Nanocarrier Vaccines E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
NANOCARRIER VACCINES This book details the benefits, restrictions, and types of nanoparticles used in the creation of vaccines for the treatment and prevention of illnesses. In nanomedicine and nano-delivery systems, materials in the nanoscale range are used as diagnostic instruments or to administer therapeutic compounds to particular targeted regions in a controlled manner. By delivering precise medications to specified locations and targets, nanotechnology provides several advantages in treating chronic human illnesses. The use of nanomedicine (including chemotherapeutic medicines, biological agents, immunotherapeutic agents, etc.) in the treatment of various diseases has recently seen many notable applications. This book aims to be a single source material for understanding all the current and novel advancements in the field of nanotechnology. In this groundbreaking book the reader will find: * biodegradable and non-biodegradable formulations and properties such as size, shape, charge, inertness, efficacy, morphology, and more; * show how different nanoparticles, such as lipid-based, viral vector-based, and metal, uphold very significant properties individually, suggesting applicability in various management tactics; * examines how genetic information-carrying entities are becoming the norm for eradicating some diseases; * gathers an exhaustive amount of information on routes of administration such as the oral route, mucosal immunity, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and intradermal; * explores the legal regulations for nanotechnology-based approaches. Audience Researchers and pharmacy students in biomedical engineering and chemical engineering, biotechnology, as well as pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical industry engineers working in drug discovery, chemical biology, computational chemistry, medicinal chemistry, and bioinformatics.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Preface
Part 1: GENERAL
1 History of Nanoparticles
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Nanoparticles
1.3 Modern Development of Nanoparticles
1.4 Type of Nanoparticles
1.5 Properties of Nanoparticles
1.6 Importance of Nanoparticles
1.7 Conclusion and Future Prospect
References
2 Composition of Nanoparticles
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Nanoparticles
2.3 Composition of Nanoparticles
2.4 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
2.5 Nanoparticle Characterization by Various Instrumental Techniques
2.6 Understanding Nanotoxicity: Potential Risks and Implications
2.7 Conclusion
References
3 Nanotechnology and Vaccine Development
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Overview of Vaccine Development
3.3 Advantages of Nanoparticles in Vaccine Delivery
3.4 Types of Nanoparticles as Vaccine Carriers
3.5 Development of Nanoparticle-Based Vaccine
3.6 Adjuvants and their Role in Vaccine Development
3.7 Nanoscale Adjuvants
3.8 Advantages
3.9 Techniques for Nanoscale Adjuvants
3.10 Route of Administration for Vaccines
3.11 Recent Advances in Nanotechnology-Based Vaccines
3.12 The Regulatory Perspective of Nanoparticle-Based Vaccine Development
3.13 Future Prospects
3.14 Conclusion
References
4 Nanoparticle Formulations: A Sustainable Approach to Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Types of Nanoparticles
4.3 Preparation of Nanoparticles
4.4 Factors Affecting Selection of Method
4.5 Polymers Used in NP Formulation
4.6 Nanoparticle Formulations Based on Biodegradable Polymers
4.7 Nanoparticle Formulations Based on Non-Biodegradable Polymers
4.8 Nanoparticle Formulations Based on Natural Polymers
4.9 Challenges in NPs from Laboratory to Industrial Scale-Up
4.10 Nanoparticle-Based Approved & Marketed Formulations
4.11 Future Aspects & Conclusion
References
5 Nanoparticle Properties: Size, Shape, Charge, Inertness, Efficacy, Morphology
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Applications of Nanoparticle Formulations
5.3 Interaction with Cells
5.4 Properties of Nanoparticles
5.5 Role of Physicochemical Properties in Nanoparticle Toxicity
5.6 Conclusion
References
Part 2: NANOPARTICLES TO DELIVER ANTIGEN
6 Viral Vector–Based Nanoparticles
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics of Viral Vector–Based Nanoparticles
6.3 Applications
6.4 Novel Advancements in Applications of Viral Nanoparticles
6.5 Limitations and Prospects of Viral Vector–Based Nanoparticle Approach
6.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
7 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
7.3 Synthesis of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles
7.4 Characterization of Lipid Nanoparticles
7.5 Applications of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles in Vaccines
7.6 Challenges and Future Directions
7.7 Conclusion
References
8 Nanoparticle-Based mRNA Vaccines: Are We One Step Closer to Targeted Cancer Therapy?
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Use of mRNA in Vaccines: Advantages and Challenges
8.3 How Do mRNA Vaccines Work?
8.4 Nanocarriers for mRNA Delivery
8.5 Nanoparticle-Based mRNA Vaccines in Cancer Therapy
8.6 Clinical Trials
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Protein Delivery by Nanoparticles
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Major Challenges in Protein Delivery
9.3 Nanotechnology
9.4 Nanoparticles
9.5 Methods of Preparation
9.6 Nanoformulations Available for Protein and Peptide Delivery
9.7 Clinical Trials and Market-Approved Nanoparticles
9.8 Characterization of Protein Nanoparticles
9.9 Applications of Protein Nanoparticles
9.10 Conclusion
9.11 Future Developments
References
Part 3: ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
10 Oral Vaccine Delivery: Current Status
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Need for Oral Vaccines
10.3 Nanoparticles as an Oral Vaccine Delivery System
10.4 Advantages of Oral Nanovaccines
10.5 Drawbacks and Disadvantages of Oral Nanovaccines
10.6 Barriers in Oral Vaccines Delivery
10.7 Currently Licensed Oral Vaccines
10.8 Descriptions of Licensed Oral Vaccines
10.9 Conclusion and Future Prospect
References
11 Nanovaccines for Mucosal Immunity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mucosal Immunity
11.3 Nanovaccine Formulations
11.4 Future Perspectives
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Nanovaccine via Intramuscular, Subcutaneous, and Intradermal Routes
12.1 Introduction
12.2 History of Nanovaccination
12.3 Introduction to the Route of Administration
12.4 Comparable Adaptive Immune Response After IM, SC, and ID Routes
12.5 Marketed Formulation
12.6 Challenges of Vaccine Delivery
12.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Part 4: APPLICATION AND ADVANCES
13 Nanovaccines for Veterinary Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nanovaccines and Immune Response
13.3 Vaccine Production
13.4 Veterinary Applications of Nanovaccines
13.5 Comparative Analysis of Animal Vaccines, Nanovaccines, and Edible Vaccines
13.6 Regulation of Vaccine Production Process
13.7 New Approaches
13.8 Applications of Different Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
13.9 Future Prospects
13.10 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
14 Regulatory Pathways for Nanocarrier Vaccine
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Need for a Regulatory Framework
14.3 Regulatory Requirements for the Manufacturing of NVs
14.4 Clinically Approved Nanocarrier Vaccines
14.5 Regulatory Challenges
14.6 Global Strategies for Clinical Approval
14.7 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Types of nanoparticles along with their advantage and available mark...
Table 3.2 Viral vector–based nanoparticle.
Table 3.3 Lipid-based nanoparticle vaccines.
Table 3.4 DNA-based nanoparticle vaccines.
Table 3.5 mRNA-based nanoparticle vaccines.
Table 3.6 Protein-based nanoparticle vaccines.
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Types of nanoparticles.
Table 4.2 Different methods to formulate nanoparticles.
Table 4.3 Types of polymers used in nanoparticles.
Table 4.4 Recently global market-approved NPs-based formulations (From the yea...
Table 4.5 Lists of recent NP-based approaches for the treatment of various dis...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Applications of NPs based on size.
Table 5.2 Different shapes of NPs and their preparation.
Table 5.3 Characterization techniques for determining various properties.
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Viral vector–based nanoparticles in drug delivery.
Table 6.2 Viral vector–based nanoparticles in imaging.
Table 6.3 Viral vector nanoparticles in immunotherapy.
Table 6.4 Viral vector–based nanoparticles in theranostics.
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Clinical trials of mRNA-based vaccines for various cancers.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Descriptions of different methods of protein nanoparticles preparati...
Table 9.2 FDA-approved protein nanoparticles.
Table 9.3 Marketed nanoparticles for protein delivery.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Marketed oral vaccines.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Salient features of developed vaccines of different routes.
Table 11.2 Physiological and anatomical specifications of mucosal sites.
Table 11.3 Comparison between myriad routes for mucosal vaccine delivery.
Table 11.4 Development of various polymer-based mucosal nanovaccines.
Table 11.5 Development of different CNT-based mucosal vaccines.
Table 11.6 Different silica nanoparticle-based mucosal vaccines.
Table 11.7 Different gold nanoparticle-based mucosal vaccines.
Table 11.8 Examples of VLP vaccines and their clinical status.
Table 11.9 Approved mucosal nanovaccines manufactured worldwide by pharmaceuti...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Marketed formulations [43].
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 List of vaccines, with their characteristic properties and applicat...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 List of NVs approved for clinical use by the regulatory authorities...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 The evaluation of NPs on the basis of broad terms including chemist...
Figure 1.2 Types of NPs.
Figure 1.3 Types of organic-based NPs.
Figure 1.4 Types of carbon-based NPs.
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Categories of NP.
Figure 2.2 Types of polymeric NP.
Figure 2.3 Approaches for NP synthesis.
Figure 2.4 Methods for the synthesis of NPs.
Figure 2.5 Schematic representation of the ball milling process.
Figure 2.6 Step sequence of the sol–gel method for the NP synthesis.
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Process of vaccine development adopter under CC BY 4 FROM (11).
Figure 3.2 Development of a nanoparticle-based vaccine.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Different types of nanoparticles.
Figure 4.2 Preparation of nanoparticles.
Figure 4.3 Mechanism of nanoparticle polymers.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Cellular uptake pathways (endocytic and non-endocytic) of nanomater...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Steps for production of viral vector–based nanoparticles and their ...
Figure 6.2 Different routes of drug delivery using VNPs (created by biorender....
Figure 6.3 Viral nanoparticle–based imaging using fluorophore labeling (create...
Figure 6.4 Details on the application of viral vector–based nanoparticle formu...
Figure 6.5 Viral vector nanoparticles for theranostic application (created by ...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Anti-tumor activity of PAL p53 mRNA nanoparticles in
in vivo
repres...
Figure 8.2 Represents the characterization and colocalization studies of CLPP/...
Figure 8.3 An overview of DCs production to target GSCs.
Left circle
: After pe...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of core–shell nanostructures with several ...
Figure 9.2 Delivery of insoluble proteins by endocytosis.
Figure 9.3 Structure of nanocarriers.
Figure 9.4 Types of protein.
Figure 9.5 Diagrammatic representation of different methods of protein nanopar...
Figure 9.6 Emulsion/solvent extraction.
Figure 9.7 Protein nanoparticles by complex coacervation method.
Figure 9.8 Types of nanocarrier systems.
Figure 9.9 Solid lipid nanoparticles.
Figure 9.10 Clinical trials using different nanoparticles.
Figure 9.11 Marketed nanoparticles formulation.
Figure 9.12 Pictorial diagram for the characterization of protein nanoparticle...
Figure 9.13 Applications of protein nanoparticles.
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 A schematic presentation of the use of different nanoparticles. Ad...
Figure 10.2 Various novel means by which an oral vaccination can be loaded in ...
Figure 10.3 Various delivery systems for oral vaccination. Adopted under CC BY...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Schematic representation of the development of various immunities ...
Figure 11.2 Various elements of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).
Figure 11.3 Different mucosal immunization routes and approaches for the devel...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 After administration of vaccines, small particles in vaccines goes...
Figure 12.2 Intramuscular needle insertion. Intramuscular injection can be giv...
Figure 12.3 Subcutaneous needle insertion. Subcutaneous injection can be given...
Figure 12.4 Intradermal needle insertion. Intradermal injection can be given i...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Pictorial representation of nanovaccines and immune response (Figu...
Figure 13.2 Schematic representation of the production of nanovaccines (Figure...
Figure 13.3 Steps involved in developing a vaccine that can combat PCV2 and SI...
Figure 13.4 Schematic representation of different applications of nanovaccines...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Flow diagram depicting the authorities involved in the approval pr...
Figure 14.2 The major regulatory challenges faced throughout the process of re...
Guide
Cover Page
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Preface
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541JBeverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Nanocarrier Vaccines
Biopharmaceutics-Based Fast Track Development
Edited by
Vivek P. Chavda
Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, India
and
Vasso Apostolopoulos
Institute for Health and Sport, Immunology and Translational Research Group, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
This edition first published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA© 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLCFor more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-394-17468-3
Cover image: Pixabay.ComCover design by Russell Richardson
Dedicated to the 75th year anniversary of the LM College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad Gujarat India.
Vivek P. Chavda also wants to dedicate this book to his wife Disha and his parents
Preface
In nanomedicine and nano-delivery systems, materials in the nanoscale range are used as diagnostic instruments or to administer therapeutic compounds to particular targeted regions in a controlled manner. By delivering precise medications to specified locations and targets, nanotechnology provides several advantages in treating chronic human illnesses. The use of nanomedicine (including chemotherapeutic medicines, biological agents, immunotherapeutic agents, etc.) in the treatment of various diseases has recently seen many notable applications. This book aims to be a single source material for understanding all the current and novel advancement in the field of nanotechnology.
Chapter 1 discusses the history and constantly evolving field of nanoparticles. Chapter 2 describes the overall composition of a nanoparticle. The next chapters explain the formulation strategy and the influencing factors in therapeutic approaches, such as vaccine development (Chapter 3), biodegradable and non-biodegradable formulation, and properties such as size, shape, charge, inertness, efficacy, morphology, and more (Chapters 4 and 5). Different nanoparticles, such as lipid-based, viral vector-based, and metal, uphold very significant properties individually, which suggests their applicability in various management tactics, as described in Chapters 6 and 7.
Chapters 8 and 9 examine how genetic information carrying entities are becoming the norm for evacuating tedious diseases. Furthermore, Chapters 10, 11, and 12 gather an exhaustive amount of information on routes of administration for the same, such as the oral route, mucosal immunity, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and intradermal. This treatment has had an astonishing effectiveness in veterinary disease management, as described in Chapter 13. Finally, Chapter 14 explores the legal regulatory for nanotechnology-based approaches.
We hope this book will help to bolster your knowledge on this vastly changing and expanding subject. Our thanks go to the prestigious Wiley and Scrivener Publishing for their continuous kind support and guidance.
EditorsVivek P. Chavda and Vasso Apostolopoulos
Part 1GENERAL
1History of Nanoparticles
Keshava L. Jetha1,2, Arya Vyas1, Divya Teli3, Amit Chaudhari3, Riyansi Satasiya3, Vishwa Patel3, Shailvi Soni4, Shail Modi4 and Vasso Apostolopoulos5*
1Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
2Gujarat Technological University, Chandkheda, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
3Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
4Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, MA, USA
5Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Immunology and Translational Research Group, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) have become a widely researched area in modern medicine due to their unique properties and potential applications. This article provides an overview of the field of NPs in healthcare, starting with a brief introduction to NPs and their history. The article then delves into modern developments in the field of NPs, including their production and various applications. It also covers the different types of NPs that have been studied, along with their properties and advantages. Furthermore, the article discusses the importance of NPs in various healthcare areas, such as drug delivery, medical imaging, and diagnostics. Finally, the article concludes with a summary of the current state of the field and the future prospects for NPs in healthcare. Understanding the properties and potential applications of NPs can contribute to the development of innovative medical therapies and advance the field of healthcare.
Keywords: Nanoparticles, history, medical imaging, diagnosis, future prospects
1.1 Introduction
Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as a potential research area in nanotechnology that frequently appears in materials science, biomedical engineering, and nanomedicine sectors. A NP is the fundamental unit in the fabrication of a nanostructure with one or more nanometric dimensions ranging in size that may differ from the bulk material. The word “nano” represents a nanometer (nm, 10−9 m), an International System of Unit for length. In principle, NPs are materials with lengths ranging from 1 to 100 nm. There are numerous examples from ancient times where nanostructures or NPs have been used for various purposes. The varieties of glorious colors of glass windows of medieval cathedrals are an ancient witness to the utilization of metal oxide NPs [1]. NPs evolved in different eras and from different regions such as hand stencils of Sulawesi cave in Indonesia and hair dyes with lead sulfide NPs in Egypt. Mesopotamia and Egypt produced glassware using inorganic NPs in the fourteenth century BC [2].
The different types of NP classifications, functionalization techniques, various types of synthesis approaches, and growth-related mechanisms are evolved. NPs may be classified into various groups related to dimensionality space; morphology major groups are organic polymeric NPs, inorganic NPs, ceramic NPs, and bionanoparticles [3]. NPs can be synthesized either from a simple material or using a range of multiple composite objects. The synthesis methods of NM are generally classified into “top–down” and “bottom–up” approaches. In the top–down approach, a solid material is broken into smaller particles by external forces, while in the bottom–up approach, nanostructures are synthesized through the buildup of molecules or atoms. These synthetic approaches can be further differentiated by chemical, physical, and biological processes that, through improvement over time, also emerged as including mechanochemical and physiochemical processes. In the current scenario, tremendous metallic nanomaterials are being synthesized in bulk using titanium, copper, zinc, magnesium, alginate, aluminum oxide, silica, gold, and silver.
NPs are widely used to improve the pharmaceutical properties of medicines including penetration, plasma distribution, half-life, and target site accumulation. Size, shape, charge, and elasticity are physical properties of NPs and play a role to provide desired pharmacokinetic properties for implementation in drug delivery systems. Mechanical properties of NPs include elasticity; these overcome biological barriers from the site of application to the site of solid tumor and provide superior cancer drug delivery [4]. NPs have diverted physical and chemical characteristics from bulk material and show a wide range of applications in a multitude of fields, such as medical treatments; use in various industry departments; the manufacture of oxide fuel; and solar batteries for energy storage, cosmetics, and clothes. Nanotechnology can also enhance the properties of construction materials, where recycling concrete with NPs support sustainability [5]. Nanotechnology-based products used for the control of disease in the healthcare system are referred to as “nanomedicine.” In recent years, nano-sized compounds such as liposomes, polymers, and virus-sized NPs become attractive development as targeted delivery vehicles for viral antigens. NPs provide similar size distribution as the viruses and therefore NPs loaded with viral antigens can enter the virus-targeted cells. In recent years, the utilization of NPs has also expanded toward vaccine delivery with high bioavailability, elevated immunogenicity, and controlled release profiles [6].
1.2 History of Nanoparticles
Although NPs have been studied for centuries, the term was not coined until the late 1970s. In 1959, Nobel Prize–winning American physicist Richard Feynman proposed the concept of nanotechnology. “There’s Plenty of Space at the Bottom” was the title of a lecture Feynman gave at the California Institute of Technology at the American Physical Society’s annual meeting (Caltech). The question “Why can’t we write the full 24 volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on the head of a pin?” was posed by Feynman in this lecture, and he also sketched out a vision of utilizing machines to build smaller machines all the way down to the molecular level [7]. Refer to Figure 1.1.
Feynman’s position as the father of modern nanotechnology was finally cemented by the validation of the ground-breaking idea he offered. Approximately 15 years later, in 1974, Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi used the word “nanotechnology” for the first time. He defined nanotechnology as the manipulation of materials at the atomic or molecular scale by procedures like separation, consolidation, and deformation [8].
NPs have been utilized for centuries before Feynman put forward the concept of nanotechnology. More than 4,500 years ago, humans used natural asbestos nanofibers to reinforce ceramic matrix materials. More than 4,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians used nanomaterials (NM) as well. They produced PbS NPs with a diameter of about 5 nm for use in hair dye. When Egyptians and Mesopotamians began employing metals to make glass in the 14th and 13th centuries BC, it may be said that the period of metallic NPs began. Since then, metallic NPs have been synthesized via chemical processes. One of the most intriguing examples of nanotechnology in the ancient world was presented by the Romans in the fourth century AD, who employed NPs and structures. Yet, the most well-known use of ancient metallic NPs is on a piece of Roman glass. The Lycurgus cups are dichroic glass cups from the fourth century AD that show different colors depending on the direction of the light: red when it comes from behind and green when it comes from the front. To understand the dichroism phenomena, scientists examined the cup in 1990 using a transmission electron microscope. The presence of NPs with a diameter of 50–100 nm is what causes the dichroism (two colors) that has been seen. These NPs were identified by X-ray analysis as silver–gold (Ag-Au) alloy with an Ag:Au ratio of approximately 7:3 and 10% copper (Cu) distributed in a glass matrix. The Au NPs absorb light at a wavelength of about 520 nm, which gives them a red tint. The green hue is a result of colloidal dispersions of Ag NPs with a size > 40 nm scattering light, while the red-purple color results from the absorption by the larger particles. One of the oldest artificial nanomaterials is recognized as the Lycurgus cup. The fusion of Au and Ag produces a similar effect in late medieval church windows, which shine dazzling red and yellow colors [9, 10].
Figure 1.1 The evaluation of NPs on the basis of broad terms including chemistry, biology, and physics. Adopted under CC BY 4 from [8].
Glowing, glistening “luster” ceramic glazes were used in the Islamic world between the ninth and seventeenth centuries and later in Europe. These glazes contained silver (Ag), copper (Cu), or other NPs. Around the 16th century, Italians used NPs to create Renaissance ceramics. They were influenced by the 13th–18th century techniques that were utilized in the production of “Damascus” blades, cementite nanowires, and carbon nanotubes, which were used to provide strength, resilience, and the ability to hold a keen edge [11, 12].
Michael Faraday conducted research on the preparation and characteristics of colloidal suspensions of “ruby” gold by the reduction of an aqueous solution of chloroauric acid (AuCl4) using phosphorus in carbon disulfide [CS2] in 1857. This work involved the use of gold NPs and marked the first scientific investigation of NP preparation. As part of his research, Michael Faraday examined the optical properties of thin films that were created from dried colloidal solutions. During his experiments, he observed that the color of these films could be altered reversibly by applying mechanical compression, with the films changing from bluish purple to green when pressurized. His study provided the initial scientific description of gold NP solutions, which played a significant role in the history of nanomaterials in the scientific community [13, 14].
In the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, physicists Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer created the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) in 1981 as nanotechnology advanced. STM analyzes the surface properties by moving a sharp tip so closely to a material’s conducting surface that the atoms’ electron wave functions overlap with the surface atom wave functions. For their creation of the STM, Binnig and Rohrer were awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physics. Due to this discovery, the atomic force microscope and scanning probe microscopes (SPMs), which are currently the preferred tools for nanotechnology researchers, were developed [8, 15].
Xu et al. discovered a new type of carbon nanomaterials called carbon dots (C-dots) in 2004. These particles had a size of less than 10 nm and were accidentally discovered during the process of purifying single-walled carbon nanotubes [8]. Nanoscience has significantly advanced a number of different scientific disciplines over time, including computer science, biology, and engineering. Nanotechnology has been used in computer science to transform computers from bulky, room-sized equipment to highly portable laptops. The interest in and progress achieved in the subject of nanoscience and nanotechnology increased as the twenty-first century began. The enormous potential of nanotechnologies in biomedicine, notably in the detection and treatment of a number of human diseases, has recently come to light in a number of studies [16].
1.3 Modern Development of Nanoparticles
NPs are small particles with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nm. NPs have distinct features that make them helpful in a variety of applications ranging from electronics to healthcare. Significant improvements in the production of NPs have occurred throughout the years, resulting in a growing interest in their possible applications [17]. NPs contribute significantly to the field of pharmaceutical sector, advancing drug delivery and facilitating novel therapeutic approaches [18].
NPs have various benefits for drug delivery because of their smaller size and large surface area. NPs can encapsulate drugs, which increases their shelf-life and can deliver drugs to a specific targeted site in the body. Liposomes, polymeric NPs, lipid NPs, and inorganic NPs are different kinds of NPs that are developed in enhancing the drug delivery for different diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders. One of the most significant advances was the development of the sol–gel process, which allows for the creation of NPs with a high degree of uniformity and control over their properties [19].
NPs can be especially designed to target infectious cells or tissues, enabling targeted treatment. The addition of ligands, antibodies, peptides, or other targeting moieties with NPs allows for selective binding to targeted cells or tissues, resulting in increased drug accumulation and effectiveness at the site of action. This allows for customized treatments in which NPs may be designed for individual patients or conditions, resulting in more effective and safer therapies. NPs can be formulated for the controlled release of the drug, allowing for sustained and prolonged drug delivery [20]. This can reduce dose frequency, increase patient compliance, and reduce adverse effects. NPs may be designed to respond to a variety of stimuli such as pH, temperature, enzymes, or external triggers, allowing medications to be released at rates depending on concentration, offering adequate control over drug release kinetics. NPs are also used in the combination treatment, in which different drugs or therapeutic agents are coencapsulated within NPs and administered to the targeted region at the same time [14]. This can lead to synergistic effects, better therapeutic results, and decreased medication resistance. Combination therapy using NPs has shown potential in cancer treatment, allowing numerous medicines with distinct modes of action to be combined to improve anticancer efficacy [21]. NPs are being developed for use as theranostic platforms, which combine treatment and diagnostics in a single system [22]. Theranostic NPs can deliver therapeutic medicines while simultaneously imaging the illness site, enabling real-time monitoring of treatment efficacy [23]. This can help with early detection of the disease state, providing feedback on therapy response, and enabling individualized approaches to therapy. NPs are also being investigated for their potential use in the delivery of novel therapies such as nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), peptides, and proteins. NP-based delivery methods can shield these fragile compounds from degradation, improve cellular absorption, and improve therapeutic effectiveness [24, 25]. This has created new opportunities for gene therapy, protein therapy, and other modern therapeutic strategies [26, 27].
The therapeutic agent must be delivered to its site of action to exert its efficacy. There are numerous delivery methods; however, each of them has challenges associated with them. NP-based delivery systems including dendrimers, liposomes, peptide-based NPs, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, polymer-based NPs, inorganic vectors, lipid-based NPs, hybrid NPs, and metal NPs are the advanced forms of NPs [28]. Dendrimers are radially symmetric, nanoscale molecules having well-defined, homogenous, and monodispersed structures with arms or branches that resemble trees. These are polymeric macromolecules that is ideal to study the effects of polymer size, charge, and composition on biologically relevant properties such as lipid bilayer interactions, cytotoxicity, internalization, blood plasma retention time, and biodistribution [29]. Lipid-based NPs include liposomes, solid lipid NPs and nanostructured lipid carriers. Liposomes are tiny, spherical artificial vesicles that can be made using natural phospholipids. Liposomes have hydrophobic and hydrophilic components forming a bilayer which enhances their specific targeting properties [30]. Peptide-based NPs are conjugation of self-assembled peptides with nucleic acids that is widely used as gene therapy [31]. Carbon nanotubes are nanosized tube-shaped structures that are either single-walled or multi-walled. One of the major concerns with carbon nanotubes is health and occupational safety. Exposure to carbon nanotubes results in toxicity to the ecosystem. It is also classified as a carcinogen [32]. Polymer-based NPs are Nano-capsules or nanospheres that contain the drug or therapeutic agent within the polymeric matrix. It helps in controlled release, enhancing bioavailability, protecting the drug and other molecules in the biological environment [33]. Metal NPs are among the most widely studied and used NPs due to their unique optical, electronic, and catalytic properties. Gold and silver NPs are particularly popular due to their biocompatibility and low toxicity, making them ideal for use in biomedical applications such as drug delivery and imaging.
One of the key challenges in the development of NPs is ensuring that they are safe for use in humans and the environment. This requires a deep understanding of how NPs interact with biological systems and the environment, as well as rigorous testing to ensure that they do not have adverse effects. To address these challenges, researchers are exploring a range of approaches, including the use of biocompatible materials, the development of targeted delivery systems, and the use of NPs with controlled release properties. Overall, the modern development of NPs has led to a wide range of new materials and technologies that have the potential to revolutionize fields ranging from healthcare to energy. While there are still many challenges to overcome, the rapid pace of development in this field suggests that we are likely to see even more exciting advances in the years to come [34, 35].
In conclusion, the modern development of drug NPs represents a promising area of research and development in the pharmaceutical industry. Advances in NP synthesis and characterization, as well as our understanding of how NPs interact with biological systems, have resulted in new therapies and improved treatment options for a range of diseases. While there are still challenges to be overcome, the potential benefits of NP-based drug delivery make this a field of research that is likely to see continued growth and innovation in the years to come. However, further research, regulatory compliance, and careful evaluation of safety and efficacy are necessary for the responsible development and translation of NP-based pharmaceuticals.
1.4 Type of Nanoparticles
NPs can be of different types depending on their size, texture, and properties. Generally, they are classified into the three basic types as shown in Figure 1.2.
Organic-Based NPs:
These NPs are the most prevalent of all sorts and are frequently employed in the biomedical industry and different cancer treatments. Many lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and other organic molecules make up its true composition, including micelles, dendrimers, hollow-core liposomes, and protein complexes like ferritin (
Figure 1.3
)
[36]
. Although these NPs are biodegradable and non-carcinogenic, they are thermally sensitive to electromagnetic radiation and light. Moreover, they are typically made up of non-covalent intramolecular connections, which renders them easily extractable from the body and thermally labile. A few significant factors, such as size, shape, morphology, stability, and the ability to carry lipids and proteins, are crucial in determining the many types of organic-based NPs [
37
,
38
].
Figure 1.2 Types of NPs.
Inorganic-Based NPs:
These NPs are not made up of carbon or any organic particle. Metallic, ceramic, and semiconductor NPs are the three main subcategories of inorganic NPs.
Metal-Based NPs:
They are prepared from metals using chemical and electromechanical processes. Some metal NPs contain a unique thermal and magnetic field that makes them used in various fields like research fields, including the detection and imaging of biomolecules as well as environmental and bioanalytical ones [
39
,
40
]. For instance, gold NPs are used to coat the sample prior to analysis in magnetic NPs such as Fe3O4, gold, and silver NPs for their utilization in these imaging modalities. Typically, this is done to improve the electronic stream so that we can acquire high-quality pictures
[41]
. Gold, silver, and magnetic NPs (iron oxide) have been employed and modified repeatedly over the years to permit their use as diagnostic and therapeutic agents
[42]
.
Figure 1.3 Types of organic-based NPs.
Ceramic-Based NPs:
They are composed of metal or metalloids like titanium and calcium, as well as oxides, carbonates, carbides, and phosphates
[43]
. They can be found in amorphous, polycrystalline, dense, porous, or hollow forms, and they are often created through heating and subsequent cooling. They exhibit strong heat and chemical resistance. Ceramic NPs demonstrate a good drug delivery agent by adjusting various properties such as size, surface area, porosity, and surface-to-volume ratio. These NPs have been utilized successfully in drug delivery systems for a variety of illnesses, including cancer, glaucoma, and bacterial infections
[43]
.
Semiconductor-Based NPs:
These NPs resemble numerous metals and non-metals in terms of their characteristics. They are composed of semiconductor materials such as cadmium selenide or cadmium telluride. They are used in water splitting, photo-optics, electronics, imaging, and photocatalysis
[44]
. However, their potential toxicity and environmental impact are also important considerations in their use and development
[45]
.
Carbon-Based NPs:
These carbon-based NPs are utilized as an alternative to steel for reinforcing constructions. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerenes, and carbon quantum dots are the three major components of carbon-based NPs (
Figure 1.4
). A graphene sheet that has been wrapped into a tube makes up the CNT. Because of their 100 times greater strength than steel, these materials are mostly employed for structural reinforcement. CNTs are unique in a way because they are thermally conductive along the length and non-conductive throughout the tube. Carbon allotropes known as fullerenes feature hollow cage structures made up of at least 60 carbon atoms. The structure of C60 is called buckminsterfullerene, and it looks like a hollow football
[46]
. However, other forms of fullerenes, such as C70 and C540 fullerenes, have also been made available
[47]
. They have commercial applications due to their electrical conductivity, structure, high strength, and electron affinity. Carbon quantum dots consist of discrete, quasi-spherical carbon NPs with sizes below 10 nm. The unique characteristics of sp2-hybridized carbon bonds are combined with exceptional physicochemical properties at the nanoscale in carbon-based NPs because of their distinctive electrical conductivity, strength, electron affinity, optical, thermal, and sorption characteristics
[48]
.
Figure 1.4 Types of carbon-based NPs.
1.5 Properties of Nanoparticles
NPs refer to natural, identical, or manufactured material comprising particles either in an unbound state or as aggregate wherein one or more external dimensions is in each size range of 1–1,000 nm [49].
The behavior of NPs is heavily influenced by their unique properties. Their morphological features, particularly their shape and size, can significantly impact their circulation and targeting within the body. Moreover, the size, shape, and distribution of NPs are closely interrelated, and even slight variations in these properties can lead to significant biological effects and impact the overall performance of the NPs [2].
1.5.1 Size
The typical range of NPs is between 1 and 100 nm. There is not a clearcut boundary to define this cap, though. Because the psychochemical and biological properties of the components do not abruptly change at 100 nm, the largest size that a material can must be designated a nanomaterial is an arbitrary value [49].
NPs ought to circulate till they get to the desired anatomical spot. However, due to NP identification by the reticulum endothelial system (RES), the immune system can aid in their removal RES. Alternatively, NPs can be cleared through mechanical filtration by the lungs, liver, kidneys, or spleen. Regarding particle removal, size is, among other things, a crucial factor [50].
1.5.2 Shape
Particle form (sphere, ring, and disk) may cast a substantial effect on NP circulation, distribution within the body, cellular uptake, and general in vivo behavior, according to recent findings.
It is far more likely for particles with irregular geometry to align or tumble in vessel bifurcations or filtering organs. A spherical particle’s diameter must be less than 200 nm for it to pass past the spleen.
It can, however, pass through this organ if it has a disk-like shape with a diameter of around 7 m and a height of 150 nm [50].
1.5.3 Surface Area
In comparison to micromaterials or bulk materials, nanomaterials exhibit different surface effects. This is primarily because of three factors: (a) dispersed nanomaterials have a very large surface area and a high particle number per mass unit; (b) the fraction of atoms at the surface is increased; and (c) the atoms situated at the surface in nanomaterials have fewer direct neighbors. The chemical and physical characteristics of nanomaterials differ from those of their larger-dimension counterparts as a result of each of these distinctions [51].
The reactivity of nanomaterials is typically increased by bigger surface areas and surface-to-volume ratios because of the larger reaction surface, which also has a substantial impact on the structure of the materials. The surface effects are significantly influenced by the dispersity of nanomaterials. Strongly attractive interactions between particles can cause nanomaterials to aggregate and agglomerate, which has a detrimental effect on their surface area and nanoscale characteristics.
Optimizing the degree of hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity of the nanomaterial, adjusting the pH and ionic strength of the suspension medium or boosting the zeta potential of nanomaterials can all be used to minimize agglomeration [51].
1.6 Importance of Nanoparticles
NPs have several important applications in healthcare, including the following:
Drug Delivery:
NPs offer several advantages in drug delivery due to their small size, large surface area, and ability to encapsulate or conjugate with drugs
[52]
. One of the key benefits is their ability to target specific cells or tissues in the body, which allows for more effective therapy with reduced side effects. This is achieved through various mechanisms, such as passive targeting through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect or active targeting using ligands or antibodies on the NP surface that bind to specific receptors on the target cells [
52
,
53
]. Additionally, NPs can protect drugs from degradation or clearance by the immune system, thereby improving their bioavailability and extending their circulation time
[54]
. The use of NPs in drug delivery has shown promise in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer
[55]
, inflammatory disorders
[42]
, and infectious diseases
[56]
, among others.
Imaging:
NPs have gained significant attention as contrast agents for various medical imaging modalities due to their unique properties
[57]
. They can be engineered to have specific sizes, shapes, and surface properties, allowing for targeted delivery and enhanced imaging contrast
[52]
. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) are two imaging techniques that have greatly benefited from the use of NPs as contrast agents [
58
,
59
]. NPs such as iron oxide– and gadolinium-based particles have been extensively studied for their applications in MRI [
58
,
60
], while gold and silica NPs are commonly used in CT imaging
[59]
. These contrast agents offer high sensitivity and specificity, enabling the visualization of specific tissues and organs with high resolution.
Diagnostics and Biomarkers:
NPs have the potential to revolutionize diagnostic testing by providing increased sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy. In diagnostic tests, NPs can be functionalized with biomolecules such as antibodies
[61]
, aptamers
[62]
, and peptides
[61]
that can recognize and bind to specific disease biomarkers. When the target biomarker is present, the NPs produce a signal that can be easily detected and quantified. This approach enables early detection of diseases and personalized treatment, which can improve patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs.
Therapeutics:
NPs can be designed to have specific properties that make them effective as therapeutic agents themselves. For example, in cancer
[53]
therapy, NPs can be used to deliver chemotherapy drugs directly to tumors, improving the efficacy of the treatment and reducing side effects. This is because NPs can selectively accumulate in tumor tissue due to their small size, surface properties, and EPR effect
[63]
. Additionally, NPs can be functionalized with targeting ligands, such as antibodies or peptides, which can selectively bind to cancer cells, further enhancing their specificity and reducing off-target effects
[55]
. Furthermore, NPs can be designed to have other therapeutic properties, such as photothermal or photodynamic therapy, where NPs are activated by light to generate heat or reactive oxygen species to destroy cancer cells
[64]
. The use of NPs as therapeutic agents promises the development of more effective and targeted cancer therapies.
Vaccines:
NPs have gained significant attention as potential carriers for vaccines due to their ability to enhance the immune response and improve vaccine efficacy
[65]
. By encapsulating vaccine antigens within NPs, the antigens can be protected from degradation and delivered to the desired target cells or tissues, leading to enhanced immune responses. Furthermore, NPs can be designed to target specific cells or tissues, enabling a more targeted and efficient delivery of the vaccine. This approach has been utilized in the development of NP-based vaccines for a range of infectious diseases, including influenza, human papillomavirus, and hepatitis B
[66]
. In addition, NP-based vaccine delivery systems can be tailored to specific patient populations, such as elderly individuals or those with compromised immune systems, to improve vaccine effectiveness
[67]
. Overall, the use of NPs as carriers for vaccines holds great promise for the development of more effective and efficient vaccines.
Wound Healing:
NPs can be used in wound dressings to provide several benefits, including promoting healing and preventing infection
[68]
. For example, silver NPs have been shown to have antimicrobial properties and can be incorporated into wound dressings to prevent bacterial growth and reduce the risk of infection
[69]
. Additionally, NPs such as zinc oxide and titanium dioxide have been used in wound dressings to promote wound healing by stimulating cell growth and reducing inflammation [
68
,
70
]. The use of NP-based wound dressings can lead to faster healing times, reduced scarring, and improved overall patient outcomes.
Biomaterials:
NPs have unique properties that make them attractive for use in creating biocompatible materials for implants, prosthetics, and other medical devices
[71]
. For example, the small size of NPs allows them to penetrate cells and tissues more easily, which can improve the integration of implants and reduce the risk of rejection
[72]
. Additionally, NPs can be engineered to have specific surface properties that promote cell adhesion, prevent bacterial growth, or improve biocompatibility
[73]
. By incorporating NPs into materials such as polymers, metals, or ceramics, it is possible to create medical devices that are stronger, more durable, and more compatible with the body. Some examples of medical devices that have been developed using NPs include orthopedic implants
[74]
, dental fillings
[72]
, and cardiovascular stents
[75]
. The use of NPs in medical devices is an area of active research and holds promise for improving the safety and effectiveness of these devices.
1.7 Conclusion and Future Prospect
The field of NPs has witnessed a remarkable journey, starting from their discovery in the 1850s to the current modern developments. These tiny particles, defined as particles that are smaller than 100 nm in size, have unique properties that differ from their bulk counterparts. The history of NPs can be traced back to Michael Faraday’s early works in the 1850s, where he observed the color of gold NPs. Since then, researchers have made significant progress in understanding the properties and applications of NPs. Modern developments in the field have led to the creation of various types of NPs, such as metallic, semiconductor, magnetic, and carbon-based NPs. These developments have led to the creation of innovative materials and devices with improved performance and functionality. The properties of NPs, such as their size, shape, surface area, and surface chemistry, are critical to their applications. Their unique properties, including a high surface-area-tovolume ratio, quantum confinement, and enhanced catalytic activity, make them suitable for various applications. Furthermore, the manipulation and control of these properties have led to the creation of novel materials with unique properties and applications. The importance of NPs cannot be overstated. They have found applications in various fields, including medicine, electronics, energy, and materials science. In medicine, NPs have been used for drug delivery, imaging, and cancer therapy. They have shown great promise in improving the efficacy and safety of drug delivery by targeting specific cells and tissues. The small size of NPs makes them ideal for use in nanotherapeutics. Looking toward the future aspects, the potential applications of NPs are vast, and continued research in this field promises to bring significant advancements in various areas of science and technology. One of the major challenges in the field is the safety and environmental impact of NPs. Therefore, it is essential to continue research in the field of nanotoxicology and environmental impact to minimize any potential risks associated with the use of NPs. In conclusion, NPs have been a subject of fascination for many years, and their unique properties have found applications in various fields. Continued research in this field promises to bring significant advancements in science and technology while addressing any associated risks. The field of NPs is an exciting area of research, with potential applications that are limited only by our imagination. As researchers continue to explore the properties and applications of NPs, we can look forward to a future where these tiny particles have a significant impact on our daily lives.
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