. E. Schlesinger Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA

Atsushi Sugiyama Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Guang-Ling Song GM Research and Development Center, Warren, MI

Micha Tomkiewicz Department of Physics, Brooklyn College–CUNY, Brooklyn, NY

Natasa Vasiljevic Physics Department, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

René Winand University of Bruxelles, Bruxelle, Belgium (Retired)

Masahiro Yoshino Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Yun Zhang Cookson Electronics–Enthone Inc., Orange, CT

Giovanni Zangari University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA