Table of Contents
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FOREWORD
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Chemical Modifications Influence Genetic Information: The Role of Cytosine (De)Methylation in Plant Stress Responses
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Epigenetics: Definition, Main Impacts, and Effects
2. THE CYTOSINE METHYLATION MECHANISM
2.1. How Does This Mechanism Occur?
2.2. Understanding the De Novo Methylation Mechanism
2.3. Maintenance (Or Inheritance) of Cytosine Methylation in Plant Genomes: Enzymes and Mechanisms
3. THE CYTOSINE DEMETHYLATION MECHANISM
4. CYTOSINE (DE)METHYLATION IN PLANT STRESS RESPONSES
4.1. Cytosine (De)methylation in Plant Response to Abiotic Stresses
4.2. Cytosine (De)Methylation in Plant Response to Biotic Stresses
5. CYTOSINE METHYLATION INHERITANCE IN PLANTS: THE SCIENTIFIC LANDSCAPE
6. FIRST STEPS FOR CYTOSINE (DE)METHYLATION USE IN CROP BREEDING: AN INTRODUCTION TO ‘EPIBREEDING’
6.1. Knowing the Genome-Wide Scale Epigenome (De)Methylation Tools
6.2. Artificial Site-Specific (De)Methylation Editing Tools
6.2.1. Zinc Finger Proteins
6.2.2. Transcription Activator-like Effector (TALEs)
6.2.3. CRISPR/Dcas9-Methyltransferase System
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
REFERENCES
Microbial Dynamics within Rhizosphere: An Aspect to Agricultural Sustainability
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Rhizosphere: A Complex Zone Of Inter-Communications
3. Microbiome Activity During Stresses
3.1. Role of the Microbiome in Ameliorating Abiotic Stress Conditions
3.2. Role of the Microbiome in Ameliorating Biotic Stress Conditions
3.3. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria and Stresses
3.3.1. PGPRs and Drought Stress
3.3.2. PGPRs and Salinity Stress
3.3.3. Role of PGPRs Under Heavy Metal Stress
3.3.4. Role of PGPRs Under Biotic Stress
3.4. Mycorrhizae and Stresses
3.4.1. AM Fungi and Salinity Stress
3.4.2. AM Fungi and Drought
3.4.3. AM Fungi And Heavy Metal Stress
4. Microbes as Biofertilizers
4.1. Nitrogen Fixers
4.2. Phosphate Solubilizers And Mobilizes
4.3. Potassium Solubilizers
4.4. Sulphur Oxidizers
4.5. Zinc Solubilizers
5. Biofertilizer Efficacy for Agriculture
6. Biofertilizer Formulations For Regulating Rhizosphere
6.1. Forms/Applications
6.1.1. Liquid Formulations
6.1.2. Solid Formulations
6.2. Biofertilizers and Metabolite Synthesis
6.3. Biofertilizers against Pathogens
6.4. Constraints of Biofertilizers
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
REFERENCES
The Role of Terpenoids in Plant Development and Stress Tolerance
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF TERPENOIDS AND THEIR BIOSYNTHESIS PATHWAYS
2.1. Isoprene
2.2. Monoterpenoids
2.3. Sesquiterpenoids
2.4. Diterpenoids
2.5. Sesterterpenoids
2.6. Triterpenoids
2.7. Tetraterpenoids
2.8. Polyterpenoids
3. EFFECTS OF TERPENOIDS ON PLANT DEVELOPMENT AND STRESS TOLERANCE
3.1. Photosynthesis and Gas Exchange
3.2. Root System Development and Symbiosis
3.3. Flowering
3.4. Fruit Development
4. METABOLIC ENGINEERING OF TERPENOIDS TO INCREASE STRESS TOLERANCE
5. EFFECTS OF BIOFERTILIZERS ON TERPENOIDS
CONCLUSION & FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
REFERENCES
Phytoremediation Potential of Medicinal Plants to Relieve Pollutant Stress
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Properties of Plants Capable of Phytoremediation
1.2. Role of Medicinal Plants in Mediating Phytoremediation Process
1.3. Challenges Associated with the Use of Medicinal Plants in Phytoremediation
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
LEA Proteins in Plant Cellular Stress Tolerance: Insights and Implications
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Proteins
1.2. Distribution of LEA Proteins In Various Organisms
1.3. Classification of LEA Proteins
1.4. Group 1 LEA Proteins
1.5. Group 2 LEA Proteins
1.6. Group 3 LEA Proteins
1.7. Group 4 LEA Proteins
1.8. Group 5 LEA Protein
1.9. Group 6 LEA Proteins
1.10. Dehydrins
1.11. Seed Maturation Protein (SMP)
1.12. Functions of LEA Proteins
1.13 In vitro Characterization of LEA Proteins
1.14. Physio-biochemical Implications of LEA Proteins in Stress Tolerance
1.15. Genome-wide Identification of LEA Proteins
1.16. LEA Protein Database (LEAPdb)
CONCLUDING REMARKS
References
Insights into Physiological and Molecular Responses of Plants under Metal-Nanoparticle Stresses
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Metal Nanoparticles' Physicochemical Properties, Sources And Production
3. MNPs Uptake, Translocation And Accumulation In Plants
3.1. Effects of MNPs on Plant Morphology
3.2. Effects of MNPs on Plant Physiology
3.3. Effects of MNPs on Biochemical Parameters
4. OMICS Approach To Elucidate The Mechanism Of Mnps-Plant Interactions
5. Tolerance Mechanisms Of Plants Under Mnps Stress
6. Strategies to mitigate MNPs stress in plants
Concluding Remarks And Future Perspectives
References
Inoculation of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria Aiming to Improve Rice Tolerance to Abiotic Stressful Conditions
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
2. RICE TOLERANCE TO SALINITY
3. RICE TOLERANCE TO DROUGHT
4. RICE TOLERANCE TO HEAVY METALS
5. RICE TOLERANCE TO EXTREME TEMPERATURES
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): A Credible Tool for Sustainable Agriculture
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. The PGPR Diversity In The Rhizosphere
3. PGPR: as Soil Health Boosters
3.1. Mineral Solubilization and Fixation
3.1.1. Phosphate Solubilization
3.1.2. Potassium Solubilization
3.1.3. Zinc Solubilization
3.1.4. Nitrogen Fixation
3.2. Phytohormone Production
3.3. Siderophore Production
3.4. Exopolysaccharide Production
3.5. Contaminants Remediation
4. Role of PGPR in Stress Amelioration In Plants
4.1. Disease Resistance Antibiosis
4.2. Production of Lytic Enzymes
4.3. Production of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
4.4. Induced Systemic Resistance
5. New insights for the use of PGPR in agriculture
5.1. Nanotechnology for Agricultural Sustainability
5.2. Biochar to Foster PGPR Survival and Growth in Soil
5.3. Use of Bio Primed Seeds
5.4. Phyto-Microbiome Engineering for Sustainable Agriculture
5.4.1. Genome-wide Functional Genomics
5.4.2. Biocontrol, Biofertilization and Biostimulation
6. Future Prospective In Pgpr
Conclusion
REFERENCES
ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) Transporters in Plant Development and Defense
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. ABC Family
1.2. Structure
1.3. Transport Mechanism
1.4. Functions
2. ROLE OF ABC TRANSPORTERS IN PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
2.1. Involvement in Hormone Transport
2.2. Involvement in Cutin Formation
2.3. Involvement in Fatty Acids Synthesis
2.4. Role in Primary Compounds Transport
2.5. ABC Transporters Involved In Phytate Transport
2.6. ABCs as Secondary Metabolites Transporters
2.7. Involvement in Pollen Wall Formation
3. Role of ABC transporters in plant defense
3.1. Involvement in Cellular Detoxification
3.2. Involvement in Heavy Metal Tolerance
3.3. Involvement of ABC Transporters in Pathogen Defense
Conclusion
References
How can Endophytic Bacteria Benefit Agronomically Important Plants by Protecting Against Pathogens?
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
2. GENERAL MECHANISMS OF PLANT GROWTH PROMOTION BY ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA
2.1. Phytohormone Modulation
2.2. Nutrient Bio-Solubilization
2.3. Phosphate Solubilization
2.4. Nitrogen Biological Fixation
2.5. Siderophore Production
3. ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA IN BIOTIC STRESS ALLEVIATION
3.1. Antibiotic and Enzymatic Biocontrol of Disease and Pest
4. VIRAL DISEASES
5. BACTERIAL DISEASES
6. FUNGAL AND OOMYCETE DISEASES
7. ANIMAL PESTS
8. ENDOPHYTIC BACTERIA INDUCE SYSTEMIC RESISTANCE IN PLANTS
CONCLUDING REMARKS
REFERENCES
Sustainability of Agriculture and Global Food Supply Using Advanced Molecular Tools and Integrated Multi-omics and Gene Functions
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Multiomics Technologies For Sustainable Agriculture
2.1. Genomics
2.1.1. Structural Genomics
2.1.2. Functional Genomics
2.1.3. Epigenomics
2.2. Transcriptomics
2.3. Proteomics and Metabolomics
2.4. Ionomics
2.5. Phenomics
3. Gene Editing Technologies For Crop Improvement
3.1. Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFN)
3.2. TALENs and CRISPER/Cas 9
3.3. Improvement of Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) by the Integration of Two Genes in Green Revolution Varieties
4. Breeding Strategies for Improving Disease Resistance in Crops
4.1. Evolving Disease-Resistant Germplasm To Enhance Crop Resistance
4.2. Implementation of Plant Immunity Through Transgenesis
4.3. Marker-assisted Breeding
4.4. RNA Silencing
CONCLUSION
References
Molecular and Physiological
Insights into Plant Stress
Tolerance and Applications
in Agriculture
(Part 2)
Edited by
Jen-Tsung Chen
Department of Life Sciences
National University of Kaohsiung
Taiwan
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FOREWORD
Stress tolerance is a continuing issue for researchers and professionals seeking to increase crop productivity. In the research field of plant science, stress physiology is an intensive topic for researchers, and tons of publications are reported per year to get increasing knowledge about stress tolerance when facing global climate change. In the meantime, the emerging knowledge of plant stress physiology should be applied to the practice of agriculture for sustainable agriculture as well as food security globally. Importantly, there is a high demand for the integration of current knowledge of plant stress physiology. Moreover, a systematic summary of methods in plant stress management also needs to be refined.
This book, “Molecular and Physiological Insights into Plant Stress Tolerance and Applications in Agriculture,” collects the most recent original research and literature reviews for unraveling the physiology of plant stress tolerance. Divided into 21 chapters, it provides in-depth coverage of the recent advances by exploring the unique features of stress tolerance mechanisms, which are essential for better understanding and improving plant response, growth, and development under stress conditions, in particular by exploring knowledge that focuses on the application of plant growth regulators, advanced biotechnologies, high-throughput technologies, multi-omics, bioinformatics, systems biology, and artificial intelligence as well as beneficial microorganisms on the alleviation of plant stress.
The mechanisms covered in this book include the perception of stress, signal transduction, and the production of chemicals and proteins associated with the stress response. The book also offers critical knowledge of the gene networks involved in stress tolerance and how they are used in plant stress tolerance development. Modern genetic studies and useful breeding methods are also covered. It also presents the current challenges and further perspectives. Therefore, this book might largely benefit breeding programs as well as sustainable agricultural production in the future.
The editor, Pr. Jen-Tsung Chen has done an excellent job of bringing together specialists from diverse fields to present the most comprehensive view of current research findings and their implications for plant stress tolerance physiology. Therefore, this book, "Molecular and Physiological Insights into Plant Stress Tolerance and Applications in Agriculture," is an essential resource for academics and professionals working in agronomy, plant science, and horticulture. It is an essential resource for both novices and specialists. It can also be utilized as a resource for courses at the university level for students and Ph.D. students interested in the physiology of plant stress tolerance. I recommend it without reservation!
Christophe Hano
University of Orleans
France
PREFACE
Part II of this book entitled "Plant Stress Physiology and Agricultural Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture" continues to summarize current findings, emerging technologies, and integrated strategies to mitigate stress responses and achieve sustainable agriculture through the understanding and application of integrated omics and molecular tools and the use of agricultural biotechnology and plant growth-promoting microorganisms and agents.
It first provides molecular aspects on the role of cytosine methylation and demethylation in plant stress responses and the importance of epigenetic genetics in regulating plant stress responses and the role of late embryogenesis abundant proteins in plant cellular stress tolerance with an emphasis on their molecular mechanisms and potential implications.
Several chapters focus on discussing the subtopics of beneficial microorganisms including rhizobacteria, endophytes, and mycorrhizal fungi, which are expected to be alternative fertilizers with the advantages of being cost-effective, toxin-free, and eco-friendly.
In the scenario of a rising world human population and consequently, increasing industrial activities, environmental pollutants continue to threaten human life globally. Fortunately, a range of plants have the ability to remediate such kind of environmental stress, and in part II of this book, several comprehensive reviews were provided to explore the role of medicinal plants in reducing the toxic and negative impacts of pollutants, and additionally, the stress responses induced by metal-nanoparticle were presented and discussed.
Pathogenic/biotic stresses are critical issues in agricultural production due to the resulting huge losses each year globally and certainly damage the goal of zero hunger in SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals). Part II of this book presents the potential use of endophytic bacteria for protecting crops against pathogens and an in-depth analysis of the molecular level to understand the impact of ATP-binding cassette transporters on plant defense mechanisms. Besides, a chapter discusses an interesting class of plant secondary metabolites, namely terpenoids and their precursors, terpenes, on their role in diverse growth and development, particularly with an emphasis on their effects on plant-microbial interaction and defense mechanisms and this knowledge can advance future utilization of these compounds through metabolic engineering or exogenous application as anti-pathogenic agents.
The content of Part II is an ideal reference for students and teachers in the research field of plant science, particularly the topics of plant stress physiology and plant-microbial interaction. It also provides advanced knowledge and valuable insights for experts in agricultural institutions and the R&D departments of agricultural corporations.
In the end, the editor is very grateful to the staff of the publisher for their guidance and assistance, and to all the chapter contributors for their efforts. Without their valuable works, this book will not be successfully organized.
Jen-Tsung Chen
Department of Life Sciences
National University of Kaohsiung
Taiwan
List of Contributors
Artemisa Nazaré Costa BorgesInstituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Maranhão, Campus Buriticupu, BrazilAna Maria Benko-IsepponLaboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, BrazilArun Dev SinghDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaAryadeep RoychoudhuryDiscipline of Life Sciences, School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110068, IndiaAshutosh SharmaFaculty of Agricultural Sciences, DAV University, Jalandhar, Punjab, IndiaAmrit Pal SinghDepartment of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, IndiaBilal Ahmad MirDepartment of Botany, School of Life Sciences, Satellite Campus, Kargil, Ladakh, University of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, IndiaCamille Eichelberger GranadaGraduate Program in Biotechnology, Applied Human and Social Sciences Area, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, BrazilCleyson P. SerrãoUniversidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA, Brazil
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA, BrazilCláudia R.B. de SouzaUniversidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA, BrazilDhivya KarunamurthyCentre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, IndiaDurgesh Kumar TripathiDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaDhriti KapoorSchool of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, IndiaEderson Akio KidoLaboratório de Genética Molecular, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, BrazilEmílio BerghahnGraduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, BrazilFatima El AmeranyDepartment of Biology, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, 40000, Morocco
Department of Chemistry, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, 40000, MoroccoGeetika SirhindiDepartment of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, IndiaIndu SharmaDepartment of Botany, Sant Baba Bhag Singh University, Jalandhar, IndiaIsha MadaanGovernment College of Education, Jalandhar, Punjab, IndiaJosé Ribamar Costa Ferreira NetoLaboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, BrazilJéssica Vieira VianaLaboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, BrazilJaspreet KourDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaKanika KhannaDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, IndiaKamini DeviDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaKavita TiwariDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaLikhith Rampura Kumar SwamyCentre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641003, IndiaLeonardo de Oliveira NevesLife Sciences Area, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, BrazilLorene B.A. TadaieskyUniversidade Federal do Pará, Belém-PA, Brazil
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agronomia, Universidade Federal Rural da Amazônia, Belém-PA, BrazilManassés Daniel da SilvaLaboratório de Genética Molecular, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, BrazilMohd IbrahimDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143001, IndiaM. Irfan QureshiDepartment of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi – 110025, IndiaNandni SharmaDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, IndiaNandhini Umaiya PandiCentre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, IndiaNadeem AhmadDepartment of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi – 110025, IndiaNeerja SharmaDepartment of Botanical & Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, IndiaNehaDepartment of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, IndiaPuja OhriDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaPriyanka SharmaDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, MIT school of Bioengineering Science and Research, MIT-ADT Loni Kalbhor Pune 412201, Maharashtra, IndiaPriya AroraDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143001, IndiaPardeep KumarDepartment of Botanical & Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar Punjab, IndiaRenu BhardwajDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaRajesh SubramanianCentre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, IndiaRamesh Shunmugiah VeluchamyDivision of Physiology, Biochemistry and Post-harvest Technology, ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kudlu, Kasaragod-671124, Kerala, IndiaRosana KeilLife Sciences Area, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, BrazilRaul Antonio SperottoGraduate Program in Biotechnology, Life Sciences Area, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, Brazil
Graduate Program in Plant Physiology, Federal University of Pelotas, Pelotas, BrazilRupinder KaurDepartment of Biotechnology, DAV College, Amritsar, IndiaShalini DhimanDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaSandeep KourDepartment of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaSwarnavo ChakrabortyDepartment of Biotechnology, St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous), 30, Mother Teresa Sarani, Kolkata – 700016, West Bengal, IndiaSubashree SambandhamCentre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, IndiaSneha TripathiDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaSamarth SharmaDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaShubhangi SuriDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaShivesh SharmaDepartment of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, IndiaSheeba NaazDepartment of Biosciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi – 110025, IndiaShruti KaushikDepartment of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, IndiaSavita BhardwajSchool of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, IndiaTamanna BhardwajDepartment of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar- 143005, Punjab, IndiaThainá Inês LambGraduate Program in Biotechnology, University of Taquari Valley - Univates, Lajeado, BrazilUpma AroraDepartment of Botany, Lyallpur Khalsa College, Jalandhar, IndiaValesca PandolfiLaboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil
Chemical Modifications Influence Genetic Information: The Role of Cytosine (De)Methylation in Plant Stress Responses
José Ribamar Costa Ferreira Neto1,Jéssica Vieira Viana1,Artemisa Nazaré Costa Borges2,Manassés Daniel da Silva3,Ederson Akio Kido3,Valesca Pandolfi1,Ana Maria Benko-Iseppon1,*
1 Laboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - Cidade Universitária, 50670-901, Recife-PE, Brazil
2 Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Maranhão, Campus Buriticupu, Rua Dep. Gastão Vieira, 1000 - Vila Mansueto, 65393-000, Buriticupu-MA, Brazil
3 Laboratório de Genética Molecular, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - Cidade Universitária, 50670-901, Recife-PE, Brazil
Abstract
Genetic information is fundamental in biology. It is stored in all genomes, crucial to generating and maintaining a new organism. The biological importance of DNA lies in its role as a carrier of genetic information and how it is expressed under specific conditions. Among the different ways of controlling the manifestation of genomic information (or gene expression), epigenetic mechanisms have been highlighted. These mechanisms are diverse, multifunctional, and profoundly affect the plant's molecular physiology. Cytosine methylation and demethylation - one of the best-studied epigenetic mechanisms - is a dynamic process that influences, respectively, the down- and up-regulation of target genes. The referred chemical modifications occur in response to developmental processes and environmental variations, and have their biological value accentuated as they can be passed on to subsequent generations. This inheritance mechanism conducts ‘states of gene expression’ to new cells and even to the offspring, allowing them to be ‘more adequate’ to the changing environment. The possibility of inheriting such chemical modifications defies our understanding of the hereditary process, opening new perceptions and practical implications. This chapter aims to address the cytosine methylation and demethylation effects in plants. In the present review, we deal with how cytosine (de)methylation occurs in plant genomes, their participation in the biotic and abiotic stress responses, the recent studies for its use in crop breeding, and the epigenetic inheritance issue, which is a matter of intense debate.
Keywords: Abiotic stress, Biotic stress, De novo methylation, DNA methyltransferase, DNA demethylase, Epigenetic inheritance, Gene expression, Methylation maintenance, Non-coding RNA, Plant epigenetics, Plant breeding, RdDM pathway, RISC complex.
*Corresponding author Ana Maria Benko-Iseppon: Laboratório de Genética e Biotecnologia Vegetal, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, 1235 - Cidade Universitária, 50670-901, Recife-PE, Brazil; E-mail:
[email protected]
